Geography

UK - The UK is short for The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. refers to the
political union between England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland. The UK is a sovereign state, but
the nations that make it up are also countries in their own right.
From 1801 to 1922 the UK also included all of Ireland.
The Channel Islands and Isle of Man are not part of the UK, but are Crown Dependencies
Britain – political term, one of the oldest known names for Great Britain. refer to the whole of England,
Scotland and Wales, including their smaller offshore islands.Britain only refers to England and Wales.
Britain is the official name given to the kingdom of England and the principality of Wales. The name was
made popular by the Romans when they came to the British islands. Britain is part of an island lying off
the western coast of Europe, comprising the main territory of the United Kingdom.
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland - is purely a political term: it’s the
independent country that encompasses all of Great Britain and the region now called Northern Ireland.
Great Britain - is a geographic term referring to the island in the North Atlantic Ocean off the northwest
coast of continental Europe. also known simply as Britain. It’s also a political term for the part of the
United Kingdom made up of England, Scotland, and Wales (including the outlying islands that they
administer, such as the Isle of Wight).
England - England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Wales to
its west and Scotland to its north. The Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea to the
southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east and the English
Channel to the south. England used to be known as Engla land, meaning the land of the Angles, people
from continental Germany, who began to invade Britain in the late 5th century, along with the Saxons and
Jute.
Wales - is a mountainous country on the western side of Great Britain. Wales is bordered by England to
the east, the Bristol Channel to the south, St George's Channel in the west, and the Irish Sea to the north.
Wales is one of the four parts of the United Kingdom (along with England, Scotland, and Northern
Ireland). Wales has not been politically independent since 1282, when it was conquered by King Edward
I of England.
Until 1999, Wales was ruled directly from London; that year saw the first elections to the National
Assembly of Wales, which has limited domestic powers and cannot make law.
Wales does not issue its own currency and is not in control of any armed forces. These are the powers of
the national government of the UK.
The national game of Wales is Rugby
Scotland - is a mountainous country in the north of the island of Great Britain and shares a land border to
the south with England and is bounded by the North Sea on the east and the Atlantic Ocean on the west.
Its capital city is Edinburgh. Famous fpr Its fresh water lochs (lakes) – there are over 600 square miles of
them. One of the most famous is Loch Ness where a mysterious monster is said to lurk in the depths of
the water.
Northern Ireland - Northern Ireland is a part of the United Kingdom that is variously described as a
country, province, territory or region. Located in the northeast of the island of Ireland, Northern Ireland
shares a border to the south and west with the Republic of Ireland. In 1801 the whole of Ireland became
part of the United Kingdom, with the adoption of the name the United Kingdom of Great Britain and
Ireland.
After years of civil war, Ireland became a republic in 1921. At this time, Britain negotiated with Ireland
to keep the six counties in the north-east of Ireland. These six counties now make up what is known as
Northern Ireland. The southern part of the island is the Republic of Ireland, or Eire. 1927 - The current
name of the UK, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, was adopted
Home counties - are the counties of England that surround London. The counties are not precisely
defined but Buckinghamshire and Surrey are usually included in definitions and Berkshire, Essex,
Hertfordshire and Kent are also often included. Other counties further from London — such as
Bedfordshire, Cambridgeshire, Hampshire and Oxfordshire and Sussex — are not normally regarded as
home counties, although on occasion may be thought of as such due to their proximity to London and
their connection to the London regional economy.
Midlands - The Midlands is a part of England and a cultural area that broadly corresponds to the
Kingdom of Mercia of the Early Middle Ages. The Midlands region is bordered by Northern England and
Southern England. The Midlands were important in the Industrial Revolution of the 18th and 19th
centuries. Two of the nine official regions of England are the West Midlands and East Midlands.
Birmingham, in the West Midlands, is the second-largest city and metropolitan area in the United
Kingdom.
Yorkshire – Yorkshire, formally known as the County of York, is a historic county of Northern England
and the largest in the United Kingdom. Because of its great size in comparison with other English
counties, functions have been undertaken over time by its subdivisions, which have also been subject to
periodic reform. Throughout these changes, Yorkshire has continued to be recognised as a geographic
territory and cultural region. The name is familiar and well understood across the United Kingdom and is
in common use in the media and the military, and also features in the titles of current areas of civil
administration such as North Yorkshire, South Yorkshire, West Yorkshire and the East Riding of
Yorkshire.
Within the borders of the historic county of Yorkshire are large stretches of unspoiled countryside,
particularly within the Yorkshire Dales, North York Moors and Peak District national parks. Yorkshire
has been nicknamed "God's Own Country".
Lake District - The Lake District, also known as the Lakes or Lakeland, is a mountainous region in
North West England. A popular holiday destination, it is famous for its lakes, forests and mountains (or
fells), and its associations with William Wordsworth and other Lake Poets and also with Beatrix Potter
and John Ruskin. The Lake District National Park was established in 1951 and covers an area of 2,362
square kilometres (912 sq mi). It was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2017.
The Highlands - The Scottish Highlands are a mountainous region encompassing northwest Scotland.
Loch Ness is at the centre, overlooked by the ruins of medieval Urquhart Castle and known for mythical
monster “Nessie”. Northeast, near the city of Inverness, dolphins swim in the Moray Firth. Southwest, in
the Western Highlands, trails wind up Ben Nevis, the U.K.’s highest peak, and red deer roam Glencoe
valley with its waterfalls.
Snowdonia - is a region in northwest Wales concentrated around the mountains and glacial landforms of
massive Snowdonia National Park. The park's historic Snowdon Mountain Railway climbs to the summit
of Wales's highest mountain, Mount Snowdon, offering views across the sea to Ireland. The park is also
home to an extensive network of trails, over 100 lakes and craggy peaks like Cader Idris and Tryfan.
The Cambrian Mountains - are a series of mountain ranges in Wales. The term Cambrian Mountains
used to apply to most of the upland of Wales. The wider, more historic, use of the term also includes
Snowdonia in North Wales, and the Brecon Beacons and Black Mountains in South Wales. They range in
height up to 3,559 feet (1,085 m) in Snowdonia.
The Pennines - The Pennines, also known as the Pennine Chain or Pennine Hills, are a more-or-less
continuous range of hills and mountains running between three regions of Northern England: North West
England on the west, and North East England and Yorkshire and the Humber on the east.
The Severn - The River Severn at 220 miles (354 km) long, is the longest river in Great Britain. It is also
the river with the most voluminous flow of water by far in all of England and Wales, with an average
flow rate of 107 m3/s (3,800 cu ft/s) at Apperley, Gloucestershire. It rises in the Cambrian Mountains in
mid Wales, at an altitude of 2,001 feet (610 m), on the Plynlimon massif, which lies close to the
Ceredigion/Powys border near Llanidloes. The river then flows through Shropshire, Worcestershire and
Gloucestershire. The county towns of Shrewsbury, Gloucester and the City of Worcester lie on its course.
The Severn Bridge (Welsh: Pont Hafren) is a motorway suspension bridge that spans the River Severn
between South Gloucestershire in England and Monmouthshire in South East Wales. It is the original
Severn road crossing between England and Wales, and took three and a half years to build, at a cost of £8
million. It replaced the 137-year-old Aust Ferry.
The Thames - The River Thames, known alternatively in parts as the River Isis, is a river that flows
through southern England including London. At 215 miles, it is the longest river entirely in England and
the second-longest in the United Kingdom, after the River Severn.
The Clyde - River Clyde is a river that flows into the Firth of Clyde in Scotland. It is the ninth-longest
river in the United Kingdom, and the third-longest in Scotland. It runs through the major city of Glasgow.
Historically, it was important to the British Empire because of its role in shipbuilding and trade.

