BASICS OF CAMERA, LIGHTS AND SOUND

Video Camera

The Video Camera is the single most important piece of production equipment.
Other production equipments and techniques are generally influenced by the
camera’s technical and performance characteristics although the electronics of
camera have become increasingly complex; its new systems make it much simpler
to operate. To produce an optical image there is no need to be a skilled electronics
engineer all you need to do is to just press the right camera buttons.

VIDEO CAMERA

A video camera is a camera used for electronic motion picture acquisition, initially
developed by the television industry but now common in other applications as
well.

Video camera that records and plays visual images and sounds made on magnetic
tape.

The Video camera is the single most important piece of production equipment.
Other production equipment and techniques are greatly influenced by the
camera’s technical and performance characteristics. The video camera is central
to all television production.

Video cameras are used primarily in two modes.

The first, characteristic of much early television, is what might be called a live
broadcast, where the camera feeds real time images directly to a screen for
immediate observation. A few cameras still serve live television production, but
most live connections are for security, military/tactical, and industrial operations
where surreptitious or remote viewing is required.

The second is to have the images recorded to a storage device for archiving or
further processing; for many years, videotape was the primary format used for
this purpose, but optical disc media, hard disk, and flash memory are all
increasingly used. Recorded video is used in television and film production, and
more often surveillance and monitoring tasks where unattended recording of a
situation is required for later analysis.

LENS CONTROLS:

The modern television lens has three controls: iris, focus, and zoom. On a fully
automatic camera you may not have to adjust the focus or iris except under
unusual conditions, but you should know what's going on so you can use
manual settings with confidence.
The ring closest to the camera body controls the amount of light passing
through the lens to the light-sensitive surface of the pickup tube or chip. It is
called the iris, aperture, or f-stop control and is marked off in f-numbers. The
lowest f-stop lets in the most light, and the highest f-stop lets in the least.
Some lenses even have a "C" setting after the highest f-stop which means the
lens is completely closed, letting no light through at all.

More light------------- Less light

1 1.4 2 2.8 4 5.6 8 11 16 22 32

STANDARD F-NUMBERS

Each standard f-stop lets half as much light through the lens as the f-stop
below it.

If the camera gets too little light, the image will look fuzzy and drab, even
though it may be in focus. The camera image may lag behind quick changes in
the picture and the picture will be grayish, with little contrast.

Too much light will produce too much contrast. Details in both the very bright
and the very dark parts of the picture will be lost. Bright spots may grow
"halos" or "bloom." So-called "point sources" of light may cause light vertical
stripes on CCD cameras.

The correct setting is between these extremes, generally about one f-stop
higher than the f-stop at which the bright parts of the picture lose details and
grow halos, or "bloom." To find this point, begin with the lens in the closed or
highest f-stop position and open it slowly until you start losing details in the
brightest parts of the picture. Then reduce the amount of light coming through
by going down to the next highest f-stop.

Indoors it's often necessary to add light to get a good picture. Outdoors on
bright sunny days it may be necessary to reduce the light reaching the pickup
tube even more than the lens will allow. This is done by adding a neutral
density filter between the lens and lens hood. A two power (2X) filter has the
same effect as using the next highest f-stop, while a four power (4X) filter
gives the effect of going up two f-stops.

ZOOM
The center ring on most lenses is the zoom control. Most cameras use a rocker
switch beside the lens. This allows you to change the focal length of the lens
through a range from wide angle (short focal length) to telephoto (long focal
length). It's common for inexpensive zoom lenses to have a range of about six
to one. That is, the longest focal length is about six times the shortest. Zoom
lenses for television cameras with two-thirds inch pickup tubes or chips range
from about 12mm to 75mm, with a normal focal length of about 33mm.

A wide angle setting makes the subject smaller as the angle of view is
increased. Distances from the camera are exaggerated, with objects nearer the
camera appearing abnormally large. This is especially true of people who are
too close to a wide angle lens. Straight lines near the edges of the picture are
often bent with an effect known as barrel distortion.

A telephoto setting makes the subject larger as the angle of view is reduced.
Distances from the camera are compressed. More than one feature film
director has used this effect to make an action (like running toward the
camera) seem to take much longer than it should.

The normal lens settings offer the most natural perspective to the viewer.

It's possible to change the focal length of a zoom lens during a shot by
"zooming" in or out. Inexperienced camera operators often over-use this
capability. The main value of the lens is in controlling the field of view of the
camera when it's inconvenient or impossible to change the distance from the
subject to the camera.

FOCUS

The focus control is the ring farthest from the camera body, on the front of the
lens. Distance settings are marked in meters and in feet. While a non-zoom
(fixed focal length) lens is focused simply by turning the ring until the image is
sharp, the zoom lens must be zoomed in to the smallest angle of view and the
largest image size to adjust focus. The lens should then be zoomed out to the
widest angle of view and the smallest image size to make sure the image stays
in focus through the entire zoom range. If the image stays sharp, the lens will
remain focused at any focal length as long as the distance from the subject
does not change.

