Database Systems Design Implementation and Management 12th Edition Etextbook PDF

Database Systems Design,
Implementation, and Management 12th

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Contents
Part 1: Database Concepts 1
Chapter 1: Database Systems 2
1-1 Why Databases? 3
1-2 Data versus Information 4
1-3 Introducing the Database 6
1-3a Role and Advantages of the DBMS 6
1-3b Types of Databases 8
1-4 Why Database Design is Important 11
1-5 Evolution of File System Data Processing 14
1-5a Manual File Systems 14
1-5b Computerized File Systems 15
1-5c File System Redux: Modern End-User Productivity Tools 17
1-6 Problems with File System Data Processing 18
1-6a Structural and Data Dependence 19
1-6b Data Redundancy 20
1-6c Data Anomalies 21
1-7 Database Systems 21
1-7a The Database System Environment 22
1-7b DBMS Functions 24
1-7c Managing the Database System: A Shift in Focus 28
1-8 Preparing for Your Database Professional Career 28
Summary 30 • Key Terms 31 • Review Questions 32 • Problems 32
Chapter 2: Data Models 35

2-1 Data Modeling and Data Models 36
2-2 The Importance of Data Models 37
2-3 Data Model Basic Building Blocks 37
2-4 Business Rules 39
2-4a Discovering Business Rules 39
2-4b Translating Business Rules into Data Model Components 40
2-4c Naming Conventions 41
2-5 The Evolution of Data Models 41
2-5a Hierarchical and Network Models 41
2-5b The Relational Model 43
2-5c The Entity Relationship Model 45
2-5d The Object-Oriented (OO) Model 48
2-5e Object/Relational and XML 49
2-5f Emerging Data Models: Big Data and NoSQL 50
2-5g Data Models: A Summary 56
2-6 Degrees of Data Abstraction 57
2-6a The External Model 60
2-6b The Conceptual Model 61
2-6c The Internal Model 62
2-6d The Physical Model 63
Part 2: Design Concepts 71

Chapter 3: The Relational Database Model 72
3-1 A Logical View of Data 73
3-1a Tables and Their Characteristics 73
vi Contents
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3-2 Keys 76
3-2a Dependencies 76
3-2b Types of Keys 77
3-3 Integrity Rules 80
3-4 Relational Algebra 82
3-4a Formal Definitions and Terminology 82
3-4b Relational Set Operators 83
3-5 The Data Dictionary and the System Catalog 91
3-6 Relationships within the Relational Database 93
3-6a The 1:M Relationship 93
3-6b The 1:1 Relationship 95
3-6c The M:N Relationship 97
3-7 Data Redundancy Revisited 101
3-8 Indexes 103
3-9 Codd’s Relational Database Rules 104
Chapter 4: Entity Relationship (ER) Modeling 117

4-1 The Entity Relationship Model (ERM) 118
4-1a Entities 118
4-1b Attributes 118
4-1c Relationships 124
4-1d Connectivity and Cardinality 125
4-1e Existence Dependence 126
4-1f Relationship Strength 126
4-1g Weak Entities 129
4-1h Relationship Participation 131
4-1i Relationship Degree 134
4-1j Recursive Relationships 136
4-1k Associative (Composite) Entities 138
4-2 Developing an ER Diagram 140
4-3 Database Design Challenges: Conflicting Goals 147
Summary 152 • Key Terms 153 • Review Questions 153 • Problems 156 • Cases 161
Chapter 5: Advanced Data Modeling 169

5-1 The Extended Entity Relationship Model 170
5-1a Entity Supertypes and Subtypes 170
5-1b Specialization Hierarchy 171
5-1c Inheritance 172
5-1d Subtype Discriminator 174
5-1e Disjoint and Overlapping Constraints 174
5-1f Completeness Constraint 175
5-1g Specialization and Generalization 176
5-2 Entity Clustering 176
5-3 Entity Integrity: Selecting Primary Keys 177
5-3a Natural Keys and Primary Keys 178
5-3b Primary Key Guidelines 178
5-3c When To Use Composite Primary Keys 178
5-3d When To Use Surrogate Primary Keys 180
5-4 Design Cases: Learning Flexible Database Design 182
5-4a Design Case 1: Implementing 1:1 Relationships 182
5-4b Design Case 2: Maintaining History of Time-Variant Data 183
5-4c Design Case 3: Fan Traps 186
5-4d Design Case 4: Redundant Relationships 187
Chapter 6: Normalization of Database Tables 201

6-1 Database Tables and Normalization 202
6-2 The Need For Normalization 202
6-3 The Normalization Process 206
6-3a Conversion To First Normal Form 208
6-3b Conversion To Second Normal Form 211
6-3c Conversion To Third Normal Form 213
Contents vii
6-4 Improving the Design 215
6-5 Surrogate Key Considerations 219
6-6 Higher-Level Normal Forms 220
6-6a The Boyce-Codd Normal Form 221
6-6b Fourth Normal Form (4NF) 224
6-7 Normalization and Database Design 226
6-8 Denormalization 229
6-9 Data-Modeling Checklist 232
Part 3: Advanced Design and Implementation 245

Chapter 7: Introduction to Structured Query Language (SQL) 246
7-1 Introduction to SQL 247
7-2 Data Definition Commands 249
7-2a The Database Model 249
7-2b Creating The Database 251
7-2c The Database Schema 251
7-2d Data Types 252
7-2e Creating Table Structures 255
7-2f SQL Constraints 259
7-2g SQL Indexes 263
7-3 Data Manipulation Commands 264
7-3a Adding Table Rows 264
7-3b Saving Table Changes 266
7-3c Listing Table Rows 266
7-3d Updating Table Rows 268
7-3e Restoring Table Contents 269
7-3f Deleting Table Rows 269
7-3g Inserting Table Rows with a Select Subquery 270
7.4 SELECT Queries 271
7-4a Selecting Rows with Conditional Restrictions 271
7-4b Arithmetic Operators: The Rule of Precedence 276
7-4c Logical Operators: AND, OR, and NOT 277
7-4d Special Operators 279
7-5 Additional Data Definition Commands 283
7-5a Changing a Column’s Data Type 284
7-5b Changing a Column’s Data Characteristics 284
7-5c Adding a Column 284
7-5d Dropping a Column 285
7-5e Advanced Data Updates 285
7-5f Copying Parts of Tables 287
7-5g Adding Primary and Foreign Key Designations 289
7-5h Deleting a Table from the Database 290
7-6 Additional SELECT Query Keywords 290
7-6a Ordering a Listing 290
7-6b Listing Unique Values 292
7-6c Aggregate Functions 292
7-6d Grouping Data 297
7-7 Joining Database Tables 300
7-7a Joining Tables with an Alias 303
7-7b Recursive Joins 303
Chapter 8: Advanced SQL 340

8-1 SQL Join Operators 341
8-1a Cross Join 342
8-1b Natural Join 343
8-1c JOIN USING Clause 344
8-1d JOIN ON Clause 345
8-1e Outer Joins 347
8-2 Subqueries and Correlated Queries 349
8-2a WHERE Subqueries 351
8-2b IN Subqueries 352
viii Contents
8-2c HAVING Subqueries 353
8-2d Multirow Subquery Operators: ANY and ALL 353
8-2e FROM Subqueries 355
8-2f Attribute List Subqueries 356
8-2g Correlated Subqueries 358
8-3 SQL Functions 361
8-3a Date and Time Functions 361
8-3b Numeric Functions 366
8-3c String Functions 366
8-3d Conversion Functions 368
8-4 Relational Set Operators 371
8-4a UNION 371
8-4b UNION ALL 373
8-4c INTERSECT 373
8-4d EXCEPT (MINUS) 375
8-4e Syntax Alternatives 377
8-5 Virtual Tables: Creating a View 377
8-5a Updatable Views 379
8-6 Sequences 382
8-7 Procedural SQL 387
8-7a Triggers 392
8-7b Stored Procedures 401
8-7c PL/SQL Processing with Cursors 407
8-7d PL/SQL Stored Functions 409
8-8 Embedded SQL 410
Chapter 9: Database Design 439

9-1 The Information System 440
9-2 The Systems Development Life Cycle 442
9-2a Planning 442
9-2b Analysis 443
9-2c Detailed Systems Design 444
9-2d Implementation 444
9-2e Maintenance 445
9-3 The Database Life Cycle 445
9-3a The Database Initial Study 445
9-3b Database Design 450
9-3c Implementation and Loading 451
9-3d Testing and Evaluation 454
9-3e Operation 456
9-3f Maintenance and Evolution 457
9-4 Conceptual Design 457
9-4a Data Analysis and Requirements 459
9-4b Entity Relationship Modeling and Normalization 461
9-4c Data Model Verification 464
9-4d Distributed Database Design 467
9-5 DBMS Software Selection 467
9-6 Logical Design 468
9-6a Map the Conceptual Model to the Logical Model 468
9-6b Validate the Logical Model Using Normalization 470
9-6c Validate Logical Model Integrity Constraints 470
9-6d Validate the Logical Model Against User Requirements 471
9-7 Physical Design 471
9-7a Define Data Storage Organization 472
9-7b Define Integrity and Security Measures 472
9-7c Determine Performance Measures 473
9-8 Database Design Strategies 473
9-9 Centralized Versus Decentralized Design 474
Contents ix
Part 4: Advanced Database Concepts 481
Chapter 10: Transaction Management and Concurrency Control 482
10-1 What Is a Transaction? 483
10-1a Evaluating Transaction Results 484
10-1b Transaction Properties 487
10-1c Transaction Management with SQL 488
10-1d The Transaction Log 489
10-2 Concurrency Control 490
10-2a Lost Updates 490
10-2b Uncommitted Data 491
10-2c Inconsistent Retrievals 492
10-2d The Scheduler 493
10-3 Concurrency Control with Locking Methods 495
10-3a Lock Granularity 496
10-3b Lock Types 498
10-3c Two-Phase Locking to Ensure Serializability 500
10-3d Deadlocks 500
10-4 Concurrency Control with Time Stamping Methods 502
10-4a Wait/Die and Wound/Wait Schemes 502
10-5 Concurrency Control with Optimistic Methods 503
10-6 ANSI Levels of Transaction Isolation 504
10-7 Database Recovery Management 506
10-7a Transaction Recovery 506
Chapter 11: Database Performance Tuning

and Query Optimization 515
11-1 Database Performance-Tuning Concepts 516
11-1a Performance Tuning: Client and Server 517
11-1b DBMS Architecture 518
11-1c Database Query Optimization Modes 520
11-1d Database Statistics 521
11-2 Query Processing 522
11-2a SQL Parsing Phase 523
11-2b SQL Execution Phase 524
11-2c SQL Fetching Phase 525
11-2d Query Processing Bottlenecks 525
11-3 Indexes and Query Optimization 526
11-4 Optimizer Choices 528
11-4a Using Hints to Affect Optimizer Choices 530
11-5 SQL Performance Tuning 531
11-5a Index Selectivity 531
11-5b Conditional Expressions 533
11-6 Query Formulation 534
11-7 DBMS Performance Tuning 536
11-8 Query Optimization Example 538
Chapter 12: Distributed Database Management Systems 553

12-1 The Evolution of Distributed Database Management Systems 554
12-2 DDBMS Advantages and Disadvantages 556
12-3 Distributed Processing and Distributed Databases 556
12-4 Characteristics of Distributed Database Management Systems 559
12-5 DDBMS Components 560
12-6 Levels of Data and Process Distribution 561
12-6a Single-Site Processing, Single-Site Data 561
12-6b Multiple-Site Processing, Single-Site Data 562
12-6c Multiple-Site Processing, Multiple-Site Data 563
12-7 Distributed Database Transparency Features 564
12-8 Distribution Transparency 565
x Contents
12-9 Transaction Transparency 568
12-9a Distributed Requests and Distributed Transactions 568
12-9b Distributed Concurrency Control 571
12-9c Two-Phase Commit Protocol 571
12-10 Performance and Failure Transparency 573
12-11 Distributed Database Design 575
12-11a Data Fragmentation 575
12-11b Data Replication 578
12-11c Data Allocation 580
12-12 The CAP Theorem 581
12-13 C. J. Date’s 12 Commandments for Distributed Databases 583
Chapter 13: Business Intelligence and Data Warehouses 589

13-1 The Need for Data Analysis 590
13-2 Business Intelligence 590
13-2a Business Intelligence Architecture 592
13-2b Business Intelligence Benefits 598
13-2c Business Intelligence Evolution 598
13-2d Business Intelligence Technology Trends 601
13-3 Decision Support Data 602
13-3a Operational Data Versus Decision Support Data 602
13-3b Decision Support Database Requirements 605
13-4 The Data Warehouse 607
13-4a Data Marts 610
13-4b Twelve Rules That Define a Data Warehouse 610
13-5 Star Schemas 610
13-5a Facts 611
13-5b Dimensions 611
13-5c Attributes 612
13-5d Attribute Hierarchies 614
13-5e Star Schema Representation 616
13-5f Performance-Improving Techniques for the Star Schema 617
13-6 Online Analytical Processing 621
13-6a Multidimensional Data Analysis Techniques 621
13-6b Advanced Database Support 623
13-6c Easy-to-Use End-User Interfaces 623
13-6d OLAP Architecture 623
13-6e Relational OLAP 626
13-6f Multidimensional OLAP 628
13-6g Relational versus Multidimensional OLAP 628
13-7 SQL Extensions for OLAP 629
13-7a The ROLLUP Extension 630
13-7b The CUBE Extension 631
13-7c Materialized Views 633
Chapter 14: Big Data Analytics and NoSQL 648

