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To the founders and key figures of the theories presented
in this book—with appreciation for their contributions
to contemporary counseling practice.
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About the Author
Gerald Corey is Professor Emeritus of Human Services and Counseling at

California State University at Fullerton. He received his doctorate in counseling
from the University of Southern California. He is a Diplomate in Counseling Psy-
chology, American Board of Professional Psychology; a licensed psychologist; and a
National Certified Counselor. He is a Fellow of the American Psychological Associa-
tion (Division 17, Counseling Psychology; and Division 49, Group Psychotherapy);
a Fellow of the American Counseling Association; and a Fellow of the Association
for Specialists in Group Work. He also holds memberships in the American Group
Psychotherapy Association; the American Mental Health Counselors Association;
the Association for Spiritual, Ethical, and Religious Values in Counseling; the Asso-
ciation for Counselor Education and Supervision; and the Western Association of
Counselor Education and Supervision. Both Jerry and Marianne Corey received the
Lifetime Achievement Award from the American Mental Health Counselors Associ-
ation in 2011, and both of them received the Eminent Career Award from ASGW in
2001. Jerry was given the Outstanding Professor of the Year Award from California
State University at Fullerton in 1991. He regularly teaches both undergraduate and
graduate courses in group counseling and ethics in counseling. He is the author or
coauthor of 15 textbooks in counseling currently in print, along with more than 60
journal articles and book chapters. Several of his books have been translated into
other languages. Theory and Practice of Counseling and Psychotherapy has been trans-
lated into Arabic, Indonesian, Portuguese, Turkish, Korean, and Chinese. Theory and
Practice of Group Counseling has been translated into Korean, Chinese, Spanish, and
Russian. Issues and Ethics in the Helping Professions has been translated into Korean,
Japanese, and Chinese.
In the past 40 years Jerry and Marianne Corey have conducted group counsel-
ing training workshops for mental health professionals at many universities in the
United States as well as in Canada, Mexico, China, Hong Kong, Korea, Germany,
Belgium, Scotland, England, and Ireland. In his leisure time, Jerry likes to travel,
hike and bicycle in the mountains, and drive his 1931 Model A Ford. Marianne
and Jerry have been married since 1964. They have two adult daughters, Heidi and
Cindy, two granddaughters (Kyla and Keegan), and one grandson (Corey).
Recent publications by Jerry Corey, all with Cengage Learning, include:
Theory and Practice of Group Counseling, Ninth Edition (and Student Manual)
(2016)
Becoming a Helper, Seventh Edition (2016, with Marianne Schneider
Corey)
Issues and Ethics in the Helping Professions, Ninth Edition (2015, with Mari-
anne Schneider Corey, Cindy Corey, and Patrick Callanan)
Group Techniques, Fourth Edition (2015, with Marianne Schneider
Corey, Patrick Callanan, and J. Michael Russell)
Groups: Process and Practice, Ninth Edition (2014, with Marianne Schnei-
der Corey and Cindy Corey)
iv
I Never Knew I Had a Choice, Tenth Edition (2014, with Marianne Schneider
Corey)
Case Approach to Counseling and Psychotherapy, Eighth Edition (2013)
The Art of Integrative Counseling, Third Edition (2013)
Jerry Corey is coauthor (with Barbara Herlihy) of Boundary Issues in Counseling:

Multiple Roles and Responsibilities, Third Edition (2015) and ACA Ethical Standards Case-
book, Seventh Edition (2015); he is coauthor (with Robert Haynes, Patrice Moulton,
and Michelle Muratori) of Clinical Supervision in the Helping Professions: A Practical
Guide, Second Edition (2010); he is the author of Creating Your Professional Path: Les-
sons From My Journey (2010). All four of these books are published by the American
Counseling Association.
He has also made several educational DVD programs on various aspects of
counseling practice: (1) Ethics in Action: DVD and Workbook (2015, with Marianne
Schneider Corey and Robert Haynes); (2) Groups in Action: Evolution and Challenges
DVD and Workbook (2014, with Marianne Schneider Corey and Robert Haynes);
(3) DVD for Theory and Practice of Counseling and Psychotherapy: The Case of Stan and
Lecturettes (2013); (4) DVD for Integrative Counseling: The Case of Ruth and Lecturettes (2013,
with Robert Haynes); and (5) DVD for Theory and Practice of Group Counseling (2012).
All of these programs are available through Cengage Learning.
Contents
Preface xi Where to Go From Here 53
Recommended Supplementary Readings for
Part 1 54
PA R T 1
BASIC ISSUES IN PA R T 2
COUNSELING PRACTICE
THEORIES AND TECHNIQUES
1 Introduction and Overview 1 OF COUNSELING
Introduction 2
Where I Stand 3
4
Psychoanalytic Therapy 57
Suggestions for Using the Book 5 Introduction 58
Overview of the Theory Chapters 6 Key Concepts 59
Introduction to the Case of Stan 9 The Therapeutic Process 66
Introduction to the Case of Gwen 13 Application: Therapeutic Techniques and
Procedures 72
Jung’s Perspective on the Development of
2 The Counselor: Person and Personality 77
Professional 17 Contemporary Trends: Object-Relations
Introduction 18 Theory, Self Psychology, and Relational
The Counselor as a Therapeutic Person 18 Psychoanalysis 79
Personal Therapy for the Counselor 20 Psychoanalytic Therapy From a Multicultural
The Counselor’s Values and the Therapeutic Process 22 Perspective 84
Becoming an Effective Multicultural Counselor 25 Psychoanalytic Therapy Applied to the Case of
Stan 85
Issues Faced by Beginning Therapists 28
Psychoanalytic Therapy Applied to the Case of
Summary 35
Gwen 87
Summary and Evaluation 89
3 Ethical Issues in Counseling Self-Reflection and Discussion Questions 92
Practice 37 Where to Go From Here 92
Introduction 38 Recommended Supplementary Readings 93
Putting Clients’ Needs Before Your Own 38
Ethical Decision Making 39 5 Adlerian Therapy 95
The Right of Informed Consent 41 Introduction 98
Dimensions of Confidentiality 42 Key Concepts 98
Ethical Issues From a Multicultural Perspective 43 The Therapeutic Process 104
Ethical Issues in the Assessment Process 45 Application: Therapeutic Techniques and
Ethical Aspects of Evidence-Based Practice 48 Procedures 108
Managing Multiple Relationships in Counseling Adlerian Therapy From a Multicultural
Practice 49 Perspective 119
Becoming an Ethical Counselor 52 Adlerian Therapy Applied to the Case of Stan 121
Summary 53 Adlerian Therapy Applied to the Case of Gwen 122
vii
viii C o n t e nt s
Summary and Evaluation 124 Application: Therapeutic Techniques and

Self-Reflection and Discussion Questions 126 Procedures 211
Where to Go From Here 127 Gestalt Therapy From a Multicultural
Recommended Supplementary Readings 128 Perspective 220
Gestalt Therapy Applied to the Case of Stan 221
6 Existential Therapy 129 Gestalt Therapy Applied to the Case of Gwen 223
Introduction 132 Summary and Evaluation 224
Key Concepts 137 Self-Reflection and Discussion Questions 227
The Therapeutic Process 146 Where to Go From Here 227
Application: Therapeutic Techniques and Recommended Supplementary Readings 229
Procedures 149
Existential Therapy From a Multicultural 9 Behavior Therapy 231
Perspective 153 Introduction 233
Existential Therapy Applied to the Case Key Concepts 236
of Stan 155 The Therapeutic Process 238
Existential Therapy Applied to the Case Application: Therapeutic Techniques and
of Gwen 156 Procedures 240
Summary and Evaluation 157 Behavior Therapy From a Multicultural
Self-Reflection and Discussion Questions 160 Perspective 258
Where to Go From Here 160 Behavior Therapy Applied to the Case of Stan 259
Recommended Supplementary Readings 162 Behavior Therapy Applied to the Case of Gwen 260
7 Person-Centered Therapy 163 Self-Reflection and Discussion Questions 265
Introduction 165 Where to Go From Here 266
Key Concepts 170 Recommended Supplementary Readings 267
The Therapeutic Process 171
Application: Therapeutic Techniques and 10 Cognitive Behavior Therapy 269
Procedures 176
Introduction 270
Person-Centered Expressive Arts
Albert Ellis’s Rational Emotive Behavior
Therapy 180
Therapy 270
Motivational Interviewing 182
Key Concepts 272
Person-Centered Therapy From a Multicultural
The Therapeutic Process 273
Perspective 184
Application: Therapeutic Techniques and
Person-Centered Therapy Applied to the Case
of Stan 186 Procedures 275
Person-Centered Therapy Applied to the Case Aaron Beck’s Cognitive Therapy 281
of Gwen 187 Christine Padesky and Kathleen Mooney’s
Summary and Evaluation 190 Strengths-Based Cognitive Behavioral Therapy 289
Self-Reflection and Discussion Questions 193 Donald Meichenbaum’s Cognitive Behavior
Modification 293
Where to Go From Here 193
Cognitive Behavior Therapy From a Multicultural
Recommended Supplementary Readings 195
Perspective 298
Cognitive Behavior Therapy Applied to the Case
8 Gestalt Therapy 197 of Stan 300
Introduction 199 Cognitive Behavior Therapy Applied to the Case
Key Concepts 200 of Gwen 302
The Therapeutic Process 206 Summary and Evaluation 303
C on ten t s ix
Self-Reflection and Discussion Questions 307 Postmodern Approaches Applied to the Case of
Where to Go From Here 308 Gwen 394
Recommended Supplementary Readings 310 Summary and Evaluation 396
Self-Reflection and Discussion Questions 398
11 Choice Theory/Reality Where to Go From Here 399
Therapy 311 Recommended Supplementary Readings 400
Introduction 313
Key Concepts 314 14 Family Systems Therapy 403
The Therapeutic Process 318 Introduction 404
Application: Therapeutic Techniques and Development of Family Systems Therapy 406
Procedures 320 A Multilayered Process of Family Therapy 409
Choice Theory/Reality Therapy From a Multicultural Family Systems Therapy From a Multicultural
Perspective 327 Perspective 415
Reality Therapy Applied to the Case of Stan 329 Family Therapy Applied to the Case of Stan 417
Reality Therapy Applied to the Case of Gwen 331 Family Therapy Applied to the Case of Gwen 420
Summary and Evaluation 332 Summary and Evaluation 422
Self-Reflection and Discussion Questions 334 Self-Reflection and Discussion Questions 424
Where to Go From Here 334 Where to Go From Here 424
Recommended Supplementary Readings 336 Recommended Supplementary Readings 425
12 Feminist Therapy 337 PA R T 3