Depth of field is the range of distances in front of the lens in which objects
appear to be in acceptable focus. It's longer for short (wide angle) lenses than
for long (telephoto) lenses, and it increases as you use higher f-stops. It is
often wise to use a higher f-stop when lighting conditions permit, if you expect
the distance between the camera and the subject to change often while you're
taping, since you'll have less trouble keeping the subject sharply focused with
greater depth of field.

While all cameras with zoom lenses must control iris, focal length, and focus,
the functions of the three rings described here may be automated or provided
by remote control.

Most lenses also have a "macro" setting on the zoom ring. This changes the
characteristics of the lens to let you focus on objects right up to the front of
the lens.

ELECTRONIC CONTROLS:

Some or all of the following controls may be automatic or preset and thus not
adjustable by the user.

Pedestal: Also called the "set-up" control, sets the level of the darkest parts of
the picture. On portable cameras it's generally automatic or totally absent.

Gain: Also called "level," this control sets the level of the brightest parts of the
picture. It can be used to reduce the level when too much light is striking the
pickup tube, but it will not make the picture brighter without making it grainy
or snowy if the pickup tube or chip isn't getting enough light. Automatic gain
controls can be extremely sensitive to even small bright parts of the picture,
driving medium and darker parts into black. They may also bring dark parts
up into the medium range if there's not enough light for a good picture.

White balance: If you use outdoor film with normal indoor lighting (no flash)
everything comes out orange. The color temperature of sunlight is very
different from an incandescent light bulb. Most consumer cameras now sense
the overall color temperature and adjust color electronically. In older or
professional cameras it's important with each change in location or lighting to
"tell" the camera how to interpret color. This is done by showing the camera a
white card, which represents the total absence of color. Controls on the
camera are then used to minimize the color output of the camera.

Viewfinder: There are often controls to adjust a camera viewfinder. To state

the obvious, these controls have absolutely nothing to do with the actual
output of the camera. It's helpful to adjust the viewfinder under controlled
conditions so it shows a faithful representation of actual camera output.
Otherwise, if you want viewfinders to tell you the truth, they should never be
adjusted just to make a "pretty" picture.

Parts of Camera

All the Video Cameras consist of three main parts: -

 The first is the lens, which selects a certain field of view and produces a
small optical image of it.
 The second part is the camera itself, with its imaging device or pick-up
device that converts the optical image as delivered by the lens into electrical
signals.
 The third is the viewfinder, which shows a small video image of what the
lens is seeing.

Some other Parts of Video Camera & Functions

1. Built-in Microphone; This records the sound along with the picture when
the camera is in operation.
2. White-Balance Sensor window: This indicates the white balancing of the
camera for its color corrections.
3. Lens:- The lens assembly handles all the light and the image that comes into
camera. We can add lenses to achieve different effects in some modals.
4. Viewfinder:- it also allows us to see what we are recording(most display in
black and white, however)
5. LCD viewfinder:- Most new versions of digital camcorders have the liquid
crystal display (LCD) viewfinder, a small screen that allows us to see what
we are recording in color.
 6. Zoom:-The two way zoom button enables us to zoom the camera lens in
and out, that is, it allows us to go closer to the subject when we zoom in
and further from the object when we zoom out.
7. Recording Levels:- Most professional modals have a drum that we can use
to modify the levels of audio we are recording.
8. Operation switch: This switch is used for the power supply to the camera.
9. Auto light button: This button is pressed to activate the auto light function.
10.Lense cap: It protects the lense from possible damages.
11.Tape eject button; to insert for take out a video cassette, press the button.
12.External microphone socket: If you want to use an external microphone,
connect it to this socket ( in this case, the built-in microphone will be
deactivated)
13.Start/stop Button- press this button to start and stop shooting a scene.
14.White balance button- Press this button to select manual white balance
adjustment. Press it again to reset to the automatic white balance
adjustment mode.
15.Exposure/aperture:- the exposure on the camera helps us to increase or
decrease the aperture levels so that the picture becomes brighter or darker
depending on what we desire. This increases or decreases the amount of
light entering the camera.
16.Play button:- Press this button to start the playback
17.Stop Button:-Press this button to stop the playback.

How Video Camera Works: -

All video camera work on the same basic principle, the conversion of an optical
image into electrical signal that are reconverted by a television set into visible
images.

