Anatomy &

Physiology
Nails Edition - Structure & Development
.....................................................................................................

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HELLO!
a A r p e l s
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o r i a A r p e l s
Vict
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Structure of the Nail 2 to 4

Bones & The Muscular System 5 to 11

Skin Types & Skin Structure 12 to 17

The Lymphatic System 18 to 20

Final Thoughts 21

LET’S GET STARTED! 1

 Free Edge

Structure
Hyponychium

Nail Wall

of The Nail Plate Nail Groove

Nail
Nail Bed

Eponychium Lunula
(Cuticle)
Peronychium
DEEPER UNDERSTANDING Matrix (Cuticle)
OF THE STRUCTURE AND
MAKE UP OF THE NAIL

The nail itself is made up of keratin. Keratin is found in the nails, hair and skin. The hardest form of
keratin is found in the nails and the softest is found in the skin.

The nail plate is translucent allowing the pink nail bed underneath to show through, the nail plate has
no nerve endings or blood vessels and therefore when we damage our nail it is actually the nail bed that
contains the nerve endings that send signals to the brain to tell us that it is sore.

It is important at all times to care for the nail plate as it provides a protective function to the nail bed and
deeper layers of the skin.

Cells divide in the matrix and the nail grows forward over the nail bed guided by the nail grooves, until
it reaches the end of the finger where it becomes the free edge. As they emerge from the matrix the
translucent cells are plump and soft but they get harder and flatter as they move toward the free edge.

Finger nails grow at approximately twice the speed of toenails. It takes about 6 months for a fingernail to
grow from cuticle to free edge, but about 12 months for a toenail to do so.

Many factors can affect the nail externally such as:

• Nail varnish applied incorrectly,

• Detergents
• Bleach and cleaning products
• Over use of nails without protection i.e. Gloves
• Incorrect filing technique
• Damage through nail drills and extensions

Sometimes internal causes can cause weak and damaged nails such as:

• Glandular fever
• Heart disease/conditions
• Iron deficiencies
• Disorders of the nervous system
•
•
Circulation problems
Long term illness or medication
2
 Structure of the Nail

Nail plate

Function – to protect the living nail bed of fingers

The nail plate is made of keratinised translucent cells that form the hard surface of the nail
plate. It is attached to the nail bed and acts as a protection to the deeper layers of the skin.
The underside of the nail plate is grooved by longitudinal ridges and furrows, which help
keep it in place. In normal health the plate curves in two directions:

• Transversely – from side to side

• Longitudinally – from the base of the nail to the free edge

Nail bed

Function – to supply nourishment and protection

The nail bed lies underneath the nail plate and it is the portion of the skin that is made up
of the dermis and epidermis layers of the skin. This plays a very important part in a healthy
nail growth as it is supplied with the blood vessels that are needed to nourish the nail. It
has a pattern of grooves and furrows corresponding to those on the underside of the nail
plate, interlocking to keep the nail in place

Nail wall

Function – to cushion and protect the nail plate and grooves from damage

The nail walls are folds of skin that overlap the sides of the nail and are there to protect the
nail and cushion from external damage

Nail grooves

Function – to guide and keep the nail plate growing forward

Nail grooves are the furrows that run alongside the nail plate and these are there to guide
the nail along the nail bed in an upward direction.

Matrix (Nail Root)

Function – to produce new nail cells

The matrix is responsible for the growth of the nail, it contains the nerve endings, blood
and lymph vessels. The nail is produced as the cells go through a process of keratinisation
which is when they turn from round soft plump cells to harder flattened cells that form the
nail plate. For a healthy growth of the nail it is essential that the matrix is looked after and
healthy at all times.
3
 Structure of the Nail

Lunula (half moon)

Function - none

Many people refer to this part of the nail as the half moon. The light colour is formed by
the white plump cells leaving the nail plate and then hardening to become flat transparent
cells that are the nail plate.

Cuticle

The cuticle has a very important function of protecting the matrix, so at all times it is
essential that great care is taken when working on the cuticle. The cuticle should be
removed with care and it is important that not too much is removed as this will not only
cause the protection to be taken away but can cause the cuticle to grow back thicker and
harder.

The cuticle is broken down into two sections:

EPONYCHIUM

Function – to protect the matrix from infection

This is the part that is visible on the nail plate, it has the function of sealing the nail bed
from infections.

PERONYCHIUM

Function – to protect the nail from infection

This is the portion of skin surrounding the whole nail. It has the function of sealing the
sides of the nail and protecting it from infection.

