CHAPTER 17

Tides and Tidal Streams

TIDES
The periodic rises and
falls of the level of the sea constitute what are
tides. The rise or fall
does not occur simultaneously over the surface of
known as
Ocean or sea, but an
appears to radiate outwards from some central area in that
Ocean or sea, as does the
ripple caused by a stone thrown into a
periodic rises and falls of tides are fairly regular, and therefore thepond. The
the tide at any height of
particular time and place can be predicted with a reasonable
degree of accuracy.

Causes of tides
The Earth and Moon rotate about a common centre of
gravity in a state or
equilibrium: in other words, the speed is always exactly sufficient to maintain
the Moon in its orbit round the Earth and to counteract the gravitational forcess
drawing the two masses together.
The gravitationaB forces act on the Earth as a whole, on the waters on or near
the Earth's surface, and on the atmosphere. Since the gravitational force varies
with the square of the distance, there will be a greater force acting upon the
waters that are closer to the Moon than upon the Earth, and also a greater force
acting upon the Earth than upon the waters that are further from the Moon.
Therefore there will be a raising of the water immediately under the Moon and
a similar 'raising' on the other side of the Earth, where the waters tend to be
left behind. A similar, but smaller, tide-raising force is produced by the rotation
of the Earth round the Sun.
But for the effects of the shape and depth of the oceans, the position of islands
therein and the shape of the land masses, the rise and fall of the tides would
closely follow the movement of the Moon round the Earth, varied to
some

extent in accordance with the positions of the Moon, Earth and Sun in relation
to each other. In fact, the manner in which the tides rise and fall in different
seas and oceans varies considerably; the period of oscillation of the tide in one
area differs from that in
another and varies from about 6 to 24 hours. An
düurnal (or daily) tide, would result in one
oscillation of about 24 hours, called a
day; one of about 12 hours, called a semi-diurnal
high water and one low water a

(or half-daily) tide, would result in two high waters and two low waters a day;
while a 6-hour period would result in four high and four low waters a day.
one complete cycle of one high
water and the succeeding
(The term 'tide' includes reter to the state of particular
a tide as
low water.It is therefore incorrect to
is meant is high water or low water.
when what really
high tide' or low tide', the height of that particular tide
would compare
The description 'high tide'
with that of some previous one.)

The tidal wave

wave appears to advance trom the centre of an ocean
In many cases the tidal of the tidal wave around the coasts
coasts. The advance
along the surrounding
497
 498 TIDES AND TIÐAL STREAMS

9 HOURS

+12HOURS

+8 HOURS 14 HOURS

+16HOURS

+ 24
+6
HOURS
HOURS

HOURS +

HOURS HOURS

HOURS

HOURS HOURS HOURS

HOURS

Fic. 17-1.
Approximate advance of tide-wave around Great
Britain
of Great Britain is illustrated
in fig.
of about 12 hours and moves 17-1; this tide has a period of
oscillation
at zero2 hours it approximately as follows:
arrives off the coast of
at zero
3 hours it arrives off
the
Portugal;
western coast of France;
at zero4
hours it arrives off Land's End.
At Land's End
part of the tidal wave travels
up the Channel and reaches the
 TIDES
Straits of Dover at zero 499
up the west coast of +i1 hours, while
Eire until: the remainder continues northward
at zero
+9 hours it arrives
the Norh Sea; west of
the Orkney Islands, and
at zero + 12
hours it arrives then passes into
off
at zero +
24 hours it arrives
off
Peterhead;
Off Harwich this tidal
wave meets
Harwich.
at about its
zero + 12 hours and had successor, which set out from mid-Atlantic
of Dover in the travelled up the Channel
intervening period. through the Straits

SPRING TIDES
MOON EARTH MOON SUN AND MOON
IN LINE AT
FULL MOON OR SUN
NEW MOON

AT FULL OR NEW
MOON

'