History:
Early settlers and invaders (Celts, Romans, Anglo-Saxons, Vikings):
1) Celts - 1) The first one took place in 400 BC when Celts armed with iron weapons conquered Kent and
much of Southern England. They spread north and imposed their language on the natives. Celts were
ancient people who lived in Central and Western Europe and moved to the British Isles during the Iron
Age. They were of striking appearance, tall with fair skin, blue eyes and blond hair. Their everyday dress
consisted of a tunic over which they wore a cloak fastened by a brooch.

Their language had two forms: Gaelic, spoken in Ireland and Scotland and Brythonic, spoken in England
and Wales. Nowadays only 3 of all the Celtic languages have survived: Welsh, which is the official
language of Wales; Irish Gaelic, it’s the first official language of the Republic of Ireland and Scots Gaelic
which is still spoken in the hills and islands of the West of Scotland but which has no official status.
2) 2) The Roman Invasion.
In the middle of the first century BC Julius Caesar landed the British Isles. On the 26th of August, 55 BC
some 10.000 men and 500 cavalry landed somewhere between Dover and Deal. The highly efficient
Roman army had little difficulty in routing the local Celtic chieftains. Caesar carefully noted the way they
fought and determined to return the following year. On the 6th of July 54 BC an ever larger army landed in
the same area.
Roman soldiers looked very differently from the Celts they defeated. They wore metal helmets and plate
armour and carried shields of wood and leather with a sword. Their life was one of discipline and drills
twice a day.
The Roman legions occupied England and Wales.
3) 3) The Anglo-Saxon Invasion.
The beginning of the Anglo-Saxon invasion was in the 5th century BC when the Teutonic tribes started
enslaving England. Their names were the Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes. At that time Celtic countries
were a centre of light, especially Ireland where its monks and saints, when not fighting, were involved in
treasuring the knowledge of Latin literature and lovingly illuminating the manuscripts of the Gospel. The
Angles and the Saxons advanced from east to west along the Roman roads, slaughtering and enslaving the
Britons, sacking and burning Roman towns and villas. They destroyed almost every trace of the civilization
of the Romans and established their kingdoms.

