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INTRODUCTION TO MAGNETISM

• The process of interaction

between electric current and
EGR2208: PRINCIPLES OF magnetic flux is referred to as
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING II Electromagnetism.
• The presence of electric current
is always associated with
magnetic field.
• All Electromechanical
CHAPTER ONE: ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY conversions such as motor,
CONVERSION generator and transformer
involves the phenomena of
electromagnetism.

INTRODUCTION TO MAGNETISM INTRODUCTION TO MAGNETISM

• A solenoid becomes magnet by electromagnetism when a current
• The Presence of magnetic passed through it.
field can be seen by • Where the current enters becomes the S pole and where the current
spreading iron filings on leaves becomes the N pole.
top of a sheet of paper
with a magnet below the
paper.

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INTRODUCTION TO MAGNETISM Absolute and Relative Permeability

Important Parameters regarding Magnetism include: • The ability of a material to allow

- Absolute and Relative Permeability passage of magnetic flux into it
makes the material to have a
- Magnetic Flux good magnetic permeability.
- Magnetic Flux Density • The material becomes
- Magnetic Field Strength magnetized when magnetic flux
- Magnetic Potential pass through it
- Intensity of Magnetization • The Relative Permeability
compares the Absolute
- Magneto motive force Permeability of a material with
- Susceptibility that of free space.

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MAGNETIC FLUX (ɸ): MAGNETIC FLUX DENSITY (B):

• Magnetic flux is measured in Weber, 7or Lines and it is referred to as • Magnetic flux density is the
the lines of magnetic field radiated by the magnetic pole. lines of magnetic field
• Note that the lines of magnetic field are pointing out ward in the case radiated out per unit area.
of north pole and inward in the case of south pole
• It is measured in Weber per
square meter (Wb/m2) or
Tesla (T).
• Also maxwells per square
inch or lines per square inch
are used

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INTENSITY OF MAGNETIZATION
MAGNETIC FIELD STRENGTH (H)
• It the work done in carrying a unit pole from infinity to a point in
• The force experienced by a unit magnetic pole (1 Weber) placed in a magnetic field against the force of the magnetic field.
magnetic field is termed as the magnetic field intensity.
• This force expressed in Ampere turns per meter (AT/M) is attractive
for un-like poles (N-S or S-N) and repulsive for like poles (N-N or S-
S).
• It is also the flux density induced in a material due to its own induced
magnetism.

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SUSCEPTIBILITY (K) BOUNDARY CONDITIONS OF MAGNETIC FIELD

• For a bar placed in Magnetic field • A magnetic field passing from
• It is the ratio of intensity of the total flux density in the bar is one media to another will
magnetization I and the magnetic B =µH= Bo + Bi = µoH + m/A experience deflection depending
field strength H. on the permeability of the media.
• Now the permeability of the iron • The boundary conditions has it
bar is given by that:
• That is K = I/H
µoH +I I (i) The normal component of the
µ= = µo + hence µ = µo +K flux density is continuous
H H across the boundary.
• The relative permeability of the
(ii) The tangential component of
bar is therefore; the magnetic field strength H
µ K is continuous across the
µ r = = 1 + boundary
µo µo
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WEBER AND EWING’S MOLECULAR THEORY

WEBER AND EWING’S MOLECULAR THEORY
• As the results of spinning electrons in the molecules of all substances,
the molecules are magnets by themselves. Weber and Ewing’s theory discovered
The Bar becomes magnetized when its
molecules are arranged by the external
how a material is turned into a magnet magnet

• No external magnetism in the substance because of the haphazard

arrangement of molecules, which neutralizes the magnetism.

• By Weber and Ewing’s Theory when the substance is placed in a

magnetic field, there will be linear arrangement of the molecules
Which results in N polarity at one end of the bar and S polarity at the
other end.

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THE CURIE POINT OF A MAGNETIC MATERIAL

MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
• When an Iron bar is magnetized,
it tends to lose its magnetism • A magnetic Circuit is a path followed by a magnetic flux just like an
when it is subjected to increase electric circuit refers to the path followed by electric current.
in temperature.

• The curie point is the

temperature at which complete
demagnetization of the bar
occurs.

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A CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTOR LYING IN A A CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTOR LYING IN A

MAGNETIC FIELD MAGNETIC FIELD
• In 1821 Michael Faraday discovered that a current carrying conductor
will experience a force when it is placed in a magnetic field. • The force is perpendicular to both the direction of current and the
magnetic field.
• The discovery laid the foundation of electric motoring, in which
electric current (or rather energy) is converted to mechanical rotation.