Hyponychium

Function – to protect the nail bed from infection

Is part of the epidermis under the free edge of the nail and a continuation of the cuticle

Free edge

Function – to protect the finger tip and the Hyponychium

The free edge is the extension of the nail plate that is no longer attached to the nail bed. It
has a whitish colour and can be different lengths on all clients.
4
Bones & Muscular System
STRUCTURE AND FORM DEEPER UNDERSTANDING

The hand and arm are made of 30 bones from the top of the arm moving right down to the fingertips.

8 1. Trapezium
3 2. Scraphoid
The Hand 2 4 3. Lunate
1 5 6 7 4. Pisiform
• The wrist consists of eight carpal bones that 5. Trapez
glide over on another to allow movement and 6. Capitate
called a condyloid or gliding joint. 7. Hamate
9 8. Triouetrum
• Five metacarpal bones make up the palm of
the hand
9 9 9 9 9. Metacarpels
10. Phalanges
• 14 individual phalange bones make up the
fingers

o two in each thumb

o three in each finger

1. Radius 10
2. Ulna

The Arm

Made up of three long bones:

2 1 • The humerus is the bone of the upper arm from shoulder to el-
bow.

• The radius and ulna lie side by side in the lower arm from elbow
to wrist

Having two bones in the lower arm makes it easier for your wrist to
rotate. This movement that causes the palm to face downwards is

5
called pronation; the movement that causes it to face
upward is called supination.
 Bones & The Muscular System

Joints make up the main ‘engineering of the hands, enabling them to produce a variety of
movements which make everyday activities possible.

Joints are from wherever two bones come into contact. The bones are bound by ligaments
which limit their movement and prevent dislocation. The power behind joint movements is
supplied by muscles. Each end of a muscle is attached by a strong tendon to a bone. One
end is called the origin and the other is called the insertion.

Muscles are most powerful at the point of their insertion where movements occur as a
result of the muscle contracting and pulling one bone towards the other. Muscles and
bones need a good supply of blood to stay healthy. They also need protecting from
external damage by skin which is structured specially to withstand friction and pressure.

The names of the joints give an idea of the range of movement which occurs there:

• The small bones of the phalanges move at hinge joints; there is limited movement in
one direction only

• A saddle joint connects the thumb to the hand and allows it to rotate freely across the
palm: this movement is known as opposition. Without this ability, the hand would be just
a claw. Its precise movement and powerful grip would be severely limited

• The individual pebble like bones of the wrist glide over one another in a mainly
sideways movement

Disorders of the joints

Rheumatism - is a general term for pain, with or without stiffness, which affects the muscles
and joints. It describes a symptom of a disorder rather than being a disorder itself. Rheuma-
tism covers many conditions including arthritis.

Arthritis – is a general term for inflammation of a joint. The condition can follow injury or
bacterial infection but, more commonly, it results from the wear and tear of ageing. The
joint swells, stiffens and becomes painful. The overlying skin takes on a red, shiny appear-
ance. In severe conditions, the whole hand appears deformed.

“ Muscles and bones need a good supply of

blood to stay healthy. They also need

“
protecting from external damage by skin
which is structured specially to withstand
friction and pressure.
6
 Bones & The Muscular System

The muscular system

Muscles are responsible for the movement of body parts. Each is made up of a bundle of
elastic fibres bound together in a sheath, the fascia. Muscular tissue contracts (shortens)
and produces movement.

Muscles never completely relax – there are always a few contracted fibres in every muscle.
These make the muscles slightly tense and this tension is called muscle tone.

A muscle is usually anchored by a strong tendon to one bone: the point of attachments is
known as the muscles origin. The muscles are likewise joined to a second bone: the attach-
ments in this case is called the muscles insertion.

It is this second bone that is moved: the muscle contracts, pulling the two bones towards
each other. (A different muscle, on the other side of the bone has the contrary effect). Not
all muscles attach to bones, however: some insert into an adjacent muscle, or into the skin
itself.

The properties of muscle tissue

Muscular tissue has the following properties

• It has the ability to contract (shorten)

• It is extensible (when the extensor muscle in a joint contracts, the corresponding
flexor muscle will be stretched or extended)
• It is elastic (it can return to its original length following contraction or extension)
• It is responsive (it contracts in response to nerve stimulation)

Voluntary muscles contract only when stimulated by their nerve supply. Muscle contraction
requires energy and this is supplied by tissue respiration taking place inside muscle cells.
In this reaction, glucose and oxygen are used to supply the energy, and carbon dioxide and
water are released as waste products.