By the middle of the 7th century all England was converted to Christianity and it was Arthur, the half
legendary King who was the British champion of Christianity against the heathen barbaric English.
 4) 4) The Viking Invasion.

The Vikings terrified the Anglo-Saxons as much as they themselves had terrified the Britons
centuries before. They were people from Scandinavia whose life was working the land and
fishing and who went on to attack and later settle in Britain. Each year bands of Vikings put out
to sea , seeking out richer lands, bringing home gold, silver and jewels. Their leaders, kings or
“jarls” began to divide and in the main it was Norwegians who settled in Scotland while in
England it was the Danes. At first they put in puppet Anglo-Saxon kings but gradually they began
to replace them with kings of their own.
The Norman Invasion - The Norman Conquest was the 11th-century invasion and occupation of
England by an army made up of thousands of Normans, Bretons, Flemish, and men from other French
provinces, all led by the Duke of Normandy, later styled William the Conqueror. 1066
Englandwas submitted to a Danish King Conute in 1016 and became a part of the Great Danish Empire
which included Denmark and Norway. After the Danish invasion King Edward I (the Confessor) was
restored to the throne. Previously he was brought up to Normandy during the years of Danish rule and
came to England with Norman friends and clergy.
Monkish in his ideas, his main interest was the church and it was he who founded the Westminster
Abbey. During his reign there was a certain opposition to the Norman rule and Edward’s brother-in-law
named Harold, the Earl of Wessex, became the leader of anti - Norman party. So Harold II was the last
Anglo – Saxon king before the Norman Conquest of England and it was he who headed the battle of
Hastings in 1066, which dec
ided the history of England and marked the beginning of the Norman invasion.
William the Conqueror - William I, usually known as William the Conqueror and sometimes William
the Bastard, was the first Norman monarch of England, reigning from 1066 until his death in 1087.
Before he became the king of England, William I was one of the mightiest nobles in France as the duke of
Normandy, but he is best remembered for leading the Norman Conquest of England in 1066, which
changed the course of English history and earned him the sobriquet William the Conqueror.
1066 - On 14 October 1066 Duke William of Normandy defeated King Harold II at the Battle of
Hastings. It remains one of the most famous events in English history. The Norman victory had a lasting
political impact on England and coincided with cultural changes across Europe. This British Museum
exhibition tells the story of the Norman Conquest through objects in UK museums.
The Hundred Years War - a war between France and England that lasted, with long periods between
battles, from the 1340s to the 1450s. The English were trying to get control of France, and won some
major battles, including Crécy (1346) and Agincourt (1415), but by the end of the war they had only
gained the area around Calais, which they kept until 1558.
The War of the Roses - the name now used for the period of fighting (1455-85) in England between the
supporters of the two most powerful families in the country at the time, the House of Lancaster, whose
symbol was a red rose, and the House of York, whose symbol was a white rose. The aim of each side was
to make a member of their family the king of England. Each side was successful at different times and the
wars only ended when Henry Tudor (House of Lancaster) defeated Richard III (House of York) and
became King Henry VII. His marriage to Elizabeth of York united the two sides and ended the fighting.
The Tudors - The Tudors were a Welsh-English family that ruled England and Wales from 1485 to 1603,
starting with the first monarch King Henry VII (1457–1509). The Tudors ruled for 118 years and Tudor
England saw two of the strongest monarchs ever to sit on the English throne: King Henry VIII and his
daughter Queen Elizabeth I. The Tudor family rose to power in the wake of the Wars of the Roses.
The Civil War and the Commonwealth in the 17th century - The English Civil War (1642–1651) was
a series of civil wars and political machinations between Parliamentarians ("Roundheads") and Royalists
("Cavaliers"), mainly over the manner of England's governance and issues of religious freedom.[2] It was
part of the wider Wars of the Three Kingdoms. The first (1642–1646) and second (1648–1649) wars
pitted the supporters of King Charles I against the supporters of the Long Parliament, while the third
(1649–1651) saw fighting between supporters of King Charles II and supporters of the Rump Parliament.
The wars also involved the Scottish Covenanters and Irish Confederates. The war ended with
Parliamentarian victory at the Battle of Worcester on 3 September 1651.
How did the English Civil war lead to the rise of the Commonwealth? Two years after the English Civil
war ended, King Charles I was beheaded. This event left England without a monarch, which led to the
rise of the Commonwealth. The Commonwealth was the political structure during the period from 1649 to
1660 when England and Wales, later along with Ireland and Scotland, were governed as a republic after
the end of the Second English Civil War and the trial and execution of Charles I.
British Empire - The British Empire was composed of the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates,
and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom and its predecessor states. It began
with the overseas possessions and trading posts established by England between the late 16th and early
18th centuries. At its height it was the largest empire in history and, for over a century, was the foremost
global power. As the British Empire began to fall, it was replaced by what is today called The
Commonwealth (or The Commonwealth of Nations) – an organisation that countries can choose to join,
or leave. It began in 1931, when the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa formed
the British Commonwealth of Nations.
Commonwealth of Nations - The Commonwealth of Nations, generally known simply as the
Commonwealth, is a political association of 54 member states, almost all of which are former territories
of the British Empire. The Commonwealth dates back to the first half of the 20th century with the
decolonisation of the British Empire through increased self-governance of its territories.Founded:
December 11, 1931
voting rights in the 20th century - there were several voting systems, have they same institution
(different functions), general elections were different
2. mouvement in 20 century, suffrage movement
3. women could vote, but only in local elections. not all men could vote in global, they had to clarify -
Household (property), 60% could vote, literate.
women we given to vote in 1918, women over 30 with property qualification. ten years later they were
equal to men, could vote over 21
4. plular voting - extra vote, 7 votes maximum, place of residence (if you lived in two different), place of
business was separated from your place of living, unvercity graduates