Introduction 339 INTEGRATION AND APPLICATION
Key Concepts 341
The Therapeutic Process 345 15 An Integrative Perspective 427
Application: Therapeutic Techniques and
Introduction 428
Procedures 348
The Movement Toward Psychotherapy
Feminist Therapy From a Multicultural
Integration 428
and Social Justice Perspective 354
Issues Related to the Therapeutic Process 437
Feminist Therapy Applied to the Case of Stan 355
Feminist Therapy Applied to the Case of Gwen 357 The Place of Techniques and Evaluation in
Counseling 443
An Integrative Approach Applied to the Case
Self-Reflection and Discussion Questions 364 of Stan 452
Where to Go From Here 364 An Integrative Approach Applied to the Case
Recommended Supplementary Readings 366 of Gwen 455
Summary 456
13 Postmodern Approaches 367 Concluding Comments 457
Some Contemporary Founders of Postmodern Self-Reflection and Discussion Questions 458
Therapies 368 Where to Go From Here 458
Introduction to Social Constructionism 368 Recommended Supplementary Readings 459
Solution-Focused Brief Therapy 371
Narrative Therapy 382
References and Suggested Readings 461
Postmodern Approaches From a Multicultural
Perspective 390 Name Index 481
Postmodern Approaches Applied to the Case
of Stan 392 Subject Index 485
Preface to Tenth Edition
T his book is intended for counseling courses for undergraduate and graduate
students in psychology, counselor education, human services, and the mental
health professions. It surveys the major concepts and practices of the contemporary
therapeutic systems and addresses some ethical and professional issues in counsel-
ing practice. The book aims to teach students to select wisely from various theories
and techniques and to begin to develop a personal style of counseling.
I have found that students appreciate an overview of the divergent contempo-
rary approaches to counseling and psychotherapy. They also consistently say that
the first course in counseling means more to them when it deals with them person-
ally. Therefore, I stress the practical applications of the material and encourage per-
sonal reflection. Using this book can be both a personal and an academic learning
experience.
In this tenth edition, every effort has been made to retain the major qualities
that students and professors have found useful in the previous editions: the succinct
overview of the key concepts of each theory and their implications for practice, the
straightforward and personal style, and the book’s comprehensive scope. Care has
been taken to present the theories in an accurate and fair way. I have attempted to
be simple, clear, and concise. Because many students want suggestions for supple-
mentary reading as they study each therapy approach, I have included an updated
reading list at the end of each chapter and a list of references for each chapter at the
end of the book.
This tenth edition updates the material and refines existing discussions. Part 1
deals with issues that are basic to the practice of counseling and psychotherapy.
Chapter 1 puts the book into perspective, then students are introduced to the
counselor—as a person and a professional—in Chapter 2. This chapter addresses a
number of topics pertaining to the role of the counselor as a person and the ther-
apeutic relationship. Chapter 3 introduces students to some key ethical issues in
counseling practice, and several of the topics in this chapter have been updated and
expanded. Expanded coverage is given to the ACA’s 2014 Code of Ethics.
Part 2 is devoted to a consideration of 11 theories of counseling. Each of the
theory chapters follows a common organizational pattern, and students can easily
compare and contrast the various models. This pattern includes core topics such as
key concepts, the therapeutic process, therapeutic techniques and procedures, mul-
ticultural perspectives, the theory applied to the case of Stan and new to this edition
to the case of Gwen, and summary and evaluation. In this tenth edition, each of the
chapters in Part 2 has been revised, updated, and expanded to reflect recent trends,
and references have been updated as well. Revisions were based on the recommenda-
tions of experts in each theory, all of whom are listed in the Acknowledgments sec-
tion. Attention was given to current trends and recent developments in the practice
of each theoretical approach.
xi
xii P r e fac e to T e n t h E d it ion
Each of the 11 theory chapters summarizes key points and evaluates the con-
tributions, strengths, limitations, and applications of these theories. Special atten-
tion is given to evaluating each theory from a multicultural perspective as well, with
a commentary on the strengths and shortcomings of the theory in working with
diverse client populations. The consistent organization of the summary and evalu-
ation sections makes comparing theories easier. Students are given recommenda-
tions regarding where to look for further training for all of the approaches in the
Where To Go From Here sections at the end of the chapter. Updated annotated lists of
reading suggestions along with DVD resources are offered to stimulate students to
expand on the material and broaden their learning.
In Part 3, Chapter 15 develops the notion that an integrative approach to coun-
seling practice is in keeping with meeting the needs of diverse client populations in
many different settings. Numerous tables and other integrating material help stu-
dents compare and contrast the 11 approaches.
What’s New in This Tenth Edition