HWS
HIGH WATERS ARE HIGHEST AND LOW WATERS ARE
LOWEST

NEAP TIDES
MOON

MOON AT RIGHT ANGLES TO SUN WHEN IN

EARTH sUN
ITS FIRST QUARTER OR IN ITS LAST QUARTER

MOON
AT LAST QUARTER OR IST QUARTER

L.W.N
H.W.N.
*******»w****** LOW WATERS ARE
HIGHEST
LOWEST AND
IGH WATERS ARE

Spring and neap tides

FiG. 17-2.
 AND TIDAL STREAMS
500 TIDES

Springs and neaps

and the Sun have their greatest
The combined tide-raising forces of the Moon moon
with the Earth, i.e. at new
effect when the Sun and Moon are in line
are approximately
at right-
and and their least effect when they
full moon, this is
and last quarters of the moon;
angles to each other, i.e. at the first of the
These variations affect the height
depicted diagrammatically in fig. 17-2.
the difference in level between
tidal wave and hence the range of the tide, i.e.
full and new moon a locality will
successive high and low waters. Shortly after
lowest low waters of that lunar month,
experience its highest high waters and around the times
and the tides at this period are called spring tides. Conversely,
waters and highest low
of first and last quarters of the Moon, the lowest high
at which period the tides are
waters of that lunar month will be experienced,
successive tides increase
called neap tides. Between these limits the heights of
or diminish progressively. Spring tides
around the British Isles occur at from
occur at
about one to one and a half days after full or new moon, and neaps
Moon. The time
about the same interval after the first or last quarters of the
interval between successive spring and neap tides is variable, but for practical
about one-quarter ot an
purposes it can be taken as being about 7 days (i.e.
average lunar month of 29 days). A pictorial representation
of the Moon and
tide cycle as experienced in the British Isles is shown in fig. 17-3

Local tides
As previously mentioned, the tides experienced in one locality may differ
considerably in period from those experienced in another. Such differences may
be apparent at places quite close to each other; for instance, although the tides
around the British Isles are semi-diurnal in character, some places may have a
double high water (Southampton) and some a double low water (Hook of
Holland). In other parts of the world-some parts of the Pacific Ocean, for
example-a diurnal tide (i.e. a tide with only one high water and one low water
a day) may be experienced, and many localities in the Mediterranean Sea
experience little or no appreciable tide. Local knowledge of tides is therefore
of great importance to the seaman, and before visiting a strange port he should
consult the Admiralty Tide Tables to ascertain the behaviour of the tides in that
locality. Tidal data, compiled from astronomical calculations and actual observa-
tions over a long period, are published yearly in these tables, and from them
the actual state of the tide at any major port on any day and at any time can be
predicted with a reasonable degree of accuracy.

Effects of weather on tides

The type of local weather
waters in the
experienced may appreciably alter the level of
locality, especially in estuaries such as the Solway Firth, Bristol
Channel and Thames
Estuary. Prolonged gales blowing from the same quarter
will tend to raise the sea
level ahead of them, and lower it behind them,
especially in shoal waters. Low barometric pressure also tends to raise the sea
level, and high barometric
pressure tends to lower it.
Interval between tides
The interval of time between one high water and the corresponding high
 ABOUT I5 DAYS OLDD
FULLMON
18 TO 19 DAYS OLD RANGE TO I2 DAYS OLD
DECREASING OF
TIDES
TIDES
OF
RANGE
INCREASING
NEAP
TIDES
22 TO 23 FULL CYCLE ABOUT 29; DAYS FIRST QUARTER TO 3
DAYS OLD
LAST QUARTER
DAYS OLD
NEAP
TIDES DECREASING
TIDES
OF
RANGE OF RANGE
TIDES
TO 4 DAYS OLD
25 TO 26 DAYS OLD
INCREASING
NEW MOON
relative to the phases of the Moon
Fic. 17-3. Spring and neap tides in the British Isles
 502 TIDES AND TIDAL STREAMS

of a lunar
water on the following day depends to a large extent on the period
day, which is about 24 hours 5o minutes. As a rough guide it can be taken that,
With a tide whose period of oscillation is regular, high water will occur about
50 minutes later each day.
The interval of time between successive high and low waters will., of course,
depend upon the period of oscillation of the parent tide. For a tide with a
12-hour period (such as that experienced around the British Isles) the interval
between successive high waters would be about 12 hours 25 minutes, while the
interval between one high water and the succeeding low water would be about
6 hours 12 minutes.