Political Structure:
constitutional monarchy - A constitutional monarchy, parliamentary monarchy, or democratic monarchy
is a form of monarchy in which the monarch exercises his authority in accordance with a constitution and
is not alone in deciding. Constitutional monarchies differ from absolute monarchies (in which a monarch
whether limited by a constitution or not is the only one to decide) in that they are bound to exercise
powers and authorities within limits prescribed by an established legal framework. A constitutional
monarchy is a form of government in which a monarch—typically a king or queen—acts as the head of
state within the parameters of a written or unwritten constitution
unitary state with the devolution of power - A unitary state refers to a country that has one supreme
authority which rules over all other delegations.
A unitary state is a state governed as a single entity in which the central government is ultimately
supreme. The central government may create (or abolish) administrative divisions (sub-national units).
Such units exercise only the powers that the central government chooses to delegate. Although political
power may be delegated through devolution to regional or local governments by statute, the central
government may abrogate the acts of devolved governments or curtail (or expand) their powers.
In the United Kingdom, devolution is the Parliament of the United Kingdom's statutory granting of a
greater level of self-government to the Scottish Parliament, the Senedd (Welsh Parliament), the Northern
Ireland Assembly and the London Assembly and to their associated executive bodies the Scottish
Government, the Welsh Government, the Northern Ireland Executive and in England, the Greater London
Authority and combined authorities.
House of Commons - The House of Commons is the lower house and primary chamber of the Parliament
of the United Kingdom. The role of the House of Commons is to approve new laws and taxes, hold the
Government to account, and debate the issues of the day.
The origins of the House of Commons date from the second half of the 13th century, when landholders
and other property owners in the counties and towns began sending representatives to Parliament to
present grievances and petitions to the king and to accept commitments to the payment of taxes.
House of Lords - The House of Lords is the second chamber of UK Parliament. The Lords shares the
task of making and shaping laws and checking and challenging the work of the government.
In the past was formed of hereditary peers (aristocrtats), life peers, bishops and senior judges
MP - Member of Parliament (MP) is an individual elected to serve in the House of Commons of the
Parliament of the United Kingdom. Theoretically, contemporary MPs are considered to have two duties,
or three if they belong to a political party. Their primary responsibility is to act in the national interest.
They must also act in the interests of their constituents where this does not override their primary
responsibility. Finally, if they belong to a political party, they may act in the interests of that party,
subordinate to the other two responsibilities
PM - The Prime Minister is the leader of the Government. He or she is the leader of the party that wins
the most seats at a general election. Boris Johnson. the modern prime minister leads the Cabinet (the
Executive). In addition, the prime minister leads a major political party and generally commands a
majority in the House of Commons (the lower chamber of Parliament).
UK government - The Government is usually formed by the party that gains the most seats in the House
of Commons at a general election. It is headed by the Prime Minister who appoints government ministers.
Cabinet - is a body of high-ranking state officials, typically consisting of the executive branch's top
leaders. Members of a cabinet are usually called cabinet ministers or secretaries.
directing government policy and making decisions about national issues
spending a lot of time discussing current national problems and how these can be solved
presenting bills—proposed laws—from their government departments.
Civil Service - is a collective term for a sector of government composed mainly of career civil servants
hired on professional merit rather than appointed or elected, whose institutional tenure typically survives
transitions of political leadership.
The civil service has three main functions: It advises the Government on the implementation of policy
and is responsible for implementing agreed policy. It helps prepare and draft new legislation and. It helps
the Government to run the country according to the legislation passed by the Oireachtas.
Conservative Party - The Conservative Party, officially the Conservative and Unionist Party, and also
known colloquially as the Tories, Tory Party, or simply the Conservatives, is a political party in the
United Kingdom. The Conservatives sit on the centre-right of the political spectrum. The Conservatives
won 365 seats at the 2019 general election and had a majority, forming the first majority government
since 2015–17.
Labour Party - is a political party in the United Kingdom that has been described as an alliance of social
democrats, democratic socialists and trade unionists. The Labour Party sits on the centre-left of the
political spectrum. In all general elections since 1922, Labour has been either the governing party or the
Official Opposition. There have been six Labour prime ministers and thirteen Labour ministries. The
party was founded in 1900
SNP - The Scottish National Party is a Scottish nationalist and social democratic political party in
Scotland. The SNP supports and campaigns for Scottish independence from the United Kingdom and for
membership of the European Union, with a platform based on civic nationalism.
Westminster Palace - The Palace of Westminster serves as the meeting place for both the House of
Commons and the House of Lords, the two houses of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Informally
known as the Houses of Parliament after its occupants, the Palace lies on the north bank of the River
Thames in the City of Westminster, in central London, England.
Its name, which derives from the neighbouring Westminster Abbey, may refer to several historic
structures but most often: the Old Palace, a medieval building-complex largely destroyed by fire in 1834,
or its replacement, the New Palace that stands today.
N 10 Downing Street - is a 200-metre (660 ft) long street in the City of Westminster that houses the
official residences and offices of the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom and the Chancellor of the
Exchequer. Situated off Whitehall, a few minutes' walk from the Houses of Parliament, Downing Street
was built in the 1680s by Irishman Sir George Downing.
For more than three hundred years, it has held the official residences of both the First Lord of the
Treasury, the office now synonymous with that of the Prime Minister, and the Second Lord of the
Treasury, the office held by the Chancellor of the Exchequer..
Whitehall - is the name of a street in in the City of Westminster, Central London in which there are many
government offices. The street runs between Charing Cross and the Houses of Parliament. The street is
recognised as the centre of the Government of the United Kingdom and is lined with numerous
departments and ministries, including the Ministry of Defence, Horse Guards and the Cabinet Office.
Consequently, the name 'Whitehall' is used as a metonym for the British civil service and government,
and as the geographic name for the surrounding area.
Brexit - Brexit is an abbreviation of two English words: 'Britain' and 'exit' and refers to the withdrawal
process of the United Kingdom (UK) from the European Union (EU). January 31, 2020
Referendum on Scottish Independence - was an independence referendum held on 18 September 2014
concerning Scottish independence from the United Kingdom. The referendum question was, "Should
Scotland be an independent country?", which voters answered with "Yes" or "No"
with 55% voting against the proposal for Scotland to become an independent country and 45% voting in
favour.