14-1 Big Data 649
14-1a Volume 651
14-1b Velocity 652
14-1c Variety 653
14-1d Other Characteristics 654
14-2 Hadoop 655
14-2a HDFS 655
14-2b MapReduce 658
14-2c Hadoop Ecosystem 660
14-3 NoSQL 662
14-3a Key-Value Databases 663
14-3b Document Databases 664
14-3c Column-Oriented Databases 665
14-3d Graph Databases 668
14-3e NewSQL Databases 669
Contents xi
14-4 Data Analytics 670
14-4a Data Mining 671
14-4b Predictive Analytics 673
Summary 675 • Key Terms 676 • Review Questions 677
Part 5: Databases and the Internet 679

Chapter 15: Database Connectivity and Web Technologies 680
15-1 Database Connectivity 681
15-1a Native SQL Connectivity 682
15-1b ODBC, DAO, and RDO 683
15-1c OLE-DB 685
15-1d ADO.NET 687
15-1e Java Database Connectivity (JDBC) 691
15-2 Database Internet Connectivity 692
15-2a Web-to-Database Middleware: Server-Side Extensions 693
15-2b Web Server Interfaces 695
15-2c The Web Browser 696
15-2d Client-Side Extensions 697
15-2e Web Application Servers 698
15-2f Web Database Development 699
15-3 Extensible Markup Language (XML) 702
15-3a Document Type Definitions (DTD) and XML Schemas 704
15-3b XML Presentation 706
15-3c XML Applications 708
15-4 Cloud Computing Services 709
15-4a Cloud Implementation Types 712
15-4b Characteristics of Cloud Services 712
15-4c Types of Cloud Services 713
15-4d Cloud Services: Advantages and Disadvantages 714
15-4e SQL Data Services 716
Part 6: Database Administration 721

Chapter 16: Database Administration and Security 722
16-1 Data as a Corporate Asset 723
16-2 The Need for a Database and its Role in an Organization 724
16-3 Introduction of a Database: Special Considerations 726
16-4 The Evolution of Database Administration 727
16-5 The Database Environment’s Human Component 731
16-5a The DBA’s Managerial Role 733
16-5b The DBA’s Technical Role 738
16-6 Security 745
16-6a Security Policies 746
16-6b Security Vulnerabilities 746
16-6c Database Security 748
16-7 Database Administration Tools 749
16-7a The Data Dictionary 750
16-7b Case Tools 752
16-8 Developing a Data Administration Strategy 755
16-9 The DBA’s Role in the Cloud 756
16-10 The DBA at Work: Using Oracle for Database Administration 757
16-10a Oracle Database Administration Tools 758
16-10b Ensuring that the RDBMS Starts Automatically 758
16-10c Creating Tablespaces and Datafiles 760
16-10d Managing Users and Establishing Security 762
16-10e Customizing the Database Initialization Parameters 763
Summary 765 • Key Terms 766 • Review Questions 767
Glossary 769
Index 783
xii Contents
The following appendixes are included on the Instructor and Student Companion Sites at www.cengagebrain.com.
Appendix A1: Designing Databases with Visio Professional 2010: A Tutorial

Appendix A2: Designing Databases with Visio 2013: A Tutorial
Appendix B: The University Lab: Conceptual Design
Appendix C: The University Lab: Conceptual Design Verification, Logical Design, and Implementation
Appendix D: Converting an ER Model into a Database Structure
Appendix E: Comparison of ER Model Notations
Appendix F: Client/Server Systems
Appendix G: Object-Oriented Databases
Appendix H: Unified Modeling Language (UML)
Appendix I: Databases in Electronic Commerce
Appendix J: Web Database Development with ColdFusion
Appendix K: The Hierarchical Database Model
Appendix L: The Network Database Model
Appendix M: MS Access Tutorial
Appendix N: Creating a New Database Using Oracle 12c
Appendix O: Data Warehouse Implementation Factors
Contents xiii
Preface
It is our great pleasure to present the twelfth edition of Database Systems. We are grateful and
humbled that so many of our colleagues around the world have chosen this text to support their
classes. We wrote the first edition of this book because we wanted to explain the complexity of
database systems in a language that was easy for students to understand. Over the years, we have
maintained this emphasis on reaching out to students to explain complex concepts in a practical,
approachable manner. This book has been successful through eleven editions because the au-
thors, editors, and the publisher paid attention to the impact of technology and to adopter ques-
tions and suggestions. We believe that this twelfth edition successfully reflects the same attention
to such factors.
In many respects, rewriting a book is more difficult than writing it the first time. If the book is
successful, as this one is, a major concern is that the updates, inserts, and deletions will adversely
affect writing style and continuity of coverage. The combination of superb reviewers and editors,
plus a wealth of feedback from adopters and students of the previous editions, helped make this
new edition the best yet.
Changes to The Twelfth Edition

In this twelfth edition, we added some new features and reorganized some coverage to provide
a better flow of material. Aside from enhancing the already strong coverage of database design,
we made other improvements in the topical coverage. In particular, the continued growth of Big
Data and NoSQL technologies have challenged the status quo in the database industry. Therefore,
we created an entire new chapter, Big Data Analytics and NoSQL, to help students grasp the key
aspects of these complex new technologies and challenges. The twelfth edition also presents a ma-
jor step forward in the integration of digital content with the text through online, automatically
graded exercises to improve student outcomes. Here are a few of the highlights of changes in the
twelfth edition:
• New coverage of Big Data challenges beyond the traditional 3Vs
• Expanded coverage of Hadoop, the Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS), and MapReduce
• Updated coverage of cloud data services and their impact on DBAs
• Expanded coverage of NoSQL databases, including key-value databases, document databases,
column-oriented database, and graph databases
• New coverage of the emerging NewSQL technologies
• Improved coverage of data visualization
• Added coverage of new sequence and identity capabilities in Oracle and SQL Server
• Complete redesign of the look and feel of the text and layout to improve readability and visual
appeal
• Embedded key term definitions within the text
This twelfth edition continues to provide a solid and practical foundation for the design, im-
plementation, and management of database systems. This foundation is built on the notion that,
while databases are very practical, their successful creation depends on understanding the im-
portant concepts that define them. It’s not easy to come up with the proper mix of theory and
practice, but the previously mentioned feedback suggests that we largely succeeded in our quest
to maintain the proper balance.
xiv Preface
The Approach: A Continued Emphasis
On Design
As the title suggests, Database Systems: Design, Implementation, and Management covers three
broad aspects of database systems. However, for several important reasons, special attention is
given to database design.
• The availability of excellent database software enables people with little experience to cre-
ate databases and database applications. Unfortunately, the “create without design” approach
usually paves the road to a number of database disasters. In our experience, many database
system failures are traceable to poor design and cannot be solved with the help of even the
best programmers and managers. Nor is better DBMS software likely to overcome problems
created or magnified by poor design. Even the best bricklayers and carpenters can’t create a
good building from a bad blueprint.
• Most vexing problems of database system management seem to be triggered by poorly de-
signed databases. It hardly seems worthwhile to use scarce resources to develop excellent da-
tabase management skills merely to use them on crises induced by poorly designed databases.
• Design provides an excellent means of communication. Clients are more likely to get what they
need when database system design is approached carefully and thoughtfully. In fact, clients may
discover how their organizations really function once a good database design is completed.
• Familiarity with database design techniques promotes understanding of current database
technologies. For example, because data warehouses derive much of their data from opera-
tional databases, data warehouse concepts, structures, and procedures make more sense when
the operational database’s structure and implementation are understood.
Because the practical aspects of database design are stressed, we have covered design concepts
and procedures in detail, making sure that the numerous end-of-chapter problems and cases are
sufficiently challenging so students can develop real and useful design skills. We also make sure
that students understand the potential and actual conflicts between database design elegance,
information requirements, and transaction processing speed. For example, it makes little sense to
design databases that meet design elegance standards while they fail to meet end-user informa-
tion requirements. Therefore, we explore the use of carefully defined trade-offs to ensure that the
databases meet end-user requirements while conforming to high design standards.
Topical Coverage
The Systems View
The book’s title begins with Database Systems. There-
fore, we examine the database and design concepts
covered in Chapters 1–6 as part of a larger whole by
placing them within the systems analysis framework of
Chapter 9. Database designers who fail to understand
that the database is part of a larger system are likely
to overlook important design requirements. In fact,
Chapter 9, Database Design, provides the map for the
advanced database design developed in Appendixes B
and C. Within the larger systems framework, we can
also explore issues such as transaction management
and concurrency control (Chapter 10), distributed da- PART 1
tabase management systems (Chapter 12), business in-
telligence and data warehouses (Chapter 13), database
Database Concepts
connectivity and web technologies (Chapter 15), and
database administration and security (Chapter 16).
1 Database Systems
2 Data Models
Preface xv
Database Design
The first item in the book’s subtitle is Design, and our
examination of database design is comprehensive. For
Chapter 9 example, Chapters 1 and 2 examine the development
Database Design and future of databases and data models, and illustrate
In this chapter, you will learn: the need for design. Chapter 3 examines the details of
• That a sound database design is the foundation for a successful information system, and that the
database design must reflect the information system of which the database is a part the relational database model; Chapter 4 provides ex-
• That successful information systems are developed within a framework known as the Systems
Development Life Cycle (SDLC) tensive, in-depth, and practical database design cover-
• That within the information system, the most successful databases are subject to frequent
evaluation and revision within a framework known as the Database Life Cycle (DBLC)
age; and Chapter 5 explores advanced database design
• How to conduct evaluation and revision within the SDLC and DBLC frameworks
• About database design strategies: top-down versus bottom-up design and centralized versus
topics. Chapter 6 is devoted to critical normalization
decentralized design
issues that affect database efficiency and effectiveness.
Preview Databases are a part of a larger picture called an information system. Database designs
that fail to recognize this fact are not likely to be successful. Database designers must rec-
Chapter 9 examines database design within the systems
ognize that the database is a critical means to an end rather than an end in itself. Managers
want the database to serve their management needs, but too many databases seem to force
framework and maps the activities required to success-
managers to alter their routines to fit the database requirements.
Information systems don’t just happen; they are the product of a carefully staged devel-
fully design and implement the complex, real-world
opment process. Systems analysis is used to determine the need for an information system
and to establish its limits. Within systems analysis, the actual information system is cre-
database developed in Appendixes B and C. Appendix
ated through a process known as systems development.
The creation and evolution of information systems follows an iterative pattern called
A, Designing Databases with Visio Professional: A Tu-
the Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC), which is a continuous process of creation,
maintenance, enhancement, and replacement of the information system. A similar cycle
torial, provides a good introductory tutorial for the use
applies to databases: the database is created, maintained, enhanced, and eventually
replaced. The Database Life Cycle (DBLC) is carefully traced in this chapter, and is shown
of a database design tool.
in the context of the larger Systems Development Life Cycle.
At the end of the chapter, you will be introduced to some classical approaches to data-
Because database design is affected by real-world
base design: top-down versus bottom-up and centralized versus decentralized. transactions, the way data is distributed, and ever-in-
creasing information requirements, we examine major
Data Files Available on cengagebrain.com database features that must be supported in current-gen-
eration databases and models. For example, Chapter 10,
Note
Because it is purely conceptual, this chapter does not reference any data files.
Transaction Management and Concurrency Control,
focuses on the characteristics of database transactions
and how they affect database integrity and consistency.
Chapter 11, Database Performance Tuning and Query
Optimization, illustrates the need for query efficiency in a world that routinely generates and uses tera-
byte-size databases and tables with millions of records. Chapter 12, Distributed Database Management
BK-CHE-CORONEL_MORRIS_12E-150049-Chp09.indd 439
Systems, focuses on data distribution, replication, and allocation. In Chapter 13, Business Intelligence
19/12/15 11:54 AM
and Data Warehouses, we explore the characteristics of databases that are used in decision support and
online analytical processing. Chapter 14, Big Data Analytics and NoSQL, explores the challenges of
designing nonrelational databases to use vast global stores of unstructured data. Chapter 15, Database
Connectivity and Web Technologies, covers the basic database connectivity issues in a web-based data
world, development of web-based database front ends, and emerging cloud-based services.
Implementation
The second portion of the subtitle is Implementation.
We use Structured Query Language (SQL) in Chap-
ters 7 and 8 to show how relational databases are
implemented and managed. Appendix M, Microsoft
Access Tutorial, provides a quick but comprehensive
guide to implementing an MS Access database. Ap-
pendixes B and C demonstrate the design of a da-
tabase that was fully implemented; these appendix-
es illustrate a wide range of implementation issues.
We had to deal with conflicting design goals: design
elegance, information requirements, and operation-
PART 3 al speed. Therefore, we carefully audited the initial
Advanced Design and Implementation design in Appendix B to check its ability to meet
end-user needs and establish appropriate implemen-
tation protocols. The result of this audit yielded the fi-
7 Introduction to Structured Query Language (SQL) nal design developed in Appendix C. While relational
8 Advanced SQL databases are still the appropriate database technolo-
gy to use in the vast majority of situations, Big Data
9 Database Design issues have created an environment in which special
xvi Preface
requirements can call for the use of new, nonrela-
tional technologies. Chapter 14, Big Data Analyt-
ics and NoSQL, describes the types of data that are
appropriate for these new technologies and the ar-
ray of options available in these special cases. The
special issues encountered in an Internet database
environment are addressed in Chapter 15, Database
Connectivity and Web Technologies, and in Appen-
dix J, Web Database Development with ColdFusion.
Management
The final portion of the subtitle is Management. We
deal with database management issues in Chapter PART 6
10, Transaction Management and Concurrency
Control; Chapter 12, Distributed Database Man-
Database Administration
agement Systems; and Chapter 16, Database Ad-
ministration and Security. Chapter 11, Database 16 Database Administration and Security
Performance Tuning and Query Optimization, is a
valuable resource that illustrates how a DBMS man-
ages data retrieval. In addition, Appendix N, Cre-
ating a New Database Using Oracle 12c, walks you
through the process of setting up a new database.
Teaching Database: A Matter of