Specifically; the light that is reflected from object is gathered by a lens

and focused on the imaging or pick-up device. The imaging device is the principle
camera element that converts the lights into electric energy. The imaging or pick-
up device consist of small solid state device normally called CCD (Charged
coupled devices). The CCD contains hundreds of thousands of image sensing
elements called pixels (a word made up of pix, for picture and els for elements) are
arranged in horizontal and vertical rows. Each pixel translates the light to an
electrical current. These electrical signals travel to the recording section. The
current creates the small magnetic field which is recorded on the magnetic coating
of the tape. To view the image the process is reversed. The magnetic field on the
tape creates an electrical current which is used to generate the picture in the
viewfinder or in the television or monitor

Types of television camera: -

A wide range of television/video cameras is available today, from modestly priced

designs for home video to very sophisticated broadcast grade cameras. While
cameras at the lower end of the range can provide the very satisfactory picture
quality under optimum conditions, the more advanced equipment designs produce
consistently excellent pictures for long periods; even in difficult circumstances.

A number of factors can influence one’s choice of camera including:

1. Cost initial and running cost.

2. Physical aspects: e.g. weight, portability, methods of mounting, reliability.
3. Operational features: - e.g. facilities, controls, handling flexibility (e.g. zoom
range).
4. Electronic/optical performance: - e.g. Resolution, color quality, picture
noise; performance stability, sensitivity.

Which features are most important to you depends upon how you are going to use
the camera. Are you shooting live (i.e. showing events as they are happening) or
recording them? Are you working as the single camera unit or one of a group? Are
you using a video cassette recorder directly linked to the camera or is your video
and sounds are recorded elsewhere? Are you editing what you shoot as you go or
will the material be edited later? Some camera systems are appropriate than others
for particular situation.

One factor can strongly outweigh others. If for instance, a news

unit is working under hazardous condition where likelihood of equipment loss or
damage is high; it may be wiser to use a small low cost consumer/small format
camcorder rather than a longer expensive broadcast camera.

According to function there are 5 types of cameras available: -

1. Studio Cameras: - Now a days, studio productions make use of wide range
of camera designs, from handheld to a build in units. But the term “studio
camera” has long been established for the larger top quality designs which
are the work house of the bigger studio centers, in practice you will also
meet this type of camera away from the studio, at major sports meetings and
large scale indoor events such as public meetings and concerts.
With advances in technology and
designs it has become possible to create remarkably small and compact high grade
TV cameras. But where state-of –the-art performance is essential, larger equipment
is still un-avoidable so we find that unlike the portable light weight type’s camera
which is self contained, the studio cameras remain bigger and heavier. And much
of its associate apparatus has to be housed separately outside the studio.

Studio cameras are mounted on

heavy duty wheel dollies pedestals or rolling tripods on a panning head (pan and
tilt head) which enables it to turn (pan) and tilt. Its focus and zoom controls are
usually fixed to the panning handles which position the head. To make it easier for
the operator to accurately focus and compose pictures, a full size 5 or 7 inch (12.5
or 17.5 c.m.) viewfinder is usually fitted to the studio camera. By the time a large
high grade zoom lens has been attached, a large viewfinder is mounted at its rear,
and a video prompter fitted to the front of the camera, the combined assembly
needs careful handling.
 2. Portable Cameras: -

Although the large studio cameras produce superior quality; they do have the
drawbacks of being costly, bulky, and heavy. So, as the high performance portable
cameras become available; they were adopted by many organizations through out
the world, for both studio and location production. Portable camera designs have
proved to be not only more convenient, but more adaptable, with much lower
operating costs.

The portable cameras can be used in several different formats: -

1. It may have its own in built video cassette recorder integrated or one piece
camcorder.
2. It may have a separate compact video cassette recorder attached dockable or
combined camcorder.
3. The cameras output may be routed via cable or a portable microwave radio
link to a near by video tape recorder.
4. The camera may be routed to a near by base station or control point in the
vicinity, where a control VTR records its pictures and sound.
5. The Camera may be connected to an up station (portable or van), which
transmits its output via a satellite to the control center.
6. The portable camera may be a part of a multi-camera group. Its pictures are
routed to a distance CCU (camera control unit) / CPU (Central Processing
Unit) and after selection at a production, switches are taped at a central
VTR.
 3. Convertible cameras: -

Where a camera is convertible, you can use it in various configurations i.e. fittings
different kind of lenses, viewfinders, videotape recorders etc, to suit a particular
production.

 For a studio show, the camera is mounted on a dolly; with the larger
viewfinder that is essential for flexible dolly operation. While you can use its
standard zoom lens, one with the wider coverage can prove more effective
where space is very limited. Its controls are best extended to the panning
handles. In the studio you would not normally use an attached VTR.
 When you want to shoulder-support your camera for maximum mobility,
you can fit light weight attachments a smaller hand operated zoom, and a
compact eye piece viewfinder because you are working up close to the
camera where you need them, you can attach a small camera light and a
microphone.