Education:
key stages - A key stage is a stage of the state education system in England, Wales, Northern Ireland and
the British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar setting the educational knowledge expected of students at
various ages. the sets of skills and knowledge a student is aiming to develop at a certain stage in their
education. Early Years Foundation Stage (EYFS) – ages 3-5 (Nursery and Reception)
Key Stage 1 – ages 5-7 (Years 1-2)
Key Stage 2 – ages 7-11 (Years 3-6)
Key Stage 3 – ages 11-14 (Years 7-9)
Key Stage 4 – ages 14-16 (Years 10-11)
There are three stages of education: primary, or elementary, education, secondary education and higher
education.
attainment targets - a general defined level of ability that a pupil is expected to achieve in every subject
at each key stage. Targets which specify the knowledge, understanding and skills related to specific
subjects or disciplines that learners are expected to have acquired by the end of a programme or
educational level and to be assessed against a predetermined set of criteria.
primary schools - 5-11 years old
Foundation Stage - Nursery, Reception, (Infants)
Key Stage 1 - Years 1 and 2 (Infants)
Key Stage 2 -Years 3 - 6 (Juniors)
Formally towards the end of their fourth year the pupils wrote their Eleven Plus Examination. The hated
11+ exam was a selective procedure on which not only the pupils’ future schooling but their future
careers depended. The abolition of selection at Eleven Plus Examination brought to life comprehensive
schools where pupils can get secondary education.
types of secondary schools (academies, maintained schools) – Academies receive their funding
directly from the government, rather than through local authorities like other state funded schools.
Academies are schools that are state funded and free to students but they have much more independence
than most other schools including the power to direct their own curriculum. (This can include the
introduction of faith-based topics, or a change to the school hours for example)
There are two types: converter academies (those deemed to be performing well that have converted to
academy status) and sponsored academies (mostly underperforming schools changing to academy status
and run by sponsors).
State-funded schools (including primary, secondary and special schools for pupils with special
educational needs) fall into two main groups:
Maintained schools—where funding and oversight is through the local authority. These are the majority
of schools and are mostly either community schools (where the local authority employs the school’s staff
and is responsible for admissions) or foundation schools, where the school employs the staff and has
responsibility for admissions.
Academies—where funding and oversight is from the Department for Education (DfE) via the Education
and Skills Funding Agency. They are run by an academy trust which employs the staff.