Focus
Given the wealth of detailed coverage, instructors can “mix and match” chapters to produce the
desired coverage. Depending on where database courses fit into the curriculum, instructors may
choose to emphasize database design or database management. (See Figure 1.)
The hands-on nature of database design lends itself particularly well to class projects in which BK-CHE-CORONEL_MORRIS_12E-150049-Chp16.indd 721 19/12/15 12:04 PM
students use instructor-selected software to prototype a system that they design for the end user.
Several end-of-chapter problems are sufficiently complex to serve as projects, or an instructor
may work with local businesses to give students hands-on experience. Note that some elements of
the database design track are also found in the database management track, because it is difficult
to manage database technologies that are not well understood.
The options shown in Figure 1 serve only as a starting point. Naturally, instructors will tailor
their coverage based on their specific course requirements. For example, an instructor may decide
to make Appendix I an outside reading assignment and make Appendix A a self-taught tutori-
al, and then use that time to cover client/server systems or object-oriented databases. The latter
choice would serve as a gateway to UML coverage.
Preface xvii
FIGURE 1
Core Coverage
(1) Database Systems
(2) Data Models
(3) The Relational Database Model
(4) Entity Relationship (ER) Modeling
(6) Normalization of Database Tables
(7) Introduction to Structured Query Language (SQL)
Database Design and Implementation Focus Database Management Focus

(5) Advanced Data Modeling (10) Transaction Management and Concurrency Control
(8) Advanced SQL (11) Database Performance Tuning and Query Optimization
(9) Database Design (12) Distributed Database Management Systems
(A) Designing Databases with Visio Professional (13) Business Intelligence and Data Warehouses
(D) Converting an ER Model into a Database Structure (15) Database Connectivity and Web Technologies
(E) Comparison of ER Model Notations (16) Database Administration and Security
(H) Unified Modeling Language (UML) (F) Client/Server Systems
(14) Big Data Analytics and NoSQL (G) Object Oriented Databases
(15) Database Connectivity and Web Technologies
Supplementary Reading Supplementary Reading

(B) The University Lab: Conceptual Design (9) Database Design
(C) The University Lab: Conceptual Design Verification, (M) Microsoft Access Tutorial
Logical Design, and Implementation (N) Creating a New Database Using Oracle 12c
(M) Microsoft Access Tutorial (O) Data Warehouse Implementation Factors
(J) Web Database Development with ColdFusion (I) Databases in Electronic Commerce
(K) The Hierarchical Database Model (J) Web Database Development with ColdFusion
(L) The Network Database Model
xviii Preface
ber
name
name 78 Part 2 Design Concepts
le initial
of birth
earned TABLE 3.2
ification
average STUDENT CLASSIFICATION
ferred from another institution
code HOURS COMPLETED CLASSIFICATION
us phone extension
Text Features
e professor who is the student’s advisor Less than 30 Fr
30–59 So
60–89 Jr
90 or more Sr
n in Figure 3.1, you can draw the following conclu-
Table 3.1: Online Content boxes Online One specific type of superkey is called a candidate key. A candidate key i
draw attention to material
ed to be a two-dimensional structure composed of
at www.cengagebrain.com Content superkey—that is, a superkey without any unnecessary attributes. A cand
s (attributes). for this text and provide All of the databases based on a full functional dependency. For example, STU_NUM would be
ideasoccurrence
ble describes a single entity for incorporating
within the used to illustrate the key, as would (STU_LNAME, STU_FNAME, STU_INIT, STU_PHONE). O
this content into the material in this chapter hand, (STU_NUM, STU_LNAME) is a superkey, but it is not a candidate k
resented by the STUDENT table.) For example, row
course. (see the Data Files list
ent named Walter H. Oblonski. Given the table con- STU_LNAME could be removed and the key would still be a superkey. A tab
ncludes eight distinct entities (rows), or students. at the beginning of the many different candidate keys. If the STUDENT table also included the stud
chapter) are available Security numbers as STU_SSN, then it would appear to be a candidate key
ibute, and each column has a distinct name. at www.cengagebrain.
keys are called candidates because they are the eligible options from which t
match the attribute’s characteristics. For example, com. The database
names match the data- will choose when selecting the primary key. The primary key is the candidate
GPA) column contains only STU_GPA entries for to be the primary means by which the rows of the table are uniquely identifie
base names shown in
ust be classified according to its format and func- Entity integrity is the condition in which each row (entity instance) in th
the figures.
s can support different data types, most support at its own unique identity. To ensure entity integrity, the primary key has two req
(1) all of the values in the primary key must be unique, and (2) no key attr
ic data to perform meaningful arithmetic procedures. primary key can contain a null.
TU_HRS and STU_GPA are numeric
Notes attributes.
highlights
important
so known as text data or string data,facts
canabout
contain any Note
nded for mathematical manipulation.introduced
the concepts In Figure 3.1,
in the chapter. A null is no value at all. It does not mean a zero or a space. A null is created when you press
NE are examples of character attributes. the Enter key or the Tab key to move to the next entry without making an entry of any kind.
n calendar dates stored in a special format known as Pressing
tuple the Spacebar creates a blank (or a space).
gure 3.1, STU_DOB is a date attribute. In the relational model,
a table row.
y have true or false (yes or no) values. In Figure 3.1,
domain Null values are problematic in Chapter
the relational
1 Databasemodel. A null is the abse
ute uses a logical data format. Systems 25
In data modeling,
of four-color data value, and it is never allowed in any part of the primary key. From a
sible values is known asAitsvariety
domain. Because the the construct
FIGURE used to
1.11 ILLUSTRATING METADATA WITH MICROSOFT SQL SERVER EXPRESS
figures, including
o the range 0–4, inclusive, the domain is [0,4]. organize and describe an perspective, it can be argued that a table that contains a null is not properly
ER models and attribute’s set of possible table at all. From a practical perspective, however, some nulls cannot be
is immaterial to the user.
implementations, candidate
values. key avoided. For example, not all students have a middle initial. As a general
tables, and illustra- A minimal superkey;
that is, a key that does
should be avoided as much as reasonably possible. In fact, an abundance
tions, clearly illustrate often a sign of a poor design. Also, nulls should be avoided in the databa
not contain a subset of
difficult concepts. attributes that is itself a their meaning is not always identifiable. For example, a null could represen
superkey. See key. following:
entity integrity
The property of a
• An unknown attribute value
19/12/15 11:40 AM
relational table that • A known, but missing, attribute value

guarantees each entity
has a unique value in a • A “not applicable” condition
primary key and that the
Depending on the sophistication of the application development softwar
key has no null values.
create problems when functions such as COUNT, AVERAGE, and SUM a
null
The absence of an
addition, nulls can create logical problems when relational tables are linked.
attribute value. Note that In addition to its role in providing a unique identity to each row in th
a null is not a blank. primary key may play an additional role in the controlled redundancy that
access the data in the database work through the DBMS. The DBMS uses the data Text Features xix
dictionary to look up the required data component structures and relationships,
thus relieving you from having to78code such complex relationships in each pro-
BK-CHE-CORONEL_MORRIS_12E-150049-Chp03.indd
Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May gram. Additionally,
not be copied, any
scanned, or duplicated, changes
in whole or in part.made in a rights,
Due to electronic database
some thirdstructure are
party content may automatically
be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
recorded in the data dictionary, thereby freeing you from having to modify all of
the programs that access the changed structure. In other words, the DBMS provides
data abstraction, and it removes structural and data dependence from the system.
For example, Figure 1.11 shows how Microsoft SQL Server Express presents the
for an information system and its extent. Systems development is the process of
creating an information system.
• The Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC) traces the history of an application
Chapter 9 Database Design 477
within the information system. The SDLC can be divided into five phases: planning,
analysis, detailed systems design, implementation, and maintenance. The SDLC is an
A robust Summary at
Summary
iterative process rather than a sequential process.
the end of each chapter
• The Database Life Cycle (DBLC) describes the history of the database within the infor- ties together the major
mation system. The DBLC is composed of six phases: database initial study, database concepts and serves
• An information
design, system is
implementation designed
and loading,totesting
help transform data into
and evaluation, information
operation, and and to
main- as a quick review for
manage bothevolution.
tenance and data and Like
information.
the SDLC,Thus, the database
the DBLC is arather
is iterative very important part of
than sequential. students.
the information system. Systems analysis is the process that establishes the need
• The conceptual portion of the design may be subject to several variations based on
for an information system and its extent. Systems development is the process of
two basic design philosophies: bottom-up versus top-down and centralized versus
creating an information system.
decentralized.
• The Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC) traces the history of an application
within the information system. The SDLC can be divided into five phases: planning,
An alphabetic list of
Key Terms
analysis, detailed systems design, implementation, and maintenance. The SDLC is an
iterative process rather than a sequential process.
Key Terms summarizes
important terms.
• bottom-up design
The Database Database
Life Cycle (DBLC) Life Cycle
describes (DBLC)of themodule
the history coupling
database within the infor-
mation system. The DBLC isdatabase
boundaries composedroleof six phases: database initial
physical study, databaseOnline
design
design, implementation and loading, testing and evaluation, operation, and main-Content
centralized design decentralized design scope
tenance and evolution. Like the SDLC, the DBLC is iterative rather than sequential.
clustered tables description of operations systems analysis Flashcards and crossword
• The conceptual portion of the design may be subject to several variations based onpuzzles for key term practice
cohesivity differential backup systems development
two basic design philosophies: bottom-up versus top-down and centralized versusare available at
computer-aided ChapterSystems
15 Database Connectivity and Web Technologies 719
decentralized. software full backup Development
www.cengagebrain.com.
engineering (CASE) information system Life Cycle (SDLC)
14. What is a web applicationinformation
server, andsystem
how does it work from a database
conceptual design
perspective? logical design top-down design Online
Key Terms
database development minimal
15. What are scripts, and what data
is their rule
function?
transaction log backup
(Think in terms of database Content
database fragment
application development.) module virtualization
bottom-up design Database Life Cycle (DBLC) module coupling The Ch02 databases used in
16. What is XML, and why is itdatabase
boundaries important?
role physical design Online
the Problems for this chap-
ter are available at www.
17. What aredesign
centralized document type definition (DTD)
decentralized documents, and
design what do they do?
scope Content
cengagebrain.com.
18. What are
clustered XML schema definition
tables (XSD)
description documents, andsystems
of operations what doanalysis
they do? Reviewand
Flashcards Questions
crossword
Review
cohesivity
19. Questions
What is JDBC, and what is differential
it used for?backup systems development challenge
puzzles for keystudents to
term practice
apply theatskills learned
are available
computer-aided
20. What is cloudsoftware
computing, andfull backup
why is it a “game changer”?Systems Development
in each chapter.
www.cengagebrain.com.
engineering (CASE)
1. What is an information system? What is
information its purpose?
system Life Cycle (SDLC)
21. Name and contrast the types of cloud computing implementation.
2.conceptual
How do design
systems analysis and systems
logical development fit into
design top-down design
a discussion about infor-
22. Name and describe the most prevalent characteristics of cloud computing services.
mationdevelopment
database systems? minimal data rule transaction log backup
23. Using the Internet, search for providers of cloud services. Then, classify the types of
3.database
What does the acronym SDLC mean, and what does an SDLC
fragment portray?
virtualization
services they provide (SaaS,module
PaaS, and IaaS).
4. What does the acronym DBLC mean, and what does a DBLC portray?
24. Summarize the main advantages and disadvantages of cloud computing services.
5. Discuss the distinction between centralized and decentralized conceptual database
25. Define SQL data services and list their advantages.
design.
Review Questions
Problems become
Problems
1. What is an information system? What is its purpose? progressively more
complex as students
2. How do systems analysis and systems development fit into a discussion about infor-
BK-CHE-CORONEL_MORRIS_12E-150049-Chp09.indd 477 draw on the lessons19/12/15 11:55 AM
mation
In the systems?
following exercises, you will set up database connectivity using MS Excel. learned from the
completion of preceding
3. Use
1. WhatMSdoes theto
Excel acronym
connectSDLC
to themean, and what does
Ch02_InsureCo MS an SDLC
Access portray?using ODBC,
database problems.
4. and
Whatretrieve all acronym
does the of the AGENTs.
DBLC mean, and what does a DBLC portray?
2.
5. Use MS the
Discuss Excel to connect
distinction to the Ch02_InsureCo
between centralized and MS Access database
decentralized usingdatabase
conceptual ODBC,
and retrieve all of the CUSTOMERs.
design.
3. Use MS Excel to connect to the Ch02_InsureCo MS Access database using ODBC,
xx Text
andFeatures
retrieve the customers whose AGENT_CODE is equal to 503.
4. Create a System DSN ODBC connection called Ch02_SaleCo using the Administra-
tive Editorial
Tools
Copyrightsection of the
2017 Cengage Learning. Windows
All Rights Control
Reserved. May not Panel.
be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
BK-CHE-CORONEL_MORRIS_12E-150049-Chp09.indd 477 19/12/15 11:55 AM
5. Use MS Excel to list all of the invoice lines for Invoice 103 using the Ch02_SaleCo
System DSN.
Additional Features
MindTap® for Database Systems 12e
MindTap® combines learning tools—such as readings, multimedia, activities, and assessments—
into a singular learning path that guides students through the course. You’ll find a full ebook as
well as a robust set of auto-gradable homework problems. Multiple-choice homework questions
developed from the end-of-chapter review questions confirm students’ understanding of core
concepts and key terms. Higher-level assignments enable students to practice database design
concepts in an automated environment, and chapter quizzes help prepare students for exams.
Students will also benefit from the chapter-opening videos created by the authors, as well as study
tools such as crossword puzzles and key-term flashcards.
MindTap® is designed to be fully integrated with any Learning Management System and can be
used as a stand-alone product or in conjunction with a print textbook.
Appendixes
Fifteen online appendixes provide additional material on a variety of important areas, such as
using Microsoft® Visio® and Microsoft® Access®, ER model notations, UML, object-oriented da-
tabases, databases and electronic commerce, and Adobe® ColdFusion®.
Database, SQL Script, and ColdFusion Files