4. ENG/EFP cameras: -

Although systems are often designated as ENG (Electronic news gathering) or EFP
(electronic field production) they are in fact just variations on the portable cameras.

a. ENG- (electronic news gathering) The camcorders used for news gathering
invariably work alone, are generally shoulder mounted with a small camera
light and microphone attached and powered by a battery, belt power.
Typically CCD versions weights 2 to 6 kg.

b. EFP- (electronic field production) Shooting away from the studio program
inserts, documentaries, magazine features; commercials etc high grade
portable cameras may be used in various configurations. Most productions
shoot with a single camcorder, but some times (e.g. drama or sports event) a
multi camera shoot is controlled at a central point (CCU, CPU) and recorded
on a separate VTR. The cameras may be setup on a mountings range from a
tripod to a portable pedestal or a jib arm.
Consumer or small format cameras: -

Certain equipment formats found in the low budget non professional market are
now increasingly used in a more refined form for local station and corporate
TV/Video program making. The Hi8, Mini DV, VHS, S-VHS and DVC videotape
recorder formats in handheld camcorders and the various desktop video facilities
based on the personal computer, reflect the high technical standards that are now
achievable in modestly priced compact equipment.

Basic Optics
Focal Length:

Focal length is the distance from the optical centre of the lens to the point where the
image is seen in focus by the lens. Therefore, when you zoom out, the distance between
the optical centre and the point where the image is in focus decreases. The opposite
happens when you zoom in.

A zoom lens can become a short-focal-length (wide angle) by zooming out, or it can
become a long-focal-length lens (telephoto) by zooming in.

Depth of field:

The range in which all objects in front of the camera lens appear to be in focus is called
the Depth of Field.

It is dependent on

a) The focal length,

b) The aperture, &

c) Camera position.

The greater the distance between object and camera, greater the depth of field. This
means that the depth of field increases as the focal length decreases. The converse is
also true.
When the depth of field is greater more number of objects appears to be in focus. When
the depth of field is shallow, very few objects are in focus.

Any lens can focus sharply on an object at one plane (i.e. any object plane) at one time
only. All objects planes cannot be brought into sharp focus simultaneously. However,
when a lens is focused on a subject, there will be an area in front of the subject and
behind the subject on which all objects are seen in focus. This area of acceptable focus is
called the depth of field

Or

“It is the range of subject distance with in which the subject can be photographed with
an acceptable sharpness is called depth of field”

Depth of field is an important optical characteristic of lenses which we can use as a

creative tool. When there is very large space surrounding the principal subject in which
objects are still seen in focus the lens is said to have a “wide” or “deep” depth of field. If
the area surrounding the subject is not very large; the lens is said to have a “shallow” or
narrow depth of field

White balance

White balance is a function that tells the camera what colour white looks like.

When the white balance is incorrect, it shows different colours—sometimes bluish and
sometimes orangish yellow.

Perform white balance whenever lighting changes (morning, afternoon, evening, natural
light, artificial light).

How to perform White Balance?

You will need a camera with a white balance function and a white sheet that is not
shining (a thermocoal sheet that is used as a reflector will do). If your camera has
different filters (most ENG cameras don’t), use the correct filter. Point the camera to the
white sheet, zoom in and ensure that the entire viewfinder is covered with the white
surface. Set the exposure and focus properly. Now activate the white balance button on
your camera. In the viewfinder you will find the picture changing for a couple of
seconds. In most cases, the camera ‘informs’ you that the white balance has been
performed. You are now ready to shoot.

To guarantee that a white object looks white under reddish (low kelvin degrees) or
bluish (high kelvin degrees) light, you need to tell the camera to compensate for the
reddish or bluish light and to pretend that it is dealing with perfectly white light, this
compensation by the camera is called white balance. When a camera engages in white
balancing; it adjusts the RGB channels in such a way that the white object looks white
on-screen regardless of whether it is illuminated by reddish or bluish light.

“More specifically you can say white balance is the adjustments of the color circuits in
the camera to produce a white colour in lighting of various colour temperatures
(relative reddishness or bluishness of white light)”.

Aspect Ratio

One of the most visible differences between traditional (analog) and digital television
(DTV) systems is the horizontally stretched television picture. “The width-to-height
proportion of the screen is called as aspect ratio”.

The aspect ratio of the traditional television screen and of computer screens is 4:3 and
HDTV is 16:9.
Aperture

The aperture, or f/stop as it is commonly called, is used to regulate the diameter

of the lens opening. That controls the luminance on the film plane. Besides
controlling the luminance on the film plane, the f/stop also controls image
sharpness by partially correcting various lens aberrations.

The most commonly used aperture control device is the iris diaphragm. An iris
diaphragm is an adjustable device that is fitted into the barrel of the lens or
shutter housing. It is called an iris diaphragm because it resembles the iris in the
human eye.
An iris diaphragm is a series of thin, curved, metal blades that overlap each other
and is fastened to a ring on the lens barrel or shutter housing.

The size of the aperture is changed by turning the aperture control ring.

The blades move in unison as the control ring is moved, forming an aperture of
any desired size.

The control ring is marked in a series of f/stops that relate to the iris opening.