• The direction of current is from Positive to Negative while the

direction of magnetic field is from North to South.

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A CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTOR LYING IN A A CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTOR LYING IN A

MAGNETIC FIELD MAGNETIC FIELD
• If we stretch out the thumb and
first two fingers of our left hand. • The Magnitude of this force is given by:

•The direction of F = BIL = µHIL = µ rµ oHIL

the force can be
found using • And when the conductor is at an angle to the magnetic field (as shown
in Figure (b) above), the force will be:
Fleming’s left
hand rule F = BILsinθ = µ rµ oHILsinθ

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AMPERE’S CIRCUITAL LAW MMF AROUND A LONG STRAIGHT CONDUCTOR

• The magneto motive force (mmf) around a close path is equal to the • Always there is a magnetic field established around a current carrying
total current enclosed by the path. conductor.

• Where H is the vector representing magnetic field strength and dL is

the vector of the enclosing path around the current.

• The Ampere’s circuital law otherwise known as Ampere’s work law in

used in determining mmf around a long straight current carrying
conductor and along a solenoid
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MMF AROUND A LONG STRAIGHT CONDUCTOR MMF AND FIELD STRENGTH OF A LONG SOLENOID
• Suppose that a unit North pole (1 Weber) is placed at a distance of r
meters from the center of the conductor. • The bar of a solenoid becomes a magnet when current is passes
through the solenoid.
• If this unit pole is moved round the conductor against the magnetic
force H then the work done is given by:
• mmf = force x distance = H x 2πr = I ( Ampere’s law)

• Hence I NI
H = and H = for N conductors
2π r 2π r
• The flux density is therefore µ µ NI
B= r o
2π r
• The conductors must be carrying the currents in the same direction for
the above relationship to hold.
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MMF AND FIELD STRENGTH OF A LONG SOLENOID
• The magnetic field strength is
calculated under two
assumptions.
• The value of H remains constant
throughout the length L of the
solenoid and
• The value of H outside the
solenoid is negligible because
µbar >> µo.
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FORCE BETWEEN TWO PARALLEL CONDUCTORS:
• If we have two parallel conductors close to each other, two conductors
will attract each other if the currents in them is in the same direction
otherwise they repel each other.
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FORCE BETWEEN TWO PARALLEL CONDUCTORS
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MMF AND FIELD STRENGTH OF A LONG SOLENOID
• Work done = H x L, Amperes
NI
• Therefore H x L = NI, or H =
L
• Also the flux density is given by:
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FORCE BETWEEN TWO PARALLEL CONDUCTORS
• Each of the conductors lies in the magnetic field of the other, therefore flux
density due to the first conductor is:
µ o I1
B = µH =
2π d
• And the force between the two conductors is given by:
µo I1I2 L
F = BI2 L =
2π d
• one Ampere is the current which when flowing in each of the two
conductors situated in vacuum (free space) and separated by a distance of
1m, produces on each of the conductor a force of 2 x 10-7N per unit length
(1 meter).
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FORCE BETWEEN TWO PARALLEL CONDUCTORS
• EXAMPLE 1.2
Two long straight parallel wires, • FL = 2.4 x 10-4 N, H = 7.95AT/m.
• The magnetic field strength of a long straight current carrying
standing in air, 2m apart, carry currents
conductor at a distance r from the conductor is given by:
I1 and I2 in the same direction. The
I
magnetic intensity at a point mid way H =
2π r
between the wires is 7.954AT/m. If the • Now the magnetic intensity at a point between two current
carrying conductors is the sum of individual intensities if the
force on each wire per unit length is 2.4 currents in the conductors are in opposite direction, whereas the
x 10-4N. Evaluate I1 and I2. difference is taken if the currents are in the same direction.
• The midway between the conductors is a point where r = 2/2 =
1cm
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FORCE BETWEEN TWO PARALLEL CONDUCTORS DEFINITIONS CONCERNING MAGNETIC CIRCUIT

• The magnetic circuit is a complete loop or circle followed by a
magnetic field, e.g. the magnetic field in a toroid.