The online materials for this book include all of the database structures and table contents used in
the text. For students using Oracle®, MySQL, and Microsoft SQL Server™, SQL scripts are included
to help students create and load all tables used in the SQL chapters (7 and 8). In addition, all Cold-
Fusion scripts used to develop the web interfaces in Appendix J are included.
Instructor Resources
Database Systems: Design, Implementation, and Management, Twelfth Edition, includes teaching
tools to support instructors in the classroom. The ancillary material that accompanies the text-
book is listed below. They are available on the web at www.cengagebrain.com.
Instructor’s Manual
The authors have created this manual to help instructors make their classes informative and inter-
esting. Because the authors tackle so many problems in depth, instructors will find the Instructor’s
Manual especially useful. The details of the design solution process are shown in the Instructor’s
Manual, as well as notes about alternative approaches that may be used to solve a particular problem.
SQL Script Files for Instructors

The authors have provided teacher’s SQL script files to allow instructors to cut and paste the
SQL code into the SQL windows. (Scripts are provided for Oracle, MySQL, and MS SQL Server.)
The SQL scripts, which have all been tested by Cengage Learning, are a major convenience for
instructors. You won’t have to type in the SQL commands, and the use of the scripts eliminates
typographical errors that are sometimes difficult to trace.
ColdFusion Files for Instructors

The ColdFusion web development solutions are provided. Instructors have access to a menu-
driven system that allows teachers to show the code as well as its execution.
Additional Features xxi
Databases
For many chapters, Microsoft® Access® instructor databases are available that include features
not found in the student databases. For example, the databases that accompany Chapters 7 and 8
include many of the queries that produce the problem solutions. Other Access databases, such as
the ones that accompany Chapters 3, 4, 5, and 6, include implementations of the design problem
solutions to allow instructors to illustrate the effect of design decisions. In addition, instructors
have access to all the script files for Oracle, MySQL, and MS SQL Server so that all the databases
and their tables can be converted easily and precisely.
Cengage Learning Testing Powered by Cognero

A flexible, online system that allows you to:
• Author, edit, and manage test bank content from multiple Cengage Learning solutions
• Create multiple test versions in an instant
• Deliver tests from your LMS, your classroom, or wherever you want
Start right away!
Cengage Learning Testing Powered by Cognero works on any operating system or browser.
• No special installs or downloads needed
• Create tests from school, home, the coffee shop—anywhere with Internet access
What will you find?
• Simplicity at every step. A desktop-inspired interface features drop-down menus and familiar,
intuitive tools that take you through content creation and management with ease.
• Full-featured test generator. Create ideal assessments with your choice of 15 question types
(including true/false, multiple-choice, opinion scale/Likert, and essay). Multi-language sup-
port, an equation editor, and unlimited metadata help ensure your tests are complete and
compliant.
• Cross-compatible capability. Import and export content into other systems.
PowerPoint® Presentations
Microsoft PowerPoint slides are included for each chapter. Instructors can use the slides in a vari-
ety of ways—for example, as teaching aids during classroom presentations or as printed handouts
for classroom distribution. Instructors can modify these slides or include slides of their own for
additional topics introduced to the class.
Figure Files
Figure files for solutions are presented in the Instructor’s Manual to allow instructors to create
their own presentations. Instructors can also manipulate these files to meet their particular needs.
xxii Additional Features
Acknowledgments
Regardless of how many editions of this book are published, they will always rest on the solid
foundation created by the first edition. We remain convinced that our work has become successful
because that first edition was guided by Frank Ruggirello, a former Wadsworth senior editor and
publisher. Aside from guiding the book’s development, Frank also managed to solicit the great
Peter Keen’s evaluation (thankfully favorable) and subsequently convinced Peter Keen to write the
foreword for the first edition. Although we sometimes found Frank to be an especially demanding
taskmaster, we also found him to be a superb professional and a fine friend. We suspect Frank will
still see his fingerprints all over our current work. Many thanks.
A difficult task in rewriting a book is deciding what new approaches, topical coverage, and
changes to depth of coverage are appropriate for a product that has successfully weathered the
test of the marketplace. The comments and suggestions made by the book’s adopters, students,
and reviewers play a major role in deciding what coverage is desirable and how that coverage is
to be treated.
Some adopters became extraordinary reviewers, providing incredibly detailed and well-rea-
soned critiques even as they praised the book’s coverage and style. Dr. David Hatherly, a superb
database professional who is a senior lecturer in the School of Information Technology, Charles
Sturt University–Mitchell, Bathhurst, Australia, made sure that we knew precisely what issues led
to his critiques. Even better for us, he provided the suggestions that made it much easier for us
to improve the topical coverage in earlier editions. All of his help was given freely and without
prompting on our part. His efforts are much appreciated, and our thanks are heartfelt.
We also owe a debt of gratitude to Professor Emil T. Cipolla, who teaches at St. Mary College.
Professor Cipolla’s wealth of IBM experience turned out to be a valuable resource when we tack-
led the embedded SQL coverage in Chapter 8.
Every technical book receives careful scrutiny by several groups of reviewers selected by the
publisher. We were fortunate to face the scrutiny of reviewers who were superbly qualified to of-
fer their critiques, comments, and suggestions—many of which strengthened this edition. While
holding them blameless for any remaining shortcomings, we owe these reviewers many thanks
for their contributions:
Mubarak Banisaklher, Bethune Gerald Karush, Southern

Cookman University New Hampshire University
David Bell, Pacific Union College Michael Kelly, Community College
Yurii Boreisha, Minnesota State of Rhode Island
University, Moorhead Timothy Koets, Grand Rapids
Laurie Crawford, Franklin Community College
University Klara Nelson, The University
Mel Goetting, Shawnee State of Tampa
University Chiso Okafor, Roxbury Community
Jeff Guan, University of Louisville College
William Hochstettler, Franklin Brandon Olson, The College of
University St. Scholastica
Laurene Hutchinson, Louisiana State James Reneau, Shawnee State
University, Baton Rouge University
Nitin Kale, University of Southern Julio Rivera, University of Alabama
California, Los Angeles at Birmingham
Acknowledgments xxiii
Ruth Robins, University of Houston, Andrew Smith, Marian University
Downtown Antonis Stylianou, University of North
Samuel Sambasivam, Azusa Pacific Carolina, Charlotte
University Brian West, University of Louisiana at
Paul Seibert, North Greenville Lafayette
University Nathan White, McKendree University
Ronghua Shan, Dakota State
University
In some respects, writing books resembles building construction: When 90 percent of the work
seems done, 90 percent of the work remains to be done. Fortunately for us, we had a great team
on our side.
• We are deeply indebted to Deb Kaufmann for her help and guidance. Deb has been everything
we could have hoped for in a development editor and more. Deb has been our editor for al-
most all the editions of this book, and the quality of her work shows in the attention to detail
and the cohesiveness and writing style of the material in this book.
• After writing so many books and twelve editions of this book, we know just how difficult
it can be to transform the authors’ work into an attractive product. The production team,
both at Cengage Learning (Nadia Saloom) and Cenveo Publisher Services (Saravanakumar
Dharman), have done an excellent job.
• We also owe Jennifer King and Ted Knight, our Content Developers, special thanks for their
ability to guide this book to a successful conclusion.
We also thank our students for their comments and suggestions. They are the reason for writing
this book in the first place. One comment stands out in particular: “I majored in systems for four
years, and I finally discovered why when I took your course.” And one of our favorite comments
by a former student was triggered by a question about the challenges created by a real-world in-
formation systems job: “Doc, it’s just like class, only easier. You really prepared me well. Thanks!”
Special thanks go to a very unique and charismatic gentleman. For over 20 years, Peter Rob has
been the driving force behind the creation and evolution of this book. This book originated as a
product of his drive and dedication to excellence. For over 22 years, he was the voice of Database
Systems and the driving force behind its advancement. We wish him peace in his retirement, time
with his loved ones, and luck on his many projects.
Last, and certainly not least, we thank our families for their solid support at home. They gra-
ciously accepted the fact that during more than a year’s worth of rewriting, there would be no free
weekends, rare free nights, and even rarer free days. We owe you much, and the dedications we
wrote are but a small reflection of the important space you occupy in our hearts.
Carlos Coronel and Steven Morris
xxiv Acknowledgments
PART 1
Database Concepts
1 Database Systems
2 Data Models
Chapter 1
Database Systems
In this chapter, you will learn:
• The difference between data and information
• What a database is, the various types of databases, and why they are valuable assets for
decision making
• The importance of database design
• How modern databases evolved from file systems
• About flaws in file system data management
• The main components of the database system
• The main functions of a database management system (DBMS)
Preview Organizations use data to keep track of their day-to-day operations. Such data is used to
generate information, which in turn is the basis for good decisions. Data is likely to be
managed most efficiently when it is stored in a database. Databases are involved in almost
all facets and activities of our daily lives: from school, to work, to medical care, govern-
ment, nonprofit organizations, and houses of worship. In this chapter, you will learn what
a database is, what it does, and why it yields better results than other data management
methods. You will also learn about various types of databases and why database design is
so important.
Databases evolved from computer file systems. Although file system data management
is now largely outmoded, understanding the characteristics of file systems is important
because file systems are the source of serious data management limitations. In this chap-
ter, you will also learn how the database system approach helps eliminate most of the
shortcomings of file system data management.
Data Files and Available Formats

MS Access Oracle MS SQL My SQL MS Access Oracle MS SQL My SQL
CH01_Text P P P P CH01_Problems P P P P
CH01_Design_Example P P P P
Data Files Available on cengagebrain.com
Chapter 1 Database Systems 3
1-1 Why Databases?