The aperture controls the intensity of light that is allowed to pass to the film and
the parts of the image that will appear in sharp focus.

Focusing

When you focus the camera you adjusts its lens to produce the sharpest possible
image of your subject with a prime lens, this involves altering the distance between
the lens and the camera’s CCD (or film in case of a photograph camera). With the
zoom lens, focus adjustment is by readjusting the positions of internal lens
elements. In other words a camera shot is in focus when the light rays form the
rears converge precisely on the face of the camera pick-up tube. Since this distance
varies depending upon the focal length of the lens and the camera to subject
distance; we must continually adjust the distance between the lens and the pick
tubes in order to maintain accurate focus.

Focusing Methods: -

Several different methods are used to focus the camera’s lens system: -

1. A focus ring on the lens barrel.

2. A twist grip attached to a panning handle.
3. A focus knob on the side of the camera or on a panning handles attachment.
4. Some form of auto focus – an automatic focusing system.

1. Focus Ring: - lens system on handheld and light weight cameras can be
focused by running a ring on the lens barrel until subject details are as sharp
as possible.
2. Twist Grip: - When a camera is fixed onto a mounting; panning handle are
usually attached to its panning head to direct or steady it. A rotating sleeve
twist grip control clamped onto the left panning handle turns to adjust the
lens focus.
3. Servo Motor System: - Here a small servo motor adjusts the lens focus
mechanism this has a considerable advantages, for its focus control can be
located on the side of the camera, attached to a panning handle, or even
remotely at a separate control point.
4. Auto focus: - An increasing number of cameras include automatic focusing
facilities. Ideally you just point the camera, and it focuses on the subject
auto-focus is particularly useful when you are moving around with a
handheld or shoulder mounting camera, for it maintains focus, where ever
 you move allowing you to concentrate on framing the shot and checking out
your route.
However, it is best to think of the auto focus
facility as an aid, rather than assuming that it will relieve you of all focusing
worries.

Auto focus problems: -

1. If your subject is not central; auto focus may sharpen upon whatever
happens to be there, leaving your subject defocused.
2. Although you may want two subjects at different distances from the camera
to appear equally sharp, the auto focus may indiscriminately sharpen on one
or neither
3. If you are shooting through a foreground framework for e.g. branches,
netting, railing the system will focus on this rather than your subject beyond.
4. If your subject is behind glass (Showcase, shop window), or beneath the
surface of a pool; the auto-focus system can be fooled.
5. If someone or something moves in front of the camera, the system may
refocus on it, defocusing your subject, if for instance you pan over a
landscape, and a foreground bush comes into shot, the lens may defocus the
distance scene and show a well focused bush. Similarly, when following a
moving subject (e.g. some one in a crowd) the system may continually
readjust itself, focusing randomly on the passing subjects.
6. When you zoom to alter the shot size; the system may refocus as you
recompose the picture.
7. If the subject is dark toned, or covered with a black material, focusing may
be inaccurate; as such surfaces do not reflect infrared well.
8. When shooting in rain, snow, mist, or fog auto focus may not be accurate.
9. Sometimes detailed backgrounds close behind subject can cause ambiguous
focusing.
10.Highly reflective surfaces and areas that are shiny or reflect a lot of light can
be a problem.
11.Subject that are moving rapidly or continuous can beat the system.
12.Subjects that have little contrast may not provide accurate focusing.
13.When shooting at night, results can be uncertain.
 14.When using a lens filter for effects; it may interfere with the auto focus
system. These problems may not arise but it is as well to be warned in doubt,
switch to manual focusing instead.

Circle of confusion: -

A small dot when enlarged gradually may not at a stage look as a dot but a small
circle and further enlarging a small circle becomes the bigger circle. There is a
range of enlarging steps in the beginning in which the dot although becomes a
circle but still look as a dot on further enlargement; the dot may look as a dot as
well as a circle and may confuse to be a dot or a small circle. This stage of dot
confusing to be a circle is called the circle of confusion. Beyond this, the enlarged
size of the dot clearly indicates a circle. A human normal eye has got a power to
resolve a dot or a circle to be a dot or a circle respectively in a definite distinct
manner and this power of the eye depends on the resolving power of the individual
eye.

Depth of field: -

Any lens can focus sharply on an object at one plane (i.e. any object plane) at one
time only. All objects planes cannot be brought into sharp focus simultaneously.
However, when a lens is focused on a subject, there will be an area in front of the
subject and behind the subject on which all objects are seen in focus. This area of
acceptable focus is called the depth of field

Or

“It is the range of subject distance with in which the subject can be photographed
with an acceptable sharpness is called depth of field”
Depth of field is an important optical characteristic of lenses which we can use as a
creative tool. When there is very large space surrounding the principal subject in
which objects are still seen in focus the lens is said to have a “wide” or “deep”
depth of field. If the area surrounding the subject is not very large; the lens is said
to have a “shallow” or narrow depth of field

The video basics

Video Images

Frame and field: -

The images of video signal are related in similar manner to that of film.
Each video image is just like a frame from motion picture film video is
recorded 25 fps as compare to motion picture photography. Each video
frame is divided into two fields such as: -
 1. Even Field
2. Odd Field

 The frame is divided into two because to avoid flicker rate.