A comprehensive school is the name for a school which anyone can go to -

regardless of how well they do in exams - and where everybody is taught together. They
are usually run by the local education authority - a part of the local council in that area.
A selective school is a school that admits students on the basis of some sort of selection criteria. the
opposite of a comprehensive school, which accepts all students, regardless of aptitude.

independent schools - An independent school is independent in its finances and governance. Also
known as private schools, non-governmental, privately funded, or non-state schools,[1] they are not
administered by local, state or national governments. In British English, an independent school usually
refers to a school which is endowed, i.e. held by a trust, charity, or foundation, whilst a private school is
one which is privately owned. Children who attend such schools may be there because they (or their
parents) are dissatisfied with government-funded schools (in UK state schools) in their area. They may be
selected for their academic prowess, prowess in other fields, or sometimes their religious background.
public schools - A public school in England and Wales (but not Scotland) is a fee-charging endowed
school originally for older boys that was "public" in the sense of being open to pupils irrespective of
locality, denomination or paternal trade or profession. Public schools have had a strong association with
the ruling classes.[6] Historically, the sons of officers and senior administrators of the British Empire
were educated in English public schools whilst their fathers were on imperial postings.
GCSE - The General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) is an academic qualification in a
particular subject, taken in England, Wales,[1] and Northern Ireland. State schools in Scotland use the
Scottish Qualifications Certificate instead. Private schools in Scotland may choose to use an alternative
qualification.
Each GCSE qualification is offered in a specific school subject (e.g. Mathematics, Science, History,
Geography, Art, Design and Technology, etc). The UK government has drawn up a list of preferred
subjects known as the English Baccalaureate and the Progress 8 benchmark metric is calculated on the
results in eight GCSEs including English, Maths and Science.[2]
Studies for GCSE examinations take place over a period of two or three academic years (depending upon
the subject, school, and exam board), starting in Year 9 or Year 10 for the majority of students, with
examinations being sat at the end of Year 11 in England and Wales.[a]
sixth-form - In the education systems of England, Northern Ireland, Wales, Jamaica and some other
Commonwealth countries, sixth form represents the 2 years of post-GCSE academic education, where
students start the first academic year in the sixth form (1st September) age 16 and finish age 17 (at the
end of the academic year, 31 August) and start the second academic year in the sixth form age 17 and
finish age 18. During the two years they prepare for their A-level (or equivalent) examinations. In
England, Wales, and Northern Ireland, the term Key Stage 5 has the same meaning. It only refers to post-
16 academic education and not to vocational education.
A-levels - The A Level (Advanced Level) is a subject-based qualification conferred as part of the General
Certificate of Education, as well as a school leaving qualification offered by the educational bodies in the
United Kingdom and the educational authorities of British Crown dependencies to students completing
secondary or pre-university education. They were introduced in England and Wales in 1951 to replace the
Higher School Certificate. A Levels are typically worked towards over two years. Normally, students take
three or four A Level courses in their first year of sixth form, and most taking four cut back to three in
their second year. This is because university offers are normally based on three A Level grades, and
taking a fourth can have an impact on grades. Unlike other level-3 qualifications, such as the International
Baccalaureate, A Levels have no specific subject requirements, so students have the opportunity to
combine any subjects they wish to take. However, students normally pick their courses based on the
degree they wish to pursue at university: most degrees require specific A Levels for entry.[10]
university entrance