So, why do we need databases? In today’s world, data is ubiquitous (abundant, global, every-
where) and pervasive (unescapable, prevalent, persistent). From birth to death, we generate
and consume data. The trail of data starts with the birth certificate and continues all the way
to a death certificate (and beyond!). In between, each individual produces and consumes
enormous amounts of data. As you will see in this book, databases are the best way to store
and manage data. Databases make data persistent and shareable in a secure way. As you look
at Figure 1.1, can you identify some of the data generated by your own daily activities?
FIGURE 1.1 THE PERVASIVE NATURE OF DATABASES
A Day In Susan’s Life

See how many databases she interacts with each day
Before leaving for work, On her lunch break, After work, Susan At night, she plans for a trip Then she makes a few
Susan checks her she picks up her goes to the grocery and buys airline tickets and online purchases
Facebook and prescription at the store hotel reservations online
Twitter accounts pharmacy
C O CA
www.abc.com
Where is the data about the Where is the pharmacy Where is the product Where does the online Where are the product
friends and groups stored? inventory data stored? data stored? travel website get the and stock data stored?
airline and hotel data from?
Where are the “likes” stored What data about each Is the product quantity in Where does the system get
and what would they be product will be in the stock updated at checkout? What customer data would the data to generate product
used for? inventory data? be kept by the website? “recommendations” to the
Does she pay with a credit customer?
What data is kept about card? Where would the customer
each customer and where data be stored? Where would credit card
is it stored? information be stored?
Users Products Products Flights Products

Friends Sales Sales Hotels Sales
Posts Customers Customers Customers Customers
Data is not only ubiquitous and pervasive, it is essential for organizations to survive
and prosper. Imagine trying to operate a business without knowing who your customers
are, what products you are selling, who is working for you, who owes you money, and
to whom you owe money. All businesses have to keep this type of data and much more.
Just as important, they must have that data available to decision makers when necessary.
It can be argued that the ultimate purpose of all business information systems is to help
businesses use information as an organizational resource. At the heart of all of these
systems are the collection, storage, aggregation, manipulation, dissemination, and man-
agement of data.
Depending on the type of information system and the characteristics of the busi-
ness, this data could vary from a few megabytes on just one or two topics to terabytes
covering hundreds of topics within the business’s internal and external environment.
4 Part 1 Database Concepts
elecommunications companies, such as Sprint and AT&T, are known to have systems
T
that keep data on trillions of phone calls, with new data being added to the system at
speeds up to 70,000 calls per second! Not only do these companies have to store and man-
age immense collections of data, they have to be able to find any given fact in that data
quickly. Consider the case of Internet search staple Google. While Google is reluctant to
disclose many details about its data storage specifications, it is estimated that the company
responds to over 91 million searches per day across a collection of data that is several
terabytes in size. Impressively, the results of these searches are available almost instantly.
How can these businesses process this much data? How can they store it all, and then
quickly retrieve just the facts that decision makers want to know, just when they want to
know it? The answer is that they use databases. Databases, as explained in detail through-
out this book, are specialized structures that allow computer-based systems to store,
manage, and retrieve data very quickly. Virtually all modern business systems rely on
databases. Therefore, a good understanding of how these structures are created and their
proper use is vital for any information systems professional. Even if your career does not
take you down the amazing path of database design and development, databases will be a
key component of the systems that you use. In any case, you will probably make decisions
in your career based on information generated from data. Thus, it is important that you
know the difference between data and information.
1-2 Data versus Information

To understand what drives database design, you must understand the difference between
data and information. Data consists of raw facts. The word raw indicates that the facts
have not yet been processed to reveal their meaning. For example, suppose that a uni-
versity tracks data on faculty members for reporting to accrediting bodies. To get the
data for each faculty member into the database, you would provide a screen to allow for
convenient data entry, complete with drop-down lists, combo boxes, option buttons, and
other data-entry validation controls. Figure 1.2(a) shows a simple data-entry form from
a software package named Sedona. When the data is entered into the form and saved,
it is placed in the underlying database as raw data, as shown in Figure 1.2(b). Although
you now have the facts in hand, they are not particularly useful in this format. Reading
through hundreds of rows of data for faculty members does not provide much insight
into the overall makeup of the faculty. Therefore, you transform the raw data into a data
summary like the one shown in Figure 1.2(c). Now you can get quick answers to questions
such as “What percentage of the faculty in the Information Systems (INFS) department
are adjuncts?” In this case, you can quickly determine that 20 percent of the INFS faculty
members are adjunct faculty. Because graphics can enhance your ability to quickly extract
meaning from data, you show the data summary pie chart in Figure 1.2(d).
Information is the result of processing raw data to reveal its meaning. Data process-
ing can be as simple as organizing data to reveal patterns or as complex as making fore-
data casts or drawing inferences using statistical modeling. To reveal meaning, information
Raw facts, or facts that
have not yet been requires context. For example, an average temperature reading of 105 degrees does not
processed to reveal their mean much unless you also know its context: Is this reading in degrees Fahrenheit or
meaning to the end user. Celsius? Is this a machine temperature, a body temperature, or an outside air tempera-
information ture? Information can be used as the foundation for decision making. For example, the
The result of processing data summary for the faculty can provide accrediting bodies with insights that are useful
raw data to reveal its in determining whether to renew accreditation for the university.
meaning. Information
consists of transformed Keep in mind that raw data must be properly formatted for storage, processing, and
data and facilitates presentation. For example, dates might be stored in Julian calendar formats within the data-
decision making. base, but displayed in a variety of formats, such as day-month-year or month/day/year, for
FIGURE 1.2 TRANSFORMING RAW DATA INTO INFORMATION

a) Data entry screen b) Raw data
c) Information in summary format d) Information in graphical format
different purposes. Respondents’ yes/no responses might need to be converted to a Y/N or

0/1 format for data storage. More complex formatting is required when working with com-
plex data types, such as sounds, videos, or images.
In this “information age,” production of accurate, relevant, and timely information is the
key to good decision making. In turn, good decision making is the key to business survival in
a global market. We are now said to be entering the “knowledge age.”1
Data is the foundation of information, which is the bedrock of knowledge—that
is, the body of information and facts about a specific subject. Knowledge implies
familiarity, awareness, and understanding of information as it applies to an envi-
ronment. A key characteristic of knowledge is that “new” knowledge can be derived
from “old” knowledge.
Let’s summarize some key points:
knowledge
• Data constitutes the building blocks of information. The body of information
and facts about a
• Information is produced by processing data.
specific subject.
• Information is used to reveal the meaning of data. Knowledge implies
familiarity, awareness,
• Accurate, relevant, and timely information is the key to good decision making. and understanding of
• Good decision making is the key to organizational survival in a global e nvironment. information as it applies
to an environment. A
key characteristic is that
new knowledge can
Peter Drucker coined the phrase “knowledge worker” in 1959 in his book Landmarks of Tomorrow. In 1994,
1
be derived from old
Esther Dyson, George Keyworth, and Dr. Alvin Toffler introduced the concept of the “knowledge age.” knowledge.
Timely and useful information requires accurate data. Such data must be p roperly gen-
erated and stored in a format that is easy to access and process. In addition, like any basic
resource, the data environment must be managed carefully. Data management is a disci-
pline that focuses on the proper generation, storage, and retrieval of data. Given the crucial
role that data plays, it should not surprise you that data management is a core activity for
any business, government agency, service organization, or charity.
1-3 Introducing the Database

Efficient data management typically requires the use of a computer database. A database is a
shared, integrated computer structure that stores a collection of the following:
• End-user data—that is, raw facts of interest to the end user
• Metadata, or data about data, through which the end-user data is integrated and
managed
The metadata describes the data characteristics and the set of relationships that links
the data found within the database. For example, the metadata component stores infor-
mation such as the name of each data element, the type of values (numeric, dates, or text)
stored on each data element, and whether the data element can be left empty. The meta-
data provides information that complements and expands the value and use of the data.
In short, metadata presents a more complete picture of the data in the database. Given
the characteristics of metadata, you might hear a database described as a “collection of
self-describing data.”
data management A database management system (DBMS) is a collection of programs that manages
A process that focuses
on data collection, the database structure and controls access to the data stored in the database. In a sense,
storage, and retrieval. a database resembles a very well-organized electronic filing cabinet in which powerful
Common data software (the DBMS) helps manage the cabinet’s contents.
management functions
include addition,
deletion, modification, 1-3a Role and Advantages of the DBMS
and listing.
The DBMS serves as the intermediary between the user and the database. The database
database
A shared, integrated structure itself is stored as a collection of files, and the only way to access the data in
computer structure that those files is through the DBMS. Figure 1.3 emphasizes the point that the DBMS presents
houses a collection of the end user (or application program) with a single, integrated view of the data in the
related data. A database database. The DBMS receives all application requests and translates them into the com-
contains two types of
data: end-user data (raw
plex operations required to fulfill those requests. The DBMS hides much of the database’s
facts) and metadata. internal complexity from the application programs and users. The application program
metadata might be written by a programmer using a programming language, such as Visual Basic.
Data about data; that NET, Java, or C#, or it might be created through a DBMS utility program.
is, data about data Having a DBMS between the end user’s applications and the database offers some
characteristics and important advantages. First, the DBMS enables the data in the database to be shared
relationships. See also
data dictionary.
among multiple applications or users. Second, the DBMS integrates the many different
users’ views of the data into a single all-encompassing data r epository.
database
management
Because data is the crucial raw material from which information is derived, you must
system (DBMS) have a good method to manage such data. As you will discover in this book, the DBMS
The collection of helps make data management more efficient and effective. In particular, a DBMS pro-
programs that manages vides these advantages:
the database structure
and controls access to • Improved data sharing. The DBMS helps create an environment in which end users
the data stored in the have better access to more and better-managed data. Such access makes it possible for
database. end users to respond quickly to changes in their environment.
FIGURE 1.3 T HE DBMS MANAGES THE INTERACTION BETWEEN THE END USER
AND THE DATABASE
End users
Database structure
Application Metadata
Data
request
Customers
http:// DBMS Single
(Database View of data End-user
Invoices
management system) Integrated data
End users
Application Products
request Data
• Improved data security. The more users access the data, the greater the risks of data
security breaches. Corporations invest considerable amounts of time, effort, and
money to ensure that corporate data is used properly. A DBMS provides a framework
for better enforcement of data privacy and security policies.
• Better data integration. Wider access to well-managed data promotes an inte-
grated view of the organization’s operations and a clearer view of the big picture. It
becomes much easier to see how actions in one segment of the company affect other
segments.
• Minimized data inconsistency. Data inconsistency exists when different versions
of the same data appears in different places. For example, data inconsistency
exists when a company’s sales department stores a sales representative’s name as data inconsistency
Bill Brown and the company’s personnel department stores that same person’s A condition in which
name as William G. Brown, or when the company’s regional sales office shows the different versions of the
same data yield different
price of a product as $45.95 and its national sales office shows the same product’s
(inconsistent) results.
price as $43.95. The probability of data inconsistency is greatly reduced in a prop-
query
erly designed database. A question or task
• Improved data access. The DBMS makes it possible to produce quick answers to ad hoc asked by an end user
of a database in the
queries. From a database perspective, a query is a specific request issued to the DBMS
form of SQL code. A
for data manipulation—for example, to read or update the data. Simply put, a query specific request for data
is a question, and an ad hoc query is a spur-of-the-moment question. The DBMS manipulation issued
sends back an answer (called the query result set) to the application. For example, by the end user or the
when dealing with large amounts of sales data, end users might want quick answers to application to the DBMS.
questions (ad hoc queries). Some examples include the following: ad hoc query
A “spur-of-the-moment”
–– What was the dollar volume of sales by product during the past six months? question.
–– What is the sales bonus figure for each of our salespeople during the past three query result set
months? The collection of data
rows returned by a
–– How many of our customers have credit balances of $3,000 or more? query.
• Improved decision making. Better-managed data and improved data access make
it possible to generate better-quality information, on which better decisions are
based. The quality of the information generated depends on the quality of the
underlying data. Data quality is a comprehensive approach to promoting the accu-
racy, validity, and timeliness of the data. While the DBMS does not guarantee data
quality, it provides a framework to facilitate data quality initiatives. Data quality
concepts will be covered in more detail in Chapter 16, Database Administration
and Security.
data quality
A comprehensive
• Increased end-user productivity. The availability of data, combined with the tools
approach to ensuring that transform data into usable information, empowers end users to make quick,
the accuracy, validity, informed decisions that can make the difference between success and failure in
and timeliness of data. the global economy.
single-user database
The advantages of using a DBMS are not limited to the few just listed. In fact, you
A database that supports
only one user at a time. will discover many more advantages as you learn more about the technical details of
desktop database databases and their proper design.
A single-user database
that runs on a personal
computer. 1-3b Types of Databases
multiuser database
A database that supports
A DBMS can be used to build many different types of databases. Each database stores a
multiple concurrent particular collection of data and is used for a specific purpose. Over the years, as tech-
users. nology and innovative uses of databases have evolved, different methods have been used
workgroup database to classify databases. For example, databases can be classified by the number of users
A multiuser database supported, where the data is located, the type of data stored, the intended data usage, and
that usually supports the degree to which the data is structured.
fewer than 50 users or
The number of users determines whether the database is classified as single user or
is used for a specific
department in an multiuser. A single-user database supports only one user at a time. In other words, if
organization. user A is using the database, users B and C must wait until user A is done. A single-user
enterprise database database that runs on a personal computer is called a desktop database. In contrast,
The overall company a multiuser database supports multiple users at the same time. When the multiuser
data representation, database supports a relatively small number of users (usually fewer than 50) or a specific
which provides support
department within an organization, it is called a workgroup database. When the data-
for present and expected
future needs. base is used by the entire organization and supports many users (more than 50, usually
centralized database hundreds) across many departments, the database is known as an enterprise database.
A database located at a Location might also be used to classify the database. For example, a database that
single site. supports data located at a single site is called a centralized database. A database
distributed database that supports data distributed across several different sites is called a distributed
A logically related database. The extent to which a database can be distributed and the way in which
database that is stored in such distribution is managed are addressed in detail in Chapter 12, Distributed Data-
two or more physically
independent sites.
base Management Systems.
Both centralized and decentralized (distributed) databases require a well-defined
cloud database
A database that infrastructure (hardware, operating systems, network technologies, etc.) to implement
is created and and operate the database. Typically, the infrastructure is owned and maintained by the
maintained using organization that creates and operates the database. But in recent years, the use of cloud
cloud services, such databases has been growing in popularity. A cloud database is a database that is created
as Microsoft Azure
or Amazon AWS.
and maintained using cloud data services, such as Microsoft Azure or Amazon AWS.
These services, provided by third-party vendors, provide defined performance measures
general-purpose
database (data storage capacity, required throughput, and availability) for the database, but do not
A database that contains a necessarily specify the underlying infrastructure to implement it. The data owner does
wide variety of data used not have to know, or be concerned about, what hardware and software is being used
in multiple disciplines. to support their database. The performance capabilities can be renegotiated with the
cloud provider as the business demands on the database change. For example, during
discipline-specific
the 2012 presidential election in the United States, the Obama campaign used a cloud database
database hosted on infrastructure capabilities purchased from Amazon. The campaign A database that contains
did not have to buy, install, configure, or maintain any hardware, operating systems, or data focused on specific
network devices. It simply purchased storage and processing capacity for its data and subject areas.
applications. As the demands on the database increased, additional processing and stor- operational
age capabilities could be purchased as needed. database
A database designed
In some contexts, such as research environments, a popular way of classifying data-
primarily to support a
bases is according to the type of data stored in them. Using this criterion, databases company’s day-to-day
are grouped into two categories: general-purpose and discipline-specific databases. operations. Also known as
General-purpose databases contain a wide variety of data used in multiple disci- a transactional database,
plines—for example, a census database that contains general demographic data and OLTP database, or
production database.
the LexisNexis and ProQuest databases that contain newspaper, magazine, and journal
online transaction
articles for a variety of topics. Discipline-specific databases contain data focused on
processing (OLTP)
specific subject areas. The data in this type of database is used mainly for academic
database
or research purposes within a small set of disciplines. Examples of discipline-specific See operational database.
databases include financial data stored in databases such as CompuStat or CRSP transactional
(Center for Research in Security Prices), geographic information system (GIS) data- database
bases that store geospatial and other related data, and medical databases that store See operational database.
confidential medical history data. production database
The most popular way of classifying databases today, however, is based on how See operational database.
they will be used and on the time sensitivity of the information gathered from them. analytical database
For example, transactions such as product or service sales, payments, and supply A database focused
purchases reflect critical day-to-day operations. Such transactions must be recorded primarily on storing
historical data and
accurately and immediately. A database that is designed primarily to support a com- business metrics used
pany’s day-to-day operations is classified as an operational database, also known for tactical or strategic
as an online transaction processing (OLTP) database, transactional database, decision making.
or production database. In contrast, an analytical database focuses primarily data warehouse
on storing historical data and business metrics used exclusively for tactical or stra- A specialized database
tegic decision making. Such analysis typically requires extensive “data massaging” that stores historical
and aggregated data in
(data manipulation) to produce information on which to base pricing decisions, a format optimized for
sales forecasts, market strategies, and so on. Analytical databases allow the end user decision support.
to perform advanced analysis of business data using sophisticated tools. online analytical
Typically, analytical databases comprise two main components: a data warehouse and processing (OLAP)
an online analytical processing front end. The data warehouse is a specialized data- A set of tools that
base that stores data in a format optimized for decision support. The data warehouse provide advanced data
analysis for retrieving,
contains historical data obtained from the operational databases as well as data from
processing, and
other external sources. Online analytical processing (OLAP) is a set of tools that work modeling data from the
together to provide an advanced data analysis environment for retrieving, processing, data warehouse.
and modeling data from the data warehouse. In recent times, this area of database appli- business intelligence
cation has grown in importance and usage, to the point that it has evolved into its own A set of tools and
discipline: business intelligence. The term business intelligence describes a compre- processes used to
hensive approach to capture and process business data with the purpose of generating capture, collect, integrate,
store, and analyze data to
information to support business decision making. Chapter 13, Business Intelligence and support business decision
Data Warehouses, covers this topic in detail. making.
Databases can also be classified to reflect the degree to which the data is structured. unstructured data
Unstructured data is data that exists in its original (raw) state—that is, in the format Data that exists in its
in which it was collected. Therefore, unstructured data exists in a format that does not original, raw state; that is,
lend itself to the processing that yields information. Structured data is the result of for- in the format in which it
was collected.
matting unstructured data to facilitate storage, use, and the generation of information.
You apply structure (format) based on the type of processing that you intend to perform
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DANCE ON STILTS AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI
Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least