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DEFINITIONS CONCERNING MAGNETIC CIRCUIT DEFINITIONS CONCERNING MAGNETIC CIRCUIT

• The terms concerning magnetic circuit can be summarized as follows:
NI µ o µ r NI
• . H = L and B = µH = (1)Magneto motive force (mmf): It drives the flux through the magnetic circuit and it is
L defined as the work done in carrying a unit magnetic pole through the entire magnetic
circuit. Its unit is Ampere Turns (AT).
µo µ r NI NI
• . φ = B× A = = (2)Reluctance: This is the measure of the opposition to the flow of magnetic flux offered by
L L µ o µr A the material ( it is analogous to resistance in electric circuit). Its unit is AT/Wb.

(3)Permeance: It is the reciprocal of reluctance and it is the readiness with which magnetic
•. ℑ= NI flux is developed in a material. It is analogous to conductance in electrical circuit. It is
measured in Wb/AT or Henry.
L (4)Reluctivity: This is the reluctance per unit length for each unit cross sectional area of the
•.
ℜ =
µoµr A magnetic path. It is analogous to resistivity in electrical circuit.
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DEFINITIONS CONCERNING MAGNETIC CIRCUIT

LEAKAGE FLUX AND LEAKAGE FACTOR ( COEFFICIENT)

• The leakage flux is the flux that •.

follow a path not intended for it,
as such magnetic flux can pass
through free space to some
extent.
• Leakage factor

Total Flux φ
= =λ = t
Useful Flux φ
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WORKED EXAMPLES WORKED EXAMPLES

• EXAMPLE 1.3

• A square iron core has a mean length

• EXAMPLE 1.4
of magnetic path of 120cm, cross
sectional area of 4 cm2 and relative • A steel ring has a mean diameter of 25cm and a cross sectional area of
permeability of 1400. A coil of 600 turns
8cm2. The ring has a coil of 350 turns on one side and an air gap of
is wound on one of the arms of the core. • Э = NI = 675 x 4.5 = 3,037.5 AT
• , = 1.705 x 106 AT/Wb 3mm on the other side. Calculate the current required in the coil to
Calculate the magnetic flux density and
L L
field strength in the iron core if a current • ℜ = µ A = µo µr A and B = ɸ/A = 4.45 Tesla generate a flux of 0.5mWb in the air gap. Given that µ r =1200 and the
of 4.5A is supplied to the coil. Take µ o =
ℑ leakage factor for the steel is 1.2
4π x 10-7 Henry/meter. φ = = 1.78×10−3
ℜ
• H = B/µ = B/µoµr = H = Э/L= 2,531.25
AT/m. 37 38

WORKED EXAMPLES WORKED EXAMPLES

L Li
• ℜi = i = = 6.486 x 105AT/Wb
µ A µoµr A
• EXAMPLE 1.5
Lg Lg • A cast steel magnetic structure made
• ℜg = = = 2.984 x 106AT/Wb
µA µo A of a bar of section 8cm x 2cm (as
shown). Determine the current that the
•
500 turns magnetizing coil on the left
limb will take so that a flux of 2mWb is
• produced at the right limb. Take µ r =600
and neglect leakage.

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WORKED EXAMPLES HYSTERESIS LOSES

• Hysteresis is a Process in Magnetic material in which the magnetic
flux Density B lags behind the magnetic field H as the material
• undergoes demagnetization.
• The Energy loses due to hysteresis is called the “Hysteresis Loses”,
which is due to magnetization and demagnetization.

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As the current in the solenoid is increased, the induced flux in

the rod will increase to a saturation level. But on reversal of the magnetic flux, the curve will take
another direction due to hysteresis.

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HYSTERESIS LOSES
When the flux is applied in the reverse direction it takes coercive force to wipeout When the current is reversed again a complete hysteresis loop is produced
the residual flux and further increase in the flux in the reverse direction will take the
induce flux to the maximum in negative direction

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HYSTERESIS LOSES HYSTERESIS LOSES

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HYSTERESIS LOSES
HYSTERESIS LOSES
• The index 1.6 is empirical and it holds for values of Bmax from 0.1 T to
1.2T and if the Bmax is out of this range (Bmax < 0.1 or Bmax > 1.2) then
the index is greater than 1.6 (mostly 1.8).
• WH = x y × Area of loop(cm2) x fV Watts
• 1.6
WH =ηBmax • fV
• The index 1.6 is empirical and it holds for values of Bmax from 0.1 T to
1.2T and if the Bmax is out of this range (Bmax < 0.1 or Bmax > 1.2) then
the index is greater than 1.6 (mostly 1.8).