Features of the tenth edition include Learning Objectives for all the theory chapters;
Self-Reflection and Discussion Questions at the end of each theory chapter to facilitate
thinking and interaction in class; and a new Case of Gwen, who is a composite of
many clients, to complement the Case of Stan feature. Guest contributor Dr. Kel-
lie Kirksey describes her way of working with Gwen from each of the theoretical
perspectives.
Significant changes for the tenth edition for each of the theory chapters are out-
lined below:
Chapter 4 Psychoanalytic Therapy

New material on countertransference, its role in psychoanalytic therapy,
and guidelines for effectively dealing with countertransference
Expanded discussion of brief psychodynamic therapy and its application
Chapter 5 Adlerian Therapy

Revised material on the life tasks
More emphasis on goals for the educational process of therapy
More on the role of assessment and diagnosis
New material on early recollections with concrete examples
Many new examples to bring Adlerian concepts to life
Revised discussion of reorientation and encouragement process
Expanded discussion of Adlerian techniques
Chapter 6 Existential Therapy

Revised material on existential anxiety and its implications for therapy
Revised section on the client–therapist relationship
Expanded discussion of tasks of the existential therapist
Preface to T en th Ed i ti o n xiii
Chapter 7 Person-Centered Therapy

Expanded discussion of clients as active self-healers
Updated coverage of the core conditions of congruence, unconditional
positive regard, and empathy
More attention to the diversity of styles of therapists practicing person-
centered therapy
More emphasis on how the basic philosophy of the person-centered
approach is appropriate for working with diverse client populations
A new section on emotion-focused therapy, stressing the role of emotions
as a route to change
Revised section on motivational interviewing (person-centered approach
with a twist)
Chapter 8 Gestalt Therapy

Revised discussion of the role of experiments in Gestalt therapy and
how they differ from techniques and structured exercises
New emphasis on therapist presence, the role of dialogue in therapy,
and the therapeutic relationship
Expanded discussion of therapist authenticity and self-disclosure
More attention to the contemporary relational approach to Gestalt
practice
Chapter 9 Behavior Therapy

Increased attention to the “third-generation” or “new wave” behavior
therapies
Updating of section on EMDR
Expanded and updated discussion of the role of mindfulness and
acceptance strategies in contemporary behavior therapy
New and expanded material on mindfulness-based cognitive therapy
and stress reduction
Expanded and revised treatment of dialectical behavior therapy
Chapter 10 Cognitive Behavior Therapy

Major reorganization and updating of the entire chapter
Streamlining and updating of Albert Ellis’s rational emotive behavior
therapy
Revised and expanded coverage of Aaron Beck’s cognitive therapy
Increased coverage of Judith Beck’s role in the development of cognitive
therapy
New section on Christine Padesky’s strength-based cognitive behavior
therapy
Increased attention on Donald Meichenbaum’s influence in the devel-
opment of CBT
More clinical examples to illustrate key CBT techniques and concepts
Expanded coverage of a comparison among the various CBT approaches
xiv P r e fac e to T e n t h Ed it ion
Chapter 11 Choice Theory/