 It matches the power supply system.

Scanning of images: -

Scanning is process by virtue of which a frame is observed minutely by

an electron beam to get a continuous motion.

Scanning may simply be explained as a process similar to reading of

writing on a page. It starts from top left and process it line by line and
downward to the end at the bottom right. But scanning rate of video
signal in frame is too quicker.

The scanning is done line by line horizontally from left to

right at a fast rate and vertically from top to bottom at a slower rate.

Types of Scanning: -

1. Interlace Scanning
2. Progressive Scanning
BROADCAST STANDARDS / COLOR VIDEO SYSTEM

A number of countries devised and tested various video systems that

depend upon the electric power system of their country. Each country
adopt according to their suitability economic and political
consideration.

Broadcast standards mean the protocol followed to broadcast and

receive television signals.

Most countries around the World use one of three main television
broadcast Standards.

These three main standards are: -

1. NTSC: National Television System Committee

2. PAL: Phase Alternating Line
3. SECAM: Sequential Couleur Avec Memoire or Sequential
Color with Memory

1. NTSC: - The first color TV broadcast system was implemented in

the United States in 1953. This was based on the NTSC (National
 Television System Committee) standard. NTSC is used by many
countries on the American continent as well as many Asian
countries including Japan.

NTSC runs on 525 lines / 30frame.

2. PAL: - The PAL (Phase Alternating Line) standard was introduced

in the early 1960's and implemented in most European countries
except for France. The PAL standard utilizes a wider channel
bandwidth than NTSC which allows for better picture quality.

PAL runs on 625 lines / 25frame.

3. SECAM: - The SECAM (Sequential Couleur Avec Memoire or

Sequential Colour with Memory) standard was introduced in the
early 1960's and implemented in France. SECAM uses the same
bandwidth as PAL but transmits the color information
sequentially.

SECAM runs on 625 lines / 25 frames.

Types of Shots or Basic Shots

In television, we use several types of shots. A shot is the smallest convenient

‘visual unit’ in TV or in film. The size of the shot depends on the focal length of
the lens and the distance between the camera and the subject. Shots are of several
kinds and are classified by the amount of persons or the subject covered and the
way it is covered. Following types of basic shots are commonly used in television:
-

1. Extreme long shot: - (ELS) (VLS) (XLS): - A shot in which the principal
subject is remote from the camera, occupying less than half of the picture
frame, with large amount of details seen in the background. Sometimes
called very long shots or wide shot, it shows the object from a very long
distance.
2. Long shot: - (LS): - A long shot is a wide and comprehensive shot but not so
wide that one cannot identify the subject even on the small screen. Long
shots are used briefly but frequently in TV news, because they serve the
purpose of establishing the location of an event e.g. shots of stadium,
Parliament, bus stand etc.
In fact, in TV news, such shots are customarily used at the beginning
to establish the location of an action.

LS is a shot in which the subject occupies three quarters to one third

of the vertical height of the picture frame, allowing a full view of the background
scene.

3. Medium Long Shot (MLS): - In a medium long shot the subject is seen from
the knees upwards, along with lots of background. This shot is also known
as knee-shot or ¾ shot.
Internationally MLS and knee shot are recognized separately. MLS
is that shot in which the entire body plus short distance above and below are
shown i.e. headroom and foreground knee shot, three quarter length shot which
cuts just from the knee it may be upwards or just below the knee.

4. Medium Shot (MS): - Also called medium shot or waist shot, it covers the
subject body from waist upwards. This is close enough to the subject to
show ‘what the subject is doing in relation to its environment’ on location.
5. Medium close up (MCU): - also called chest shot. MCU cuts body at lower
chest/breast/pocket.
 6. Close up (CU): - A close up shot features just above head and shoulders of a
person, cutting below neck. This shot is also called tie shot or knot shot. The
head and shoulder shot of a news anchor is a close up shot. Close ups are the
second most frequently used shots in TV news and mostly used in
interviews.
7. Big close up (BCU): - Big close up is a tight close up or full head shot.
8. Very close up (VCU): - Very close up is generally known as face shot, from
mid overhead to above chin.
9. Extreme close up (ECU): - ECU is a detail shot. This shot is used to show
facial expressions. Characteristics or details usually of a part of the face
eyes, nose lips, mouth, forehead, etc. this is the tightest shot possible.
10.Over shoulder shot (OSS): - also called cross shot or X shot, a shot in which
the camera looks at a person over another person’s shoulder and in such a
way that the shoulder and back of another person’s head are included in the
picture.
11.Reaction shot: - A CU or ECU usually employed to register an actor’s or
performer’s facial expressions or emotional reactions.
12.Cutaway: - Cutaway shot appears to occur with in the same time segment as
the main shot, but away from its location. A cutaway shot temporarily draws
attention away from the main shot/ event, and is generally used to lay
emphasis or to break monotony.
13.Single Shot: - A shot which include only one person in the frame.
14.Two Shot: - A shot which include two persons in the frame.
15.Three shot: - A shot which includes three persons in the frame.
16.Crowd shots: - Also known as ‘group shot’. It features a number of persons.
17.Freeze shot: - A visual effect in which the moving picture appear to stop its
motion (or freezes)
18.Static shot: - A shot in which there is no camera movement.
19.Ariel Shot: - A shot or picture taken from air, usually from helicopter or an
aeroplane.