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EDDY CURRENT LOSES EDDY CURRENT LOSES

• As the magnetic core material experience changing flux, an emf is
induced in the magnetic core which causes a circulating current to • The eddy current loss is given by
pass through it, which is called “eddy current”. • N/B
the following relation:
• This loss due to the circulating current in the core material is called •,
the “eddy current loss”, which can be minimized by laminating the 2
core. • We = KBmax f 2t 2V 2 Watts
• The thickness of
• Where, B max = maximum flux
lamination should be very
density, f = frequency, t = thickness thin to minimize the eddy
of lamination, V = volume of the current loss.
core material and K is a constant.

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WORKED EXAMPLES WORKED EXAMPLES

• EXAMPLE 1.6
• Determine the hysteresis loss in an
iron core weighing 50 Kg having a
density of 7.8 x 103 Kg/m3 when the
area of the hysteresis loop is 150cm2,
frequency is 50Hz and scale on X
and Y axis are 1cm = 30AT/cm and
1cm = 0.2wb/m2 respectively.
• SOLUTION:
• EXAMPLE 1.7 • M = 50Kg, ρ = 7800Kg/m3, f = 50Hz, time
• Area of loop = 150cm2, f = 50Hz, ρ =7.8 x 103 Kg/m3, t = 1hour = 3600s,
• Calculate the loss of energy caused by
x = 30AT/cm = 3000AT/m, y = 0.2T
hysteresis in one hour in 50Kg of iron • Hysteresis loss = xy × Area of loop(cm2)
• Volume of 50Kg of iron, = 6.41 x
when subjected to cyclic magnetic = 240 J/m3.cycle, the volume is given by V
103 m3.
changes. The frequency is 25Hz and the = M/ρ = 50/7800.
• The hysteresis loss = Area of loop(cm2)
area of the loop represents • Therefore WH = xy × Area of loop(cm2) x
J/m3/cycle = 90,000 J/m3/cycle
240J/m3/cycle. Take the density of iron fV = 240 x 25 x 50/7800 = 38.4 watts
• And the total loss => to be 7800Kg/m3.
• The total loss = WH x t = WH x 3600 =
• WH = Area of loop(cm2) x fV = 90,000 x 50 x
138,240J = 138.24KJ
6.41 x 10-3 = 28846.2W = 28.85KW

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WORKED EXAMPLES WORKED EXAMPLES

EXAMPLE 1.8
• A certain transformer has core volume of 6.41 x 10-3m3. The
maximum flux density is 0.9T and the frequency is 50Hz. Calculate
the hysteresis loss under these conditions. If the maximum flux density
was increased to 1.1Wb/m2 and the frequency reduced to 40Hz what
will be the new loss. Take the Steinmetz coefficient to be 1120 Kg/m3
and assume the hysteresis loss over the range to be proportional to

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WORKED EXAMPLES WORKED EXAMPLES

EXAMPLE 1.9
• The area of the hysteresis loop obtained with a certain specimen of
iron was 9.3cm2. the coordinate scales were 1cm = 1000AT/m and
1cm = 0.2 Wb/m2. Calculate (a) The hysteresis loss per m3 if the test
was done at a frequency of 50Hz and a maximum flux density of
1.5Wb/m2 (b) the hysteresis loss per m3 for f =30Hz and max flux
density of 1.2Wb/m2. Assuming the loss to be proportional to

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WORKED EXAMPLES WORKED EXAMPLES

SOLUTION:
• The cast iron can be represented in the following figure: L1=9.95cm =
.0995m, L2 =L3= 10cm =0.1m and Lg = 0.5mm = 0.0005m.

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WORKED EXAMPLES WORKED EXAMPLES

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WORKED EXAMPLES
The corresponding values of the field strength from the graph are:

H1 (corresponding to B1 =0.5T) = 2,000AT/m •EXERCISE I

H2 (corresponding to B2 =0.11T) = 333AT/m

H3 (corresponding to B3 =0.06T) = 167AT/m

EXERCISE I
The field strength of the air gap is given by = 3.98 x 105AT/m.

The total mmf in the ring is given by:

= 2000 x 0.0995 + 333 x 0.1 + 167 x 0.1 + 3.98 x 105 x 0.0005 = 447.94AT
EXERCISE I
And therefore the current is given by; = 0.44795 0.45A
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