Ebb and flood, range and stand

The rising tide is called the flood tide and the falling tide is called the ebò tide,
but care should be taken not to confuse these terms with the flood stream and
the ebb stream: whereas the term 'tide' describes a vertical movement of the
sea, the term 'stream' describes the horizontal movement of the sea caused by
a tide. The range of any tide is the difference between the levels of successive
high and low waters, and the stand of a tide is the period at high or low water
during which no rise or fal can be detected. The occurrence and period of the
stand in different parts of the same locality may vary considerably, because
they are affected by the formation of the sea-bed and the coast, and by the
presence of rivers and streams; local knowledge of these features is therefore
of great value.
The rate of rise or fall of a tide will not be uniform, and the extent of the
rise or fall every hour will depend on the interval between low
and high water.
A rough guide to the rise or fall of a
6-hourly tide is given below, but it is
emphasised that this method of estimating the approximate height of the tide
atany particular time should not be used if Admiralty Tide 7ables are
because the results available,
are by no means accurate (see also fig. 17-4). A 6-hour tide
may be expected to rise or fall approximately:
1/12 of its range in the first hour
2/12 of its range in the second hour
3/12 of its range in the third hour
3/12 of its range in the fourth hour
2/12 of its range in the fifth hour
1/12 of its range in the sixth hour.
It will be seen that the maximum
rate of rise or fall occurs at
follows that connections between half-tide, and it
ship and shore, such as breast
brows, require particular attention at half-flood and ropes and
hand, berthing hawsers must be half-ebb. On the other
range of the tide. adjusted at high or low water to allow for
the

Grounding
The extent of the
waters
damage a vessel will suffer through grounding in tidal
depends upon her construction, the
weather and the nature of the
 TIDES
S03

oft again with

if still sufficiently watertight, her prospects of floating
bottom;
the return of the tide are as follows:
soon retioat.
A Vessel grounding on a rising tide will probably
hour after high water, will
not
A
grounding on a falling tide, say, an
Vessel water, i.e. about
ten hours
TIoat again until one hour before the next high
later in the British Isles.
A vessel grounding at the top of high water, say, two days after springs,
about two days betore
not expect to float without assistance until
Should
the next springs, i.e. about ten days later.
is not driven
the above
examples it is assumed that meanwhile the ship
n
Turther on to the bank or shoal by wind and sea, and that no abnormal tides

are experienced.

Tidal definitions
Knowledge of the following tidal required for chartwork and
definitions is
for use of the Tide Tables. They areillustrated in fig. 17-4, which shows a
tide-pole graduated in feet placed where the
on a day when the rise of the tide is, say, 19 feet.
charted depth is
three feet and

MEAN HIGH WATER SPRINGS (M.H.W.S.)

MEAN HIGH WATER NEAPS (M.H.W.N.)

HIGH WATER
22
5 HR.
4 HR.
MEAN SEA LEVEL (M.S.L.)
3 HR.
RANGE 12
2 HR. 4
19 MEAN LOW WATER NEAPS
IHR (M.L.W.N.)
LOW WATER
MEAN LOW WATER SPRINGS
(M.L.W.S.)

CHART DATUM

CHARTED DEPTH

Fic. 17-4. Tidal definitions

Mean Sea Level (M.S.L.). The average level of the surface of the sea.
Tidal Oscillation. A tidal wave represents one vertical oscillation about the
mean level of the sea, and, as shown in fig. 17-5, it includes one high water
and the succeeding low water.
High Water (H.W.). The highest level reached by the sea during one tidal
oscillation.
Loo Water (L.W.). The lowest level reached
by the sea during one tidal
oscillation.
 STREAMS
AND TIDAL
TIDES
504
HiGH WATER

MEAN LEVEL
RANGE.I.

LoW WATER
FIG. 17-5. Graph of tidal oscillation

Mean High Water Springs (M.H.W.S.) and Mean High Water Neaps
(M.H.W.N.). The average heights of high water at springs and neaps, taken
over a period of an average year.
Chart Datum. The level below which depths are given on the chart, and above
which the height of the tide is measured; the height of the tide at any moment
must therefore be added to the charted depth to give the actual depth or

sounding. The chart datum is selected during the initial survey of any area,
and varies from place to place depending upon the range of the tide in the area.
It may be taken as a height below which the tide at that place seldom falls
under normal weather conditions.

Tidal information on charts

The depths on a chart show the depths of water below chart datum; that is
to say, they give the least depths of water to be expected under average circum-
stances. The chart datum and, where applicable, the mean heights of high and
low water above chart datum at springs and neaps, will be found on all except
small-scale charts. If the height of mean sea level (M.S.L.) is added to the
charted depths the result will give the average depth of water which may be
expected at half-tide.
On certain large-scale charts where the tide has a 12-hour period, the rise of
the tide (i.e. its height above chart datum) is given for mean springs and neaps,
and, if the age of the Moon is known, the height of high or low water on any one
day can be roughly estimated from this information; but it is emphasised that
this estimation should only be used if the
available. In this case Admiralty Tide Tables are not
springs can be assumed to occur one to two days after
new or full moon, and
neaps about midway between successive springs; and
the rise may be assumed to
vice versa.
change regularly between springs and neaps and
Thus, to find the approximate height of
ference between the heights of M.H.W.S. high water, take one-seventh of the dif-
and M.H.W.N., multiply the result
by the number of days interval from
height of M.H.W.S. springs, and subtract this result from the
To find the
approximate height of low water, subtract the height of high
water from twice the
height of the mean sea level.
 TIDES 505
ExAMPLE
on the
south-west of
coast England
The heights of high and low water off a port before new moon,
is three days
certan day are required; the day question
a in
n
i.e. about 4} days from springs.
feet
Spring (from chart)
rise 17
Neap rise (from chart) 13 7