Camera Movements

A Good Camera operator combines a strong visual sense for form and
composition, an aesthetic sensitivity for the programs overall concept and
approach, and the physical skill and coordination necessary to operate the
camera smoothly and with precision. Before operating a camera one should
become familiar with the most common camera movements.

Movement of the camera with respect to the subject is called camera movement.

Types of camera movements: -

1) Zoom
2) Movement of camera head
3) Movement of camera with mounting

I. Zoom

Changing the focal length of the lens through the use of a zoom control. While the
camera remains stationary. To “zoom” in means to change the lens gradually to a
narrow angle position, thereby making the scene to appear to move closer to the
viewer; to “Zoom out” means to change the lens gradually to a wide angle
position, thereby making the scene appear to move farther away from the viewer.
A special effect zoom is the snap zooms which is an extremely rapid zoom in or
zoom out used to emphasize the dramatic point or to punctuate an important
moment in the program. The effect obviously calls attention to it and should be
used sparingly for maximum Impact.

Command “Zoom in” or “Zoom out”, some directors refers to “pull” in or “pull
out” for example start with the close up of the host, and pull out to revel the
guest.
II Moment of camera head

1) Pan
2) Tilt

1) Pan: - The horizontal movement of the camera on the stationary tripod or

pedestal.

Command ‘pan right’ or ‘pan left’ sometimes the director may give more
specific instructions such as pan right with the host as he walks to the table.

A pan across a scene should never wonder aimlessly but should have a definite
starting point and a definite ending point.

Classification of Pan:

a) Follow pan: - Follow pan is the common camera movement in which

the camera pans as it follows a moving subject.
b) Survey pan: - this is slow panning movement of the camera; this is
used to establish the whole scene.
c) Interrupted Pan: - This is a long-smooth movement of the camera
that suddenly stopped to give visual contrast. This is used to link a
series of isolated subject and to highlight a particular subject.
d) Swish Pan: - Swish Pan means fast panning between two subjects.
This is used to change the attention of the viewer from one subject
to another. Swish pan is also known as whip pan, zip pan or blur pan.
 Swish pan turns so rapidly from one subject to the next that the
intermediate scene becomes a brief, streaking blur.

The whip pan usually produces a dynamic relational or comparative

change.

1) Joining different viewpoint of the same scene.

2) Providing continuity of interest-connecting a series of similar subject
or themes.
3) Changing centers of attraction – from one area of concentration to
another.
4) Showing cause and effect.
5) Comparing or contrasting.
6) Transferring in film time and space – an aircraft takes off ……….. swish
pan to its landing at the destination.
7) Dramatic change of direction.

A swish pan has to be accurate as well as appropriate, to be successful, no

fumbling, reframing, refocusing at the end of the point.

2) Tilt: - The vertical movement of the camera on a stationary pedestal or

tripod. Pointing the camera upwards and downwards is tilting. Tilting like
panning allows you to visually connect subject or areas that are spaced
apart. Otherwise, you would need to intercut different shots, or use a
longer shot to include both subjects.

Tilting can be used: -

1) To emphasize height or depth-tilting up from a mountaineer…… to show

the steep difficult face to be climbed.
2) To show relationships – as the camera tilts from the rooftops watcher…..
down to his victim in the street below.
Fundamentally tilting upwards creates feeling of rising interest and emotion
expectancy, hope, anticipation, conversely for tilting downward is to lowering
interest and emotion, disappointment, sadness, critical inspection.

Command: “Tilt up” or “Tilt down”. It is best to use the term tilt to refer to all
vertical movements.