Muscles need good blood supply when a person is exercising, in order to bring oxygen and
glucose and to carry away the waste products.

“ Not all muscles attach to bones,

“
however: some insert into an
adjacent muscle, or into the skin
itself. 7
 Diagram of muscles on the hand and arm

The muscles of the hand and arm allow

movement, muscle tension can build up in
these areas and cause pain and discomfort so 7
it is important when massaging to ensure you
work deep into the muscle tissue.

Muscles of the Hand

1. Opponens Pollicis
2. Opponens Digit Minimi
3. Abductor Digiti Minimi Brevis
3
4. Flexor Digiti Minimi Brevis
5. Flexor Pollicis Brevis
6
1 2 4
6. Abductor Pollicis Brevis
7. Adductor Pollicis

Muscles of the Arm

1 2 3 4 56 7
1. Division line between dosal and ventral compartments 4. Extensor Carpi Radialis Brevis
(This appears as a crease on the Ulnar side of the arm) 5. Extensor Carpi Radialis Longus
2. Extensor Digitorum - The Twine Muscles 6. Brachioradialis
3. Extensor Carpi ulnaris - The Twine Muscles 7. Lateral Epidondyle of the humerus

Muscles of the hand and forearm

Muscles work in pairs to produce movements at the joints.

Muscles are made up of fibres and always pull in one direction of the muscle fibres:

• Flexors – bend the parts they are attached to

• Extensors – straighten the parts they are attached to
• Abductors – pull parts away fro the centre of the body
• Adductors – pull parts towards the centre of the body

The hand and fingers are moved primarily by muscles and tendons in the forearm.
These muscles contract, pulling the tendons, and thereby moving the fingers much as a
puppet is moved by strings.

The muscles that bend the wrist, drawing it towards the forearm are flexors. Other muscles,
are extensors and these straighten the wrist and the hand. 8
 Bones & The Muscular System

Muscles and their functions

Brachioradialis – On the outer (thumb side) of the forearm. Flexes and turns the elbow.

Flexor carpi radialis – Middle of the forearm. The muscles that flexes and abducts the wrist
joint.

Extensor carpi radialis (longus and brevis) – Thumb side of the forearm. Muscle that
extends and straightens the wrist and hand

Flexor carpi ulnaris – Front of the forearm. Muscle that flexes and adducts the wrist joint.

Extensor carpi ulnaris – Back of the forearm. Extends and adducts the wrist

Palmaris longus – Middle of the front of the forearm. Flexes the wrist and hand

Hypothenar muscle – In the palm of the hand, below the little finger. Flexes the little finger
and moves it outwards and inwards

Thenar muscle – In the palm of the hand, below the thumb. Flexes the thumb and moves it
outwards and inwards

Flexor digitorum (tendons) – Front of the fingers. Flexes the fingers when contracted

Extensor digitorum (tendons) – Back of the fingers. Extends the fingers when contracted

Fluids of the body

The fluids of the body are responsible for delivering whatever the cells require and for
removing any waste products

The three principle body fluids are:

• Blood
• Tissue fluid
• Lymph

Blood – circulates through the blood vessels (arteries, capillaries and veins), collecting
oxygen from the lungs and delivering it to the cells of the body. Glucose is also carried in
the blood to be used by the cells together with the oxygen to supply energy.

Blood supplies other raw materials to build or maintain cells or to manufacture products
such as secretions. Inside the tissues, some fluid leaks from the capillaries as blood passes
through them. When this fluid leaves the capillaries to enter the tissues it becomes tissue
fluid.

9
 Bones & The Muscular System

Blood supply to the hands

Living cells need oxygen

The arteries carry blood which contains oxygen bound to a chemical called haemoglobin. Blood
containing oxygen is bright red. It also contains the breakdown products of digestion, when the food we
eat is converted into nutrients which living cells use to keep them healthy.

When the cells have taken up oxygen from the blood and used up the nutrients, they create waste
products which are taken away in the veins with carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide is later converted into
oxygen. Blood which has had its oxygen removed by cells is blush in colour. Capillaries form a branched
network of tiny, thin-walled vessels which link the arteries, tissues and veins and circulate blood around
the body.