Difference 3'3
2'I
4x 1/7 of difference
H.W. height 14*9
20 2
2 x M.S.L. (from chart)

L.W. height 5'3

Therefore H.W. height is 14:9 ft
and L.W. height is 5'3 ft.

lf the time of high or low water is known, the height of the tide for a particular
time can be roughly estimated by applying the rough guide
for the hourly rate
of rise or fall. It is emphasised that this method should not be used if A dmiralty
Tide Tables are available.

ExAMPLF
tine of high water in the previous example o63o, what would be the
1f the were

height of the tide at o830?

H.W. height 14'9 ft
M.S.L. (from chart) 10'I ft
Range 4*8 x 2 =96 ft
Interval from H.W. 2 hours
Fall for first hour 1/12 X 9'6 = o'8 ft
Fall for second hour 2/12 X 96 = 1-6 ft
Total fall 2'4 t
Therefore height of tide at o830 is 14:9 2 4
= 12'5 ft

NOTE. Such heights are in practice calculated to the nearest foot.

Admiralty Tide Tables

These are
published annually in three volumes, namely:
Volume I -European Waters (including Mediterranean Sea)
Volume II-Atlantic and Indian Oceans
Volume III-Pacific Ocean and Adjacent Seas.
, Each volume is divided into parts, namely:
two
Part I-Tidal Predictions for Standard Ports
Part II-Tidal Data for Secondary Ports.
506 TIDES AND TIDAL STREAMS

Standard ports. A standard port is one for which the times and heights of
high and low water have been predicted for every day of the year.
Secondary ports. Each standard port is allocated a number of sccondary
ports, the tida
features of which are related to those of their parent standard
port. The data given in Part II of the Tide Tables include the differences
between the times and heights of high and low water at the secondary ports
and those at their parent standard port.
Times. Al times in Volume I are Greenwich mcan time (G.M.T.). (For
description of Greenwich mean time, standard time and zone time, see B.R. 45/1,
Admiralty Manual of Navigation, Vol. I.) The times in Volumes II and III of
the Tide Tables are zone times.
Tide Tables
The following examples are given to show how the Admiralty
should be used to find the times and heights of high and low water at standard
and secondary ports.
EXAMPLE I
What are the standard times and heights of high and low water at Portsmouth
on
September 7th, 1964?
The index of Volume I of the Admiralty Tide Tables for 1964 shows that
Portsmouth is a standard port, tidal predictions for which appear in Part I of
the volume. Turning to Portsmouth (fig. 17-6), it is seen that on September 7th
there are two times of low water but only one of high water, the previous high
water having occurred shortly before midnight on September 6th. The times
given in the Tide Tables, however, are G.M.T., whereas the standard time
kept at Portsmouth at this time of the year is British Summer Time(-I hour),
and one hour must therefore be added to the times given in the Tide Tables.
It will therefore be necessary to include the time of the last high water on
September 6th.
The standard times of high and low water Portsmouth
at on September 7th,
1964, are therefore calculated as follows:
G.M.T. of H.W. = 2343 Sept. 6th 1211 Sept. 7th
Correction for B.S.T. = oioo+ OI0o

S.T. of H.W. o043 Sept. 7th 131I Sept. 7th

G.M.T. of L.W. o5OI Sept. 7th
Correction for B.S.T.
1721 Sept. 7th
=
o10o + OI00

S.T. of L.W. obor Sept. 7th 1821 Sept. 7th

If the heights of low water are
minus, this indicates that they are the heights
below chart datum and should be subtracted
from, instead of added to, the
depths to give the actual height of low water. charted
Therefore the standard times and heights of
on Sept. 7th 1964, are: high and low water at Portsmouth
H.W. 0043, 134 ft; and
1311, 13:8 ft
L.W. o6o1, -04 ft; and 1821, o°o ft.
It follows that on
Sept. 7th,1964, at Portsmouth Harbour in a
charted depth