Movement of camera with mounting

This type of movement is achieved by moving the camera with the mount on
which it is fixed. This movement is further divided as: -

1) Dolly: - The movement of the camera on its mount towards or away from
the subject in more or less a straight line by means of a mobile camera
mount. When you “dolly in” you move the camera closer to the object,
when you dolly out or dolly back you move the camera farther away from
the object. The director should usually tell how fast or slow the speed of
the dolly should be dolly movement requires change in focus and proper
framing through out the scene/shot.
2) Truck: - moving the camera laterally by means of a mobile camera mount
to the left with the camera pointing at the right angle to the direction of
travel. To “truck right” means to move the camera mount to the right with
the camera pointing at a right angle to the direction of travel.
There is the big difference between a truck and a
pan. The pan changes the cameras horizontal field of view from atop a stationary
pedestal. The truck actually moves the camera, establishing a new shooting angle
which results in a much different view of the subject or scene photographed.
 3) ARC: - moving the camera in a slightly curved dolly or truck movement with
a mobile camera mount to ARC left means to dolly in or out in a camera left
curve or to truck left in a curve around the object; to arc right means to
dolly in or out in a camera-right curve or to truck right in a curve around the
object.
Arc is a combination of a dolly and a truck the arc is a
semicircular movement of the camera and its pedestal.

4) Pedestal: - the movement of the camera up or down as the centre

telescoping column of the pedestal is raised or lowered.
Command: - “Pedestal up” or “pedestal down” the pedestal control on camera
changes its point of view just as though you viewed a scene sitting down and then
stood up to look around. The pedestal movement can be used to great advantage
by the camera operator and the director. It is important to realize that
pedestaling up or down is not the same thing as tilting up or down. Tilting the
camera simply changes its angle of view from a fixed operating height
pedestalling actually varies the camera height and results in a much different
visual perspective of the scene which is photographed.

5) Crane: - A crane is the movement of the camera a top the long arm of a
crane.
Command: - “crane up” or “crane down”. Sometimes the command “Boom up” or
“Boom down” is used. A horizontal movement of the crane arm is called
“tonguing” and the command is ‘tongue right’ or ‘tongue left’.
 Camera Angles

The relationship between the camera and the object being captured (ie the
ANGLE) gives emotional information to an audience, and guides their judgment
about the character or object in shot. The more extreme the angle (ie the further
away it is from eye left), the more symbolic and heavily- loaded the shot.

Each shot requires placing the camera in the best position for viewing a scene. This
positioning of camera, specially camera angle, determines both the audience
viewpoint and area covered in the shot. To achieve the desire angle within the
frame, the camera must be placed at the appropriate level.

Low-angle: When the camera is below the subject that is low angle. The camera
will make whatever it is looking at seem big. It also gives a general sense of
dramatic intensity and sometimes makes a subject seem threatening.

High-Angle: When the camera is above the subject looking down to it that is the
high angle shot. The psychology behind the shot is the reverse of the low angle
shot. High angle shot makes a subject look smaller. To show weakness or
vulnerability, a high angle shot is appropriate.

Eye-Level-Angle: These shots are best for close ups of people, meant to depict a
general scene. It may provide a neutral narrative position, or it may support a high-
impact, challenging situation. The camera position at eye level invites the viewer
to read the shot, rather than respond to it emotionally, as would be the case with
either a high or a low angle shot.

The Bird's-Eye view: This shows a scene from directly overhead, a very unnatural
and strange angle. Familiar objects viewed from this angle might seem totally
unrecognizable at first (umbrellas in a crowd, dancers' legs). This shot does,
however, put the audience in a godlike position, looking down on the action.
People can be made to look insignificant, ant-like, part of a wider scheme of
things.
 CAMERA LENSES (Types & Functions)

A camera lens is a curved piece of transparent glass that focuses an image in a

camera. A camera lens is not a single lens, but a combination of lenses to bend
the light entering the camera in such a way that it can be captured on film.

Depending on the shape and size of the lens,

many different photographic effects can be achieved. In addition, combining
multiple lenses and changing the distance between those lenses, can create even
more photographic effects. There are many different types of camera lenses for
different photographic

Purposes.

These lenses are permanently fixed to video cameras, or used interchangeably

with lenses of different focal lengths. There are several basic types of products:

1) Normal lens: A Normal Lens gives a viewpoint that is very close to what is
seen by the human eye. It has very little distortion.

2) Telephoto Lens: A telephoto lens or narrow angle lens is designed to have a

focal length. The subject appears much closer than normal, but you can see only a
smaller part of scene.

3) Zoom Lens: Most Video camera comes with the familiar zoom lens system,
which is a remarkably flexible production tool. At any given setting within its
range the zoom lens behaves like a prime lens of that focal length.
 4) Wide angle: a wide angle lens has a short focal length that takes in
correspondingly more of the scene. However subjects will look much further away
and the depth and distance appear exaggerated.

FUNCTIONS:-

The function of the lens in the camera is to direct the light source to the camera
sensor and also to focus your image.

A camera lens uses refraction to focus light on to the area where the film is
located inside the camera. Refraction is caused by a change in the direction of
light as it passes through the curved glass.

Important things for Lens

1. Check the smoothness of focusing action from close-up to infinity.

2. Check focus when fully zoomed in, and when zoomed out.
3. Prefocus on a distant subject and then slowly zoom out, checking that focus
does not wander.