Arteries of the arm and hand

The arm and hand are nourished by a system of arteries that carry blood to the tissues. The brachial
artery supplies blood to the upper arm. This branches into the ulnar and radial artery, which supplies the
forearm and fingers.

The radial and ulnar arteries are connected across the palm by a superficial and deep palmar arch.
These arteries divide to form the metacarpal and digital arteries, which supply the palm and fingers.

Arteries of the hand

7
1. Radial Artery 6
2. Ulnar Artery
3. Deep palmer arch
4. Superficial palmer arch
5. Common Digital arteries 5
6. Metacarpal arteries
7. Deep branches of metacarpal arteries
4

3
1
2
10
 Bones & The Muscular System

Axillary artery
Arteries of the Arm

Brachial artery
Radial artery
Ulnar artery
Axillary artery
Brachial artery

Radial artery

Ulnar artery

Veins

Veins deliver deoxygenated blood back to the heart. Blood with its oxygen removed appears blue.
Veins often pass through muscles.

Each time muscles are contracted, veins are squeezed and the blood is pushed along. Massage is
particularly beneficial in this process.

Blood in the digital veins draw blood from, the fingers. The dorsal arch drains blood from the hands.
The cephalic and basilica veins drain blood from the forearm.
11
 Skin Types
& Skin
Structure
STRUCTURE AND FORM
Dry Skin Has a matt uneven texture. DEEPER UNDERSTANDING
This is because there is not enough sebum
to lubricate the surface cells and keep them
compacted together.

In the absence of a greasy coating, natural moisture becomes lost from

the upper layers. The surface cells curl up and flake. The skin lacks
suppleness and often feels tight. Dry skin is usually thin and fine with no
visible pores.

Causes of dry skin include:

• Hormonal imbalance
• Incorrect skin care
• Central heating and air conditioning
• Extremes of temperature
• Over exposure to sunlight
• Prolonged illness
• Crash dieting
• Smoking
• Excess alcohol
• Medication

“ Skin covers an area of between

1.2 and 2 square metres and
accounts for approximately
12% of our totally body weight 12
 Skin Types & Skin Structure

Sensitive skin

All healthy skins are sensitive but this term is used to describe a condition where the skin is
hyper sensitive example it over reacts to even the mildest stimulus.

The skin flushes very easily causing redness which may appear in patches or as a clearly
defined network of dilated capillaries. Skin that has been neglected over a number of years
may have permanently dilated capillaries which are more pronounced when the blood
supply is stimulated. Dry skin types are most likely to be sensitive.

Dehydrated

Dehydrated means lacking in moisture. The skin looks dull and parched and may feel tight
and itchy. Dry skin is dehydrated but any skin type may suffer temporary dehydration if it is
not properly protected and cared for.

Mature skin

Mature skin has lost the firmness and suppleness of youth. It is lined and crêpey, with some
loss of underlying muscle tone. Skin normally ages very gradually and is described as
mature once the changes brought about by ageing have become established.

“ Skin is the clothing we always wear

Dress Your Best
13
 Skin Types & Skin Structure

The Skin

The skin is the largest organ of the body and provides the body with a waterproof
protection to the inside.

Skin covers an area of between 1.2 and 2 square metres and accounts for approximately
12% of our totally body weight. It moulds and moves with our body, creating a boundary
that separates our insides from the outside world.

The skin has many functions:

H - heat regulation. The body likes to maintain a temperature of around 37degree

centigrade. If the body becomes too hot you sweat and if the body becomes too cold you
shiver.

A - absorption. Although the skin does not have great abilities to absorb, some
chemicals/drugs can be absorbed in small amounts through the pores. The body
absorbs the UV rays from the sun and converts this into vitamin D which is needed for the
maintenance of bones and calcium.

S - sensation. Nerves are present within the skin and act as receptors which carry
messages to the brain therefore it is possible to feel cold, heat, pressure and pain.

P - protection. The skin has an acid mantle with a pH of around 5.5. This forms a protec-
tion of underlying tissues from bacteria and infection and injury.

S - secretion. Sebum is secreted from the sebaceous glands and gives a natural oily
substance which helps to lubricate the skin. Perspiration is excreted through the
sudoriferous glands and this helps to eliminate waste from the body and cool the body
down.