the Newala of to-day does; there was once another Newala in a lovely
valley at the foot of the plateau. I visited it and found scarcely a trace
of houses, only a Christian cemetery, with the graves of several
missionaries and their converts, remaining as a monument of its
former glories. But the surroundings are wonderfully beautiful. A
thick grove of splendid mango-trees closes in the weather-worn
crosses and headstones; behind them, combining the useful and the
agreeable, is a whole plantation of lemon-trees covered with ripe
fruit; not the small African kind, but a much larger and also juicier
imported variety, which drops into the hands of the passing traveller,
without calling for any exertion on his part. Old Newala is now under
the jurisdiction of the native pastor, Daudi, at Chingulungulu, who,
as I am on very friendly terms with him, allows me, as a matter of
course, the use of this lemon-grove during my stay at Newala.
FEET MUTILATED BY THE RAVAGES OF THE “JIGGER”
(Sarcopsylla penetrans)
The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley,

some 1,600 feet lower down. The way is not only long and fatiguing,
but the water, when we get it, is thoroughly bad. We are suffering not
only from this, but from the fact that the arrangements at Newala are
nothing short of luxurious. We have a separate kitchen—a hut built
against the boma palisade on the right of the baraza, the interior of
which is not visible from our usual position. Our two cooks were not
long in finding this out, and they consequently do—or rather neglect
to do—what they please. In any case they do not seem to be very
particular about the boiling of our drinking-water—at least I can
attribute to no other cause certain attacks of a dysenteric nature,
from which both Knudsen and I have suffered for some time. If a
man like Omari has to be left unwatched for a moment, he is capable
of anything. Besides this complaint, we are inconvenienced by the
state of our nails, which have become as hard as glass, and crack on
the slightest provocation, and I have the additional infliction of
pimples all over me. As if all this were not enough, we have also, for
the last week been waging war against the jigger, who has found his
Eldorado in the hot sand of the Makonde plateau. Our men are seen
all day long—whenever their chronic colds and the dysentery likewise
raging among them permit—occupied in removing this scourge of
Africa from their feet and trying to prevent the disastrous
consequences of its presence. It is quite common to see natives of
this place with one or two toes missing; many have lost all their toes,
or even the whole front part of the foot, so that a well-formed leg
ends in a shapeless stump. These ravages are caused by the female of
Sarcopsylla penetrans, which bores its way under the skin and there
develops an egg-sac the size of a pea. In all books on the subject, it is
stated that one’s attention is called to the presence of this parasite by
an intolerable itching. This agrees very well with my experience, so
far as the softer parts of the sole, the spaces between and under the
toes, and the side of the foot are concerned, but if the creature
penetrates through the harder parts of the heel or ball of the foot, it
may escape even the most careful search till it has reached maturity.
Then there is no time to be lost, if the horrible ulceration, of which
we see cases by the dozen every day, is to be prevented. It is much
easier, by the way, to discover the insect on the white skin of a
European than on that of a native, on which the dark speck scarcely
shows. The four or five jiggers which, in spite of the fact that I
constantly wore high laced boots, chose my feet to settle in, were
taken out for me by the all-accomplished Knudsen, after which I
thought it advisable to wash out the cavities with corrosive
sublimate. The natives have a different sort of disinfectant—they fill
the hole with scraped roots. In a tiny Makua village on the slope of
the plateau south of Newala, we saw an old woman who had filled all
the spaces under her toe-nails with powdered roots by way of
prophylactic treatment. What will be the result, if any, who can say?
The rest of the many trifling ills which trouble our existence are
really more comic than serious. In the absence of anything else to
smoke, Knudsen and I at last opened a box of cigars procured from
the Indian store-keeper at Lindi, and tried them, with the most
distressing results. Whether they contain opium or some other
narcotic, neither of us can say, but after the tenth puff we were both
“off,” three-quarters stupefied and unspeakably wretched. Slowly we
recovered—and what happened next? Half-an-hour later we were
once more smoking these poisonous concoctions—so insatiable is the
craving for tobacco in the tropics.
Even my present attacks of fever scarcely deserve to be taken
seriously. I have had no less than three here at Newala, all of which
have run their course in an incredibly short time. In the early
afternoon, I am busy with my old natives, asking questions and
making notes. The strong midday coffee has stimulated my spirits to
an extraordinary degree, the brain is active and vigorous, and work
progresses rapidly, while a pleasant warmth pervades the whole
body. Suddenly this gives place to a violent chill, forcing me to put on
my overcoat, though it is only half-past three and the afternoon sun
is at its hottest. Now the brain no longer works with such acuteness
and logical precision; more especially does it fail me in trying to
establish the syntax of the difficult Makua language on which I have
ventured, as if I had not enough to do without it. Under the
circumstances it seems advisable to take my temperature, and I do
so, to save trouble, without leaving my seat, and while going on with
my work. On examination, I find it to be 101·48°. My tutors are
abruptly dismissed and my bed set up in the baraza; a few minutes
later I am in it and treating myself internally with hot water and
lemon-juice.
Three hours later, the thermometer marks nearly 104°, and I make
them carry me back into the tent, bed and all, as I am now perspiring
heavily, and exposure to the cold wind just beginning to blow might
mean a fatal chill. I lie still for a little while, and then find, to my
great relief, that the temperature is not rising, but rather falling. This
is about 7.30 p.m. At 8 p.m. I find, to my unbounded astonishment,
that it has fallen below 98·6°, and I feel perfectly well. I read for an
hour or two, and could very well enjoy a smoke, if I had the
wherewithal—Indian cigars being out of the question.
Having no medical training, I am at a loss to account for this state
of things. It is impossible that these transitory attacks of high fever
should be malarial; it seems more probable that they are due to a
kind of sunstroke. On consulting my note-book, I become more and
more inclined to think this is the case, for these attacks regularly
follow extreme fatigue and long exposure to strong sunshine. They at
least have the advantage of being only short interruptions to my
work, as on the following morning I am always quite fresh and fit.
My treasure of a cook is suffering from an enormous hydrocele which
makes it difficult for him to get up, and Moritz is obliged to keep in
the dark on account of his inflamed eyes. Knudsen’s cook, a raw boy
from somewhere in the bush, knows still less of cooking than Omari;
consequently Nils Knudsen himself has been promoted to the vacant
post. Finding that we had come to the end of our supplies, he began
by sending to Chingulungulu for the four sucking-pigs which we had
bought from Matola and temporarily left in his charge; and when
they came up, neatly packed in a large crate, he callously slaughtered
the biggest of them. The first joint we were thoughtless enough to
entrust for roasting to Knudsen’s mshenzi cook, and it was
consequently uneatable; but we made the rest of the animal into a
jelly which we ate with great relish after weeks of underfeeding,
consuming incredible helpings of it at both midday and evening
meals. The only drawback is a certain want of variety in the tinned
vegetables. Dr. Jäger, to whom the Geographical Commission
entrusted the provisioning of the expeditions—mine as well as his
own—because he had more time on his hands than the rest of us,
seems to have laid in a huge stock of Teltow turnips,[46] an article of
food which is all very well for occasional use, but which quickly palls
when set before one every day; and we seem to have no other tins
left. There is no help for it—we must put up with the turnips; but I
am certain that, once I am home again, I shall not touch them for ten
years to come.
Amid all these minor evils, which, after all, go to make up the
genuine flavour of Africa, there is at least one cheering touch:
Knudsen has, with the dexterity of a skilled mechanic, repaired my 9
× 12 cm. camera, at least so far that I can use it with a little care.
How, in the absence of finger-nails, he was able to accomplish such a
ticklish piece of work, having no tool but a clumsy screw-driver for
taking to pieces and putting together again the complicated
mechanism of the instantaneous shutter, is still a mystery to me; but
he did it successfully. The loss of his finger-nails shows him in a light
contrasting curiously enough with the intelligence evinced by the
above operation; though, after all, it is scarcely surprising after his
ten years’ residence in the bush. One day, at Lindi, he had occasion
to wash a dog, which must have been in need of very thorough
cleansing, for the bottle handed to our friend for the purpose had an
extremely strong smell. Having performed his task in the most
conscientious manner, he perceived with some surprise that the dog
did not appear much the better for it, and was further surprised by
finding his own nails ulcerating away in the course of the next few
days. “How was I to know that carbolic acid has to be diluted?” he
mutters indignantly, from time to time, with a troubled gaze at his
mutilated finger-tips.
Since we came to Newala we have been making excursions in all
directions through the surrounding country, in accordance with old
habit, and also because the akida Sefu did not get together the tribal
elders from whom I wanted information so speedily as he had
promised. There is, however, no harm done, as, even if seen only
from the outside, the country and people are interesting enough.
The Makonde plateau is like a large rectangular table rounded off
at the corners. Measured from the Indian Ocean to Newala, it is
about seventy-five miles long, and between the Rovuma and the
Lukuledi it averages fifty miles in breadth, so that its superficial area
is about two-thirds of that of the kingdom of Saxony. The surface,
however, is not level, but uniformly inclined from its south-western
edge to the ocean. From the upper edge, on which Newala lies, the
eye ranges for many miles east and north-east, without encountering
any obstacle, over the Makonde bush. It is a green sea, from which
here and there thick clouds of smoke rise, to show that it, too, is
inhabited by men who carry on their tillage like so many other
primitive peoples, by cutting down and burning the bush, and
manuring with the ashes. Even in the radiant light of a tropical day
such a fire is a grand sight.
Much less effective is the impression produced just now by the
great western plain as seen from the edge of the plateau. As often as
time permits, I stroll along this edge, sometimes in one direction,
sometimes in another, in the hope of finding the air clear enough to
let me enjoy the view; but I have always been disappointed.
Wherever one looks, clouds of smoke rise from the burning bush,
and the air is full of smoke and vapour. It is a pity, for under more
favourable circumstances the panorama of the whole country up to
the distant Majeje hills must be truly magnificent. It is of little use
taking photographs now, and an outline sketch gives a very poor idea
of the scenery. In one of these excursions I went out of my way to
make a personal attempt on the Makonde bush. The present edge of
the plateau is the result of a far-reaching process of destruction
through erosion and denudation. The Makonde strata are
everywhere cut into by ravines, which, though short, are hundreds of
yards in depth. In consequence of the loose stratification of these
beds, not only are the walls of these ravines nearly vertical, but their
upper end is closed by an equally steep escarpment, so that the
western edge of the Makonde plateau is hemmed in by a series of
deep, basin-like valleys. In order to get from one side of such a ravine
to the other, I cut my way through the bush with a dozen of my men.
It was a very open part, with more grass than scrub, but even so the
short stretch of less than two hundred yards was very hard work; at
the end of it the men’s calicoes were in rags and they themselves
bleeding from hundreds of scratches, while even our strong khaki
suits had not escaped scatheless.
NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR

MAHUTA
I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time
back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have
no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human
occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very
slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not
yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid
timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed
forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled
his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process
may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main
road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe—
not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few
steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been
cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more,
between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last
pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a
melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them—
cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also
piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and
son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too
busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites
so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles
of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken
the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their
smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if
they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes,
perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.
This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the
virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already
cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble
of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the
secondary bush.
After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the
hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the
country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact,
receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in
the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains,
where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its
abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have
the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working
for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were
accustomed to rule.
But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no
harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has
been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in
time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe
and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and
lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and
desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by
man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and
even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth
is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible,
impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black
occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and
come back to his starting point.
The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.
According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing
else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been
settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great
stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the
south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence
their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the
Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast,
to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied
African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of
population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth
could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on
the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however,
correct.
The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us
of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the
thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau,
instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks
and springs of the low country.
“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern
side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was
nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never
washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.
He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree
growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the
bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and
was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the
Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a still-
born child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the
valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which
was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of
Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In
course of time, the couple had many more children, and called
themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the
Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their
forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to
bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who
was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also
warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams,
for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to
have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest watering-
place; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”
The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is
somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I
extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by
Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my
results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?
Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the
supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other
people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself
by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short,
woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is
likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is
nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from
various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood,
ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and
representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia,
Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well
done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the
keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and
meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably)
would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the
scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures
were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial
deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded
by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely
be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that
they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably
unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.
The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the
Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru
valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the
travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their
descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with
its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible
at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent
to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie
within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly
the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a
point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive
Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.
Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they
had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health
conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the
African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled
by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil
spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to
assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish
districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.
This knowledge is crystallized in the
ancestral warning against settling in the
valleys and near the great waters, the
dwelling-places of disease and death. At the
same time, for security against the hostile
Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted
that every settlement must be not less than a
certain distance from the southern edge of the
plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the
present day. It is not such a bad one, and
certainly they are both safer and more
comfortable than the Makua, the recent
intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF
good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR
plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of
country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings
anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain,
especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a
Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the
most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly
spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with
the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.
The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during
the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings
or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a
veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts
only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists
merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone
have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening
the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but
ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood
or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in
two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If
the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s
upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely
against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle
of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece
horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.
It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few
inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course
cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the
owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding
out how the back door is fastened.
MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

This is the general way of closing a house. The Makonde at Jumbe
Chauro, however, have a much more complicated, solid and original
one. Here, too, the door is as already described, except that there is
only one post on the inside, standing by itself about six inches from
one side of the doorway. Opposite this post is a hole in the wall just
large enough to admit a man’s arm. The door is closed inside by a
large wooden bolt passing through a hole in this post and pressing
with its free end against the door. The other end has three holes into
which fit three pegs running in vertical grooves inside the post. The
door is opened with a wooden key about a foot long, somewhat
curved and sloped off at the butt; the other end has three pegs
corresponding to the holes, in the bolt, so that, when it is thrust
through the hole in the wall and inserted into the rectangular
opening in the post, the pegs can be lifted and the bolt drawn out.[50]
MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY
With no small pride first one householder and then a second

showed me on the spot the action of this greatest invention of the
Makonde Highlands. To both with an admiring exclamation of
“Vizuri sana!” (“Very fine!”). I expressed the wish to take back these
marvels with me to Ulaya, to show the Wazungu what clever fellows
the Makonde are. Scarcely five minutes after my return to camp at
Newala, the two men came up sweating under the weight of two
heavy logs which they laid down at my feet, handing over at the same
time the keys of the fallen fortress. Arguing, logically enough, that if
the key was wanted, the lock would be wanted with it, they had taken
their axes and chopped down the posts—as it never occurred to them
to dig them out of the ground and so bring them intact. Thus I have
two badly damaged specimens, and the owners, instead of praise,
come in for a blowing-up.
The Makua huts in the environs of Newala are especially
miserable; their more than slovenly construction reminds one of the
temporary erections of the Makua at Hatia’s, though the people here
have not been concerned in a war. It must therefore be due to
congenital idleness, or else to the absence of a powerful chief. Even
the baraza at Mlipa’s, a short hour’s walk south-east of Newala,
shares in this general neglect. While public buildings in this country
are usually looked after more or less carefully, this is in evident
danger of being blown over by the first strong easterly gale. The only
attractive object in this whole district is the grave of the late chief
Mlipa. I visited it in the morning, while the sun was still trying with
partial success to break through the rolling mists, and the circular
grove of tall euphorbias, which, with a broken pot, is all that marks
the old king’s resting-place, impressed one with a touch of pathos.
Even my very materially-minded carriers seemed to feel something
of the sort, for instead of their usual ribald songs, they chanted
solemnly, as we marched on through the dense green of the Makonde
bush:—
“We shall arrive with the great master; we stand in a row and have
no fear about getting our food and our money from the Serkali (the
Government). We are not afraid; we are going along with the great
master, the lion; we are going down to the coast and back.”
With regard to the characteristic features of the various tribes here
on the western edge of the plateau, I can arrive at no other
conclusion than the one already come to in the plain, viz., that it is
impossible for anyone but a trained anthropologist to assign any
given individual at once to his proper tribe. In fact, I think that even
an anthropological specialist, after the most careful examination,
might find it a difficult task to decide. The whole congeries of peoples
collected in the region bounded on the west by the great Central
African rift, Tanganyika and Nyasa, and on the east by the Indian
Ocean, are closely related to each other—some of their languages are
only distinguished from one another as dialects of the same speech,
and no doubt all the tribes present the same shape of skull and
structure of skeleton. Thus, surely, there can be no very striking
differences in outward appearance.
Even did such exist, I should have no time
to concern myself with them, for day after day,
I have to see or hear, as the case may be—in
any case to grasp and record—an
extraordinary number of ethnographic
phenomena. I am almost disposed to think it
fortunate that some departments of inquiry, at
least, are barred by external circumstances.
Chief among these is the subject of iron-
working. We are apt to think of Africa as a
country where iron ore is everywhere, so to
speak, to be picked up by the roadside, and
where it would be quite surprising if the
inhabitants had not learnt to smelt the
material ready to their hand. In fact, the
knowledge of this art ranges all over the
continent, from the Kabyles in the north to the
Kafirs in the south. Here between the Rovuma
and the Lukuledi the conditions are not so
favourable. According to the statements of the
Makonde, neither ironstone nor any other
form of iron ore is known to them. They have
not therefore advanced to the art of smelting
the metal, but have hitherto bought all their
THE ANCESTRESS OF
THE MAKONDE
iron implements from neighbouring tribes.
Even in the plain the inhabitants are not much
better off. Only one man now living is said to
understand the art of smelting iron. This old fundi lives close to
Huwe, that isolated, steep-sided block of granite which rises out of
the green solitude between Masasi and Chingulungulu, and whose
jagged and splintered top meets the traveller’s eye everywhere. While
still at Masasi I wished to see this man at work, but was told that,
frightened by the rising, he had retired across the Rovuma, though
he would soon return. All subsequent inquiries as to whether the
fundi had come back met with the genuine African answer, “Bado”
(“Not yet”).
BRAZIER
Some consolation was afforded me by a brassfounder, whom I

came across in the bush near Akundonde’s. This man is the favourite
of women, and therefore no doubt of the gods; he welds the glittering
brass rods purchased at the coast into those massive, heavy rings
which, on the wrists and ankles of the local fair ones, continually give
me fresh food for admiration. Like every decent master-craftsman he
had all his tools with him, consisting of a pair of bellows, three
crucibles and a hammer—nothing more, apparently. He was quite
willing to show his skill, and in a twinkling had fixed his bellows on
the ground. They are simply two goat-skins, taken off whole, the four
legs being closed by knots, while the upper opening, intended to
admit the air, is kept stretched by two pieces of wood. At the lower
end of the skin a smaller opening is left into which a wooden tube is
stuck. The fundi has quickly borrowed a heap of wood-embers from
the nearest hut; he then fixes the free ends of the two tubes into an
earthen pipe, and clamps them to the ground by means of a bent
piece of wood. Now he fills one of his small clay crucibles, the dross
on which shows that they have been long in use, with the yellow
material, places it in the midst of the embers, which, at present are
only faintly glimmering, and begins his work. In quick alternation
the smith’s two hands move up and down with the open ends of the
bellows; as he raises his hand he holds the slit wide open, so as to let
the air enter the skin bag unhindered. In pressing it down he closes
the bag, and the air puffs through the bamboo tube and clay pipe into
the fire, which quickly burns up. The smith, however, does not keep
on with this work, but beckons to another man, who relieves him at
the bellows, while he takes some more tools out of a large skin pouch
carried on his back. I look on in wonder as, with a smooth round
stick about the thickness of a finger, he bores a few vertical holes into
the clean sand of the soil. This should not be difficult, yet the man
seems to be taking great pains over it. Then he fastens down to the
ground, with a couple of wooden clamps, a neat little trough made by
splitting a joint of bamboo in half, so that the ends are closed by the
two knots. At last the yellow metal has attained the right consistency,
and the fundi lifts the crucible from the fire by means of two sticks
split at the end to serve as tongs. A short swift turn to the left—a
tilting of the crucible—and the molten brass, hissing and giving forth
clouds of smoke, flows first into the bamboo mould and then into the
holes in the ground.
The technique of this backwoods craftsman may not be very far
advanced, but it cannot be denied that he knows how to obtain an
adequate result by the simplest means. The ladies of highest rank in
this country—that is to say, those who can afford it, wear two kinds
of these massive brass rings, one cylindrical, the other semicircular
in section. The latter are cast in the most ingenious way in the
bamboo mould, the former in the circular hole in the sand. It is quite
a simple matter for the fundi to fit these bars to the limbs of his fair
customers; with a few light strokes of his hammer he bends the
pliable brass round arm or ankle without further inconvenience to
the wearer.
SHAPING THE POT
SMOOTHING WITH MAIZE-COB
CUTTING THE EDGE