Oxbridge - Oxbridge is a portmanteau of

Oxford and Cambridge, the two oldest, wealthiest, and most famous universities in the United Kingdom.
The term is used to refer to them collectively, in contrast to other British universities, and more broadly to
describe characteristics reminiscent of them, often with implications of superior social or intellectual
status or elitism. They are the two oldest universities in continuous operation in the UK. Each has a
similar collegiate structure.
redbrick universities - an informal term denoting a group of six prestigious universities in England
located in large industrial cities. All these universities were originally founded as colleges of applied or
engineering disciplines, but received university status before the outbreak of the First World War.
Initially, the term had some negative connotation, since these universities were relatively young, but at
the same time rapidly developing, and therefore were considered as "upstarts" compared to "old
universities", however, as "universities made of sheet glass" appeared in the 1960s, and after 1992 - a
large number of "new universities", the term turned from a disparaging into a symbol of high
respectability. With the increase in the number of universities in the 1950s and 1960s, and especially with
the reclassification of polytechnic disciplines in the Further and Higher Education Act 1992, all British
universities founded in the late 19th and early 20th centuries in large cities are now sometimes referred to
as red brick.
new university - A post-1992 university, synonymous with new university or modern university, is a
former polytechnic or central institution in the United Kingdom that was given university status through
the Further and Higher Education Act 1992, or an institution that has been granted university status since
1992 without receiving a royal charter. This is used in contrast to "pre-1992" universities.
Prior to its use in its current sense, the term "new universities" had been used historically to refer to
universities that were at the time new. For instance, in the mid-19th century, the term "new universities"
was used in England to distinguish the recently established universities of Durham and London from the
"old universities" of Oxford and Cambridge.[3][4] In the early 20th century, the term was used to
describe the civic universities that had recently gained university status, such as Bristol and others (now
known as red brick universities).[5] The term was later used to refer to universities gaining their status in
the 1960s, such as the former colleges of advanced technology, which were converted to universities
following the 1963 Robbins Report on higher education, and the plate glass universities, which were
already in the process of being established at the time of the report.

Social and Cultural Aspects:

NHS - The National Health Service (NHS) is the umbrella term for the publicly funded healthcare
systems of the United Kingdom (UK). Since 1948, they have been funded out of general taxation. There
are three systems which are referred to using the "NHS" name (the NHS in England, NHS Scotland and
NHS Wales). Health and Social Care in Northern Ireland was created separately and is often locally
referred to as "the NHS". The four systems were established in 1948 as part of major social reforms
following the Second World War. The founding principles were that services should be comprehensive,
universal and free at the point of delivery—a health service based on clinical need, not ability to pay.
Each service provides a comprehensive range of health services, free at the point of use for people
ordinarily resident in the United Kingdom apart from dental treatment and optical care. In England, NHS
patients have to pay prescription charges; some, such as those aged over 60 and certain state benefit
recipients, are exempt.
Old age Pensions - The Old-Age Pensions Act 1908 is an Act of Parliament of the United Kingdom of
Great Britain and Ireland, passed in 1908. The Act is often regarded as one of the foundations of modern
social welfare in both the present-day United Kingdom and the Irish Republic and forms part of the wider
social welfare reforms of the Liberal Government of 1906–1914.
Successful single claimants over the age of seventy were paid five shillings a week, while couples in
which the husband was aged over seventy got seven shillings and sixpence per week.
Quality newspapers - The quality press or the qualities are those British newspapers in national
circulation distinguished by their seriousness. The category used to be called "broadsheet" until several
papers adopted a tabloid printing format. Both The Times and The Independent adopted a tabloid format
in 2004. The Guardian adopted a Berliner format in 2005, before switching to tabloid in January 2018.
Circulation figures for the quality press have been falling in recent times, and in December 2009 it was
reported that readership of The Guardian, The Independent, The Times, and Financial Times had
decreased over the previous 12 months. The Times The Sunday Times The Guardian The Observer
Popular (tabloid) press - A tabloid is a newspaper with a compact page size smaller than broadsheet.
There is no standard size for this newspaper format. As it stands, the only remaining broadsheet-size
newspapers to be published nationwide in Britain are The Daily Telegraph, The Financial Times and The
Sunday Times.
The BBC - The British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) is the national broadcaster of the United
Kingdom. BBC World Service television, radio and online on more than 40 languages. It is a large
network of websites including such high-profile sites as BBC News and Sport, the on-demand video and
radio services co-branded BBC iPlayer, the children's sites CBBC and CBeebies, and learning services
such as Bitesize. Headquartered at Broadcasting House in London, it is the world's oldest national
broadcaster, and the largest broadcaster in the world by number of employees, employing over 22,000
staff in total, of whom approximately 19,000 are in public-sector broadcasting.
The BBC is established under a royal charter and operates under its agreement with the secretary of state
for digital, culture, media and sport.