“ Skin covers an area of between

1.2 and 2 square metres and
accounts for approximately
12% of our totally body weight
14
 Skin Types & Skin Structure: Diagram

Hair Arrector Pili

Sweat Pore Sensory

Nerve Sensory Nerve
(touch) (pain)

Epidermis
Motor Nerve
Sebaceous
Gland
Dermis
Hair Follicle
Sensory
Nerve
(pressure)
Subcutaneous
Layer
Adipose
Tissue

Vein Artery

Layers of the Epidermis

There are 5 main layers of the epidermis,

Stratum Corneum - This is the top layer of the skin, the cells are flattened and only contain 15-20
percent of water and over lap each other to the thickness of approximately 15 layers.

Stratum lucidum - Is only present in the palms of the hands and soles of the feet.

Stratum Granulosum - Kerantinisation takes place in this layer meaning that the cells flatten and die.

Stratum Spinosum - Langerhan cells which form the bodies immune system are present in this layer.

Stratum Germinativum - Cell division takes place in this layer and melanocyctes that produce
melanin are found here.

The layers of the epidermis can be remembered as:

1. Cornys, -(Corneum) 2. Lucys, - (Lucidum) 3. Granny, - (Granulosum)

4. Spins, - (Spinosum) 5. Germs, - (Germinativum)

15
 Skin Types & Skin Structure

Dermis

A much thicker layer of the skin that acts as a support to the Epidermis and contains all
the structures of the skin.

The dermis is the deeper layer of the skin and its key function is to provide support,
strength and elasticity. The dermis has a superficial papillary layer and a deep reticular
layer. The superficial papillary layer is made up of adipose connective tissue and is
connected to the underside of the epidermis by cone shape projections called dermal
papillae which contain nerve endings and a net work of blood and lymphatic capillaries.

The skins as a barrier

If harmful organisms or chemicals penetrate the dermis they get transported round the
body by the blood leading to widespread problems. If adequate moisture levels are not
maintained within the living layers of the skin the cells can shrivel and die. The epidermis
is structured to provide a barrier which keeps out the bad and keeps in the good.

Subcutaneous Layer

The subcutaneous layer lies beneath the dermis forming the fatty layer of the skin. Cells
called lipocytes produce lipids which are the fat cells from which subcutaneous tissue is
formed. This layer cushions muscles, bones and internal organs against shocks and blows
and acts as an insulate and source of energy when required.

Kerantinisation

Keratin is the tough fibrous protein found in the epidermis the hair and the nails. The
keratin found in the skin is constantly being shed.

Kerantinisation refers to the process that cells undergo when they change from living
cells with a nucleus (essential for growth and reproduction) to dead horny cells without a
nucleus. Cells which have under gone keratinisation are therefore dead.

Keratinisation takes place in the granular layer of the epidermis and this layer links the
living cells of the epidermis to the dead cells above.

16
 Skin Types & Skin Structure

Mitosis

Mitosis is the reproduction of cells in the Germinativum layer of the epidermis. In this
layer the new epidermal cells are constantly being reproduced. These cells last approxi-
mately 6 weeks from reproduction before being discarded into the horny layer.

Desquamation

The cells of the epidermis are packed more loosely in the upper layers. This is to prepare
them from shedding (desquamation) which occurs continuously and helps to remove
debris and micro-organisms which might otherwise settle on the skin and cause
infections.

Melanin

Melanin is the dark pigment which produces a sun tan. It protects the deeper layers of the
skin by absorbing the suns ultras violet rays.

The cells which form the pigment are called melanocytes. They are spider shaped with
long irregular arms which reach out from the cell body. The arms of each melanocyte link
it with approximately ten of the surrounding cells. Melanocytes inject pigment granules,
melanosomes into the neighboring cells spreading pigment across the skin.
Melanocytes make up about 1% of all skin cells.

Skin of the hands

Starting from the top, the skin has three main layers;

• The epidermis: the outer, protective covering of the body. The cells at the base of this
layer are living: they gradually move up to the surface and die

• The dermis: a deeper, fibrous supportive layer made up of different types of protein
fibres. This layer contains blood vessels, nerves, hair follicles, sebaceous glands and
sweat glands

• The subcutaneous (adipose) layer which stores fat.

The upper most layer of the epidermis is called the stratum Corneum. It is made up of
dead cells containing the protein keratin. The role of the stratum Corneum is to protect
the deeper, living layers. It is thickest on the palms of the hands where extra protection is
required against friction.

17
The
Lymphatic
System
STRUCTURE AND FORM
DEEPER UNDERSTANDING

The lymphatic system is a one-way drainage system for the tissues, as it helps to
provide a circulatory pathway for tissue fluid to be transported, as lymph, from the
tissue spaces of the body into the venous system where it becomes part of the blood
circulation.