FINISHING THE BOTTOM
LAST SMOOTHING BEFORE

BURNING
FIRING THE BRUSH-PILE

LIGHTING THE FARTHER SIDE OF
THE PILE
TURNING THE RED-HOT VESSEL
NYASA WOMAN MAKING POTS AT MASASI

Pottery is an art which must always and everywhere excite the
interest of the student, just because it is so intimately connected with
the development of human culture, and because its relics are one of
the principal factors in the reconstruction of our own condition in
prehistoric times. I shall always remember with pleasure the two or
three afternoons at Masasi when Salim Matola’s mother, a slightly-
built, graceful, pleasant-looking woman, explained to me with
touching patience, by means of concrete illustrations, the ceramic art
of her people. The only implements for this primitive process were a
lump of clay in her left hand, and in the right a calabash containing
the following valuables: the fragment of a maize-cob stripped of all
its grains, a smooth, oval pebble, about the size of a pigeon’s egg, a
few chips of gourd-shell, a bamboo splinter about the length of one’s
hand, a small shell, and a bunch of some herb resembling spinach.
Nothing more. The woman scraped with the
shell a round, shallow hole in the soft, fine
sand of the soil, and, when an active young
girl had filled the calabash with water for her,
she began to knead the clay. As if by magic it
gradually assumed the shape of a rough but
already well-shaped vessel, which only wanted
a little touching up with the instruments
before mentioned. I looked out with the
MAKUA WOMAN closest attention for any indication of the use
MAKING A POT. of the potter’s wheel, in however rudimentary
SHOWS THE a form, but no—hapana (there is none). The
BEGINNINGS OF THE embryo pot stood firmly in its little
POTTER’S WHEEL
depression, and the woman walked round it in
a stooping posture, whether she was removing
small stones or similar foreign bodies with the maize-cob, smoothing
the inner or outer surface with the splinter of bamboo, or later, after
letting it dry for a day, pricking in the ornamentation with a pointed
bit of gourd-shell, or working out the bottom, or cutting the edge
with a sharp bamboo knife, or giving the last touches to the finished
vessel. This occupation of the women is infinitely toilsome, but it is
without doubt an accurate reproduction of the process in use among
our ancestors of the Neolithic and Bronze ages.
There is no doubt that the invention of pottery, an item in human
progress whose importance cannot be over-estimated, is due to
women. Rough, coarse and unfeeling, the men of the horde range
over the countryside. When the united cunning of the hunters has
succeeded in killing the game; not one of them thinks of carrying
home the spoil. A bright fire, kindled by a vigorous wielding of the
drill, is crackling beside them; the animal has been cleaned and cut
up secundum artem, and, after a slight singeing, will soon disappear
under their sharp teeth; no one all this time giving a single thought
to wife or child.
To what shifts, on the other hand, the primitive wife, and still more
the primitive mother, was put! Not even prehistoric stomachs could
endure an unvarying diet of raw food. Something or other suggested
the beneficial effect of hot water on the majority of approved but
indigestible dishes. Perhaps a neighbour had tried holding the hard
roots or tubers over the fire in a calabash filled with water—or maybe
an ostrich-egg-shell, or a hastily improvised vessel of bark. They
became much softer and more palatable than they had previously
been; but, unfortunately, the vessel could not stand the fire and got
charred on the outside. That can be remedied, thought our
ancestress, and plastered a layer of wet clay round a similar vessel.
This is an improvement; the cooking utensil remains uninjured, but
the heat of the fire has shrunk it, so that it is loose in its shell. The
next step is to detach it, so, with a firm grip and a jerk, shell and
kernel are separated, and pottery is invented. Perhaps, however, the
discovery which led to an intelligent use of the burnt-clay shell, was
made in a slightly different way. Ostrich-eggs and calabashes are not
to be found in every part of the world, but everywhere mankind has
arrived at the art of making baskets out of pliant materials, such as
bark, bast, strips of palm-leaf, supple twigs, etc. Our inventor has no
water-tight vessel provided by nature. “Never mind, let us line the
basket with clay.” This answers the purpose, but alas! the basket gets
burnt over the blazing fire, the woman watches the process of
cooking with increasing uneasiness, fearing a leak, but no leak
appears. The food, done to a turn, is eaten with peculiar relish; and
the cooking-vessel is examined, half in curiosity, half in satisfaction
at the result. The plastic clay is now hard as stone, and at the same
time looks exceedingly well, for the neat plaiting of the burnt basket
is traced all over it in a pretty pattern. Thus, simultaneously with
pottery, its ornamentation was invented.
Primitive woman has another claim to respect. It was the man,
roving abroad, who invented the art of producing fire at will, but the
woman, unable to imitate him in this, has been a Vestal from the
earliest times. Nothing gives so much trouble as the keeping alight of
the smouldering brand, and, above all, when all the men are absent
from the camp. Heavy rain-clouds gather, already the first large
drops are falling, the first gusts of the storm rage over the plain. The
little flame, a greater anxiety to the woman than her own children,
flickers unsteadily in the blast. What is to be done? A sudden thought
occurs to her, and in an instant she has constructed a primitive hut
out of strips of bark, to protect the flame against rain and wind.
This, or something very like it, was the way in which the principle
of the house was discovered; and even the most hardened misogynist
cannot fairly refuse a woman the credit of it. The protection of the
hearth-fire from the weather is the germ from which the human
dwelling was evolved. Men had little, if any share, in this forward
step, and that only at a late stage. Even at the present day, the
plastering of the housewall with clay and the manufacture of pottery
are exclusively the women’s business. These are two very significant
survivals. Our European kitchen-garden, too, is originally a woman’s
invention, and the hoe, the primitive instrument of agriculture, is,
characteristically enough, still used in this department. But the
noblest achievement which we owe to the other sex is unquestionably
the art of cookery. Roasting alone—the oldest process—is one for
which men took the hint (a very obvious one) from nature. It must
have been suggested by the scorched carcase of some animal
overtaken by the destructive forest-fires. But boiling—the process of
improving organic substances by the help of water heated to boiling-
point—is a much later discovery. It is so recent that it has not even
yet penetrated to all parts of the world. The Polynesians understand
how to steam food, that is, to cook it, neatly wrapped in leaves, in a
hole in the earth between hot stones, the air being excluded, and
(sometimes) a few drops of water sprinkled on the stones; but they
do not understand boiling.
To come back from this digression, we find that the slender Nyasa
woman has, after once more carefully examining the finished pot,
put it aside in the shade to dry. On the following day she sends me
word by her son, Salim Matola, who is always on hand, that she is
going to do the burning, and, on coming out of my house, I find her
already hard at work. She has spread on the ground a layer of very
dry sticks, about as thick as one’s thumb, has laid the pot (now of a
yellowish-grey colour) on them, and is piling brushwood round it.
My faithful Pesa mbili, the mnyampara, who has been standing by,
most obligingly, with a lighted stick, now hands it to her. Both of
them, blowing steadily, light the pile on the lee side, and, when the
flame begins to catch, on the weather side also. Soon the whole is in a
blaze, but the dry fuel is quickly consumed and the fire dies down, so
that we see the red-hot vessel rising from the ashes. The woman
turns it continually with a long stick, sometimes one way and
sometimes another, so that it may be evenly heated all over. In
twenty minutes she rolls it out of the ash-heap, takes up the bundle
of spinach, which has been lying for two days in a jar of water, and
sprinkles the red-hot clay with it. The places where the drops fall are
marked by black spots on the uniform reddish-brown surface. With a
sigh of relief, and with visible satisfaction, the woman rises to an
erect position; she is standing just in a line between me and the fire,
from which a cloud of smoke is just rising: I press the ball of my
camera, the shutter clicks—the apotheosis is achieved! Like a
priestess, representative of her inventive sex, the graceful woman
stands: at her feet the hearth-fire she has given us beside her the
invention she has devised for us, in the background the home she has
built for us.
At Newala, also, I have had the manufacture of pottery carried on
in my presence. Technically the process is better than that already
described, for here we find the beginnings of the potter’s wheel,
which does not seem to exist in the plains; at least I have seen
nothing of the sort. The artist, a frightfully stupid Makua woman, did
not make a depression in the ground to receive the pot she was about
to shape, but used instead a large potsherd. Otherwise, she went to
work in much the same way as Salim’s mother, except that she saved
herself the trouble of walking round and round her work by squatting
at her ease and letting the pot and potsherd rotate round her; this is
surely the first step towards a machine. But it does not follow that
the pot was improved by the process. It is true that it was beautifully
rounded and presented a very creditable appearance when finished,
but the numerous large and small vessels which I have seen, and, in
part, collected, in the “less advanced” districts, are no less so. We
moderns imagine that instruments of precision are necessary to
produce excellent results. Go to the prehistoric collections of our
museums and look at the pots, urns and bowls of our ancestors in the
dim ages of the past, and you will at once perceive your error.
MAKING LONGITUDINAL CUT IN
BARK
DRAWING THE BARK OFF THE LOG
REMOVING THE OUTER BARK

BEATING THE BARK
WORKING THE BARK-CLOTH AFTER BEATING, TO MAKE IT

SOFT
MANUFACTURE OF BARK-CLOTH AT NEWALA

To-day, nearly the whole population of German East Africa is
clothed in imported calico. This was not always the case; even now in
some parts of the north dressed skins are still the prevailing wear,
and in the north-western districts—east and north of Lake
Tanganyika—lies a zone where bark-cloth has not yet been
superseded. Probably not many generations have passed since such
bark fabrics and kilts of skins were the only clothing even in the
south. Even to-day, large quantities of this bright-red or drab
material are still to be found; but if we wish to see it, we must look in
the granaries and on the drying stages inside the native huts, where
it serves less ambitious uses as wrappings for those seeds and fruits
which require to be packed with special care. The salt produced at
Masasi, too, is packed for transport to a distance in large sheets of
bark-cloth. Wherever I found it in any degree possible, I studied the
process of making this cloth. The native requisitioned for the
purpose arrived, carrying a log between two and three yards long and
as thick as his thigh, and nothing else except a curiously-shaped
mallet and the usual long, sharp and pointed knife which all men and
boys wear in a belt at their backs without a sheath—horribile dictu!
[51]
Silently he squats down before me, and with two rapid cuts has
drawn a couple of circles round the log some two yards apart, and
slits the bark lengthwise between them with the point of his knife.
With evident care, he then scrapes off the outer rind all round the
log, so that in a quarter of an hour the inner red layer of the bark
shows up brightly-coloured between the two untouched ends. With
some trouble and much caution, he now loosens the bark at one end,
and opens the cylinder. He then stands up, takes hold of the free
edge with both hands, and turning it inside out, slowly but steadily
pulls it off in one piece. Now comes the troublesome work of
scraping all superfluous particles of outer bark from the outside of
the long, narrow piece of material, while the inner side is carefully
scrutinised for defective spots. At last it is ready for beating. Having
signalled to a friend, who immediately places a bowl of water beside
him, the artificer damps his sheet of bark all over, seizes his mallet,
lays one end of the stuff on the smoothest spot of the log, and
hammers away slowly but continuously. “Very simple!” I think to
myself. “Why, I could do that, too!”—but I am forced to change my
opinions a little later on; for the beating is quite an art, if the fabric is
not to be beaten to pieces. To prevent the breaking of the fibres, the
stuff is several times folded across, so as to interpose several
thicknesses between the mallet and the block. At last the required
state is reached, and the fundi seizes the sheet, still folded, by both
ends, and wrings it out, or calls an assistant to take one end while he
holds the other. The cloth produced in this way is not nearly so fine
and uniform in texture as the famous Uganda bark-cloth, but it is
quite soft, and, above all, cheap.
Now, too, I examine the mallet. My craftsman has been using the
simpler but better form of this implement, a conical block of some
hard wood, its base—the striking surface—being scored across and
across with more or less deeply-cut grooves, and the handle stuck
into a hole in the middle. The other and earlier form of mallet is
shaped in the same way, but the head is fastened by an ingenious
network of bark strips into the split bamboo serving as a handle. The
observation so often made, that ancient customs persist longest in
connection with religious ceremonies and in the life of children, here
finds confirmation. As we shall soon see, bark-cloth is still worn
during the unyago,[52] having been prepared with special solemn
ceremonies; and many a mother, if she has no other garment handy,
will still put her little one into a kilt of bark-cloth, which, after all,
looks better, besides being more in keeping with its African
surroundings, than the ridiculous bit of print from Ulaya.
MAKUA WOMEN

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Database Systems Design,

Implementation, and Management 12th

Chapter 2: Data Models 35

Part 2: Design Concepts 71

Chapter 4: Entity Relationship (ER) Modeling 117

Chapter 5: Advanced Data Modeling 169

Chapter 6: Normalization of Database Tables 201

Part 3: Advanced Design and Implementation 245

Chapter 8: Advanced SQL 340

Chapter 9: Database Design 439

Chapter 11: Database Performance Tuning

Chapter 12: Distributed Database Management Systems 553

Chapter 13: Business Intelligence and Data Warehouses 589

Chapter 14: Big Data Analytics and NoSQL 648

Part 5: Databases and the Internet 679

Part 6: Database Administration 721

Appendix A1: Designing Databases with Visio Professional 2010: A Tutorial

Changes to The Twelfth Edition

Teaching Database: A Matter of

Database Design and Implementation Focus Database Management Focus

Supplementary Reading Supplementary Reading

relational table that • A known, but missing, attribute value

Database, SQL Script, and ColdFusion Files

SQL Script Files for Instructors

ColdFusion Files for Instructors

Additional Features xxi

Cengage Learning Testing Powered by Cognero

xxii Additional Features

Mubarak Banisaklher, Bethune Gerald Karush, Southern

Carlos Coronel and Steven Morris

Data Files and Available Formats

Data Files Available on cengagebrain.com

1-1 Why Databases?

FIGURE 1.1 THE PERVASIVE NATURE OF DATABASES

A Day In Susan’s Life

Users Products Products Flights Products

1-2 Data versus Information

FIGURE 1.2 TRANSFORMING RAW DATA INTO INFORMATION

c) Information in summary format d) Information in graphical format

different purposes. Respondents’ yes/no responses might need to be converted to a Y/N or

1-3 Introducing the Database

Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least

The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley,

NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR

MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY

With no small pride first one householder and then a second

Some consolation was afforded me by a brassfounder, whom I

SMOOTHING WITH MAIZE-COB

CUTTING THE EDGE

LAST SMOOTHING BEFORE

FIRING THE BRUSH-PILE

TURNING THE RED-HOT VESSEL

NYASA WOMAN MAKING POTS AT MASASI

DRAWING THE BARK OFF THE LOG

REMOVING THE OUTER BARK

WORKING THE BARK-CLOTH AFTER BEATING, TO MAKE IT

MANUFACTURE OF BARK-CLOTH AT NEWALA

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