Cultural Institutions
The Arts Council - Arts Council England is a non-departmental public body of the Department for
Digital, Culture, Media and Sport. It was formed in 1994 when the Arts Council of Great Britain was
divided into three separate bodies for England, Scotland and Wales. The arts funding system in England
underwent considerable reorganisation in 2002 when all of the regional arts boards were subsumed into
Arts Council England and became regional offices of the national organisation.
Arts Council England is a government-funded body dedicated to promoting the performing, visual and
literary arts in England. Since 1994, Arts Council England has been responsible for distributing lottery
funding. This investment has helped to transform the building stock of arts organisations and to create
much additional high-quality arts activity.
The National Trust - The National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty, commonly
known as the National Trust, is a charity and membership organisation for heritage conservation in
England, Wales and Northern Ireland. In Scotland, there is a separate and independent National Trust for
Scotland.
The Trust was founded in 1895 by Octavia Hill, Sir Robert Hunter and Hardwicke Rawnsley to "promote
the permanent preservation for the benefit of the Nation of lands and tenements (including buildings) of
beauty or historic interest". It was given statutory powers, starting with the National Trust Act 1907.
Historically, the Trust acquired land by gift and sometimes by public subscription and appeal, but after
World War II the loss of country houses resulted in many such properties being acquired either by gift
from the former owners, or through the National Land Fund. Country houses and estates still make up a
significant part of its holdings, but it is also known for its protection of wild landscapes such as in the
Lake District and Peak District. As well as the great estates of titled families, it has acquired smaller
houses including some whose significance is not architectural but through their association with famous
people, for example the childhood homes of Paul McCartney and John Lennon.
The British Museum - The British Museum is a public institution dedicated to human history, art and
culture located in the Bloomsbury area of London, England. Its permanent collection of eight million
works is among the largest and most comprehensive in existence, having been widely collected during the
era of the British Empire.
It documents the story of human culture from its beginnings to the present. It was the first public national
museum in the world. The Museum was established in 1753, largely based on the collections of the
Anglo-Irish physician and scientist Sir Hans Sloane.[5] It first opened to the public in 1759, in Montagu
House, on the site of the current building. The museum's expansion over the following 250 years was
largely a result of British colonisation and has resulted in the creation of several branch institutions, the
first being the Natural History Museum in 1881.
The National Gallery - The National Gallery is an art museum in Trafalgar Square in the City of
Westminster, in Central London. Founded in 1824, it houses a collection of over 2,300 paintings dating
from the mid-13th century to 1900.
The Gallery is an exempt charity, and a non-departmental public body of the Department for Digital,
Culture, Media and Sport. Its collection belongs to the government on behalf of the British public, and
entry to the main collection is free of charge. Unlike comparable museums in continental Europe, the
National Gallery was not formed by nationalising an existing royal or princely art collection. It came into
being when the British government bought 38 paintings from the heirs of John Julius Angerstein in 1824.
After that initial purchase, the Gallery was shaped mainly by its early directors, especially Charles Lock
Eastlake, and by private donations, which now account for two-thirds of the collection.
Royal Opera House - The Royal Opera House (ROH) is an opera house and major performing arts venue
in Covent Garden, central London. The large building is often referred to as simply Covent Garden, after
a previous use of the site. It is the home of The Royal Opera, The Royal Ballet, and the Orchestra of the
Royal Opera House. The first theatre on the site, the Theatre Royal (1732), served primarily as a
playhouse for the first hundred years of its history. In 1734, the first ballet was presented. A year later, the
first season of operas, by George Frideric Handel, began. Many of his operas and oratorios were
specifically written for Covent Garden and had their premieres there.
The National Theatre - The Royal National Theatre in London, commonly known as the National
Theatre, is one of the United Kingdom's three most prominent publicly funded performing arts venues,
alongside the Royal Shakespeare Company and the Royal Opera House. Internationally, it is known as
the National Theatre of Great Britain. Founded by Laurence Olivier in 1963, many well-known actors
have performed at the National Theatre. Until 1976, the company was based at The Old Vic theatre in
Waterloo. The current building is located next to the Thames in the South Bank area of central London. In
addition to performances at the National Theatre building, the National Theatre tours productions at
theatres across the United Kingdom. The theatre also took productions to European cities, though this was
suspended in February 2021 over concerns about uncertainty over work permits, additional costs and
delays because of Brexit. Permission to add the "Royal" prefix to the name of the theatre was given in
1988, but the full title is rarely used. The theatre presents a varied programme, including Shakespeare,
other international classic drama, and new plays by contemporary playwrights. Each auditorium in the
theatre can run up to three shows in repertoire, thus further widening the number of plays which can be
put on during any one season.