Its primary function is defensive: to remove bacteria and foreign materials, thereby
preventing infection. It also drains away excess fluids for elimination from the body.

What is Lymph?

Lymph is a transparent, colourless, watery fluid which is derived from tissue fluid and is
contained within lymph vessels. It resembles blood plasma, except that it has a lower
concentration of plasma proteins.

This is because some large protein molecules are unable to filter through the cells
forming the capillary walls so they remain in blood plasma. Lymph contains only one
type of cell; these are called lymphocytes.

How is Lymph Formed?

As blood is distributed to the tissues some of the plasma escapes from the capillaries
and flows around the tissue cells delivering nutrients such as oxygen and water to the
cell and picking up cellular waste such as urea and carbon dioxide. Once the plasma is
outside the capillary and is bathing the tissue cells it becomes tissue fluid.

Some of the tissue fluid passes back into the capillary walls to return to the blood
stream via the veins and some is collected up by a lymph vessel where it becomes
lymph. Lymph is then taken through its circulatory pathway and is ultimately returned to
the bloodstream.

18
 The Lymphatic System

The Connection Between Blood and Lymph

The lymphatic system is therefore often referred to as a secondary circulatory system as

it consists of a network of vessels that assist the blood in returning fluid from the tissues
back to the heart.

The structure of the lymphatic system are as follows:

• Lymph capillaries
• Lymph vessels
• Lymph nodes
• Lymph collecting ducts
The structure of the lymphatic system

Arteriole Venule
Capillary

Plasma escapes
capillary to bathe
tissue cells Waste products
pass out of cell
Nutrients pass into capillary
into cells
Tissue Fluid Tissue Fluid

Excess fluid drains into lymph vessels

Lymph Node

Filtered Lymph
Lymphatic Vessel re-enters bloodstream
(blind ended tube
19
 The Lymphatic System

Lymph Capillaries

Lymph capillaries commence in the tissue spaces of the body as minute blind-end tubes,
as lymph is a one-way circulatory pathway. The walls of the lymph capillaries are like those
of the blood capillaries in that they are a single cell layer thick to make it possible for tissue
fluid to enter them. However, they are permeable to substances of larger molecular size
than those of the blood capillaries.

The lymph capillaries mirror the blood capillaries and form a network in the tissues
draining away excess fluid and waste products from the tissue spaces of the body. Once
the tissue fluid enters a lymph capillary it becomes lymph and is gathered up into larger
lymph vessels.

Lymph Vessels

Lymph vessels are similar to veins in that they have thin collapsible walls and their role is
to transport lymph through its circulatory pathway. They have a considerable number of
valves which help to keep the lymph flowing in the right direction and prevent back flow.
Superficial lymph vessels tend to follow the course of veins by draining the skin, whereas
the deeper lymph vessels tend to follow the course of arteries and drain the internal
structures of the body.

The lymph vessels carry the lymph towards the heart under steady pressure and about
two to four litres of lymph pass into the venous system every day. Once lymph has passed
through the lymph vessels it drains into at least one lymphatic node before returning to
the blood circulatory system. As the lymphatic system lacks a pump, lymphatic vessels
have to make use of contracting muscles that assist the movement of lymph. Therefore,
lymphatic flow is at its greatest during exercise due to the increased contraction of muscle

Lymph Nodes

A lymph node is an oval or bean shaped structure, covered by a capsule of connective

tissue. It is made up of lymphatic tissue and is divided into two regions: an outer cortex and
an inner medulla.

There are more than one hundred lymph nodes, placed strategically along the course of
lymph vessels. They vary in size between one millimeter and twenty-five millimeters in
length and are massed in groups; some are superficial and lie just under the skin. There as
others are deeply seated and are found near arteries and veins.

Each lymph node receives lymph from several different lymph vessels and blood from
small arterioles

20
 Final
Thoughts
WELL DONE FOR COMPLETING
THIS MODULE OF YOUR COURSE

Now you have come to the end

of this part of your course it’s
a good time to start thinking
about what you will need to
learn next.

Have a look at your learning

portal and review the other
learning E-books provided
with your course.

Each course comes with a

number of different learning
approaches from online
exercises, videos and E-books,
all you have to do is decided
what you want to discover and
explore next.

I wish you all the best with your

journey of becoming the
Professional you want to be.

i a A r p e l s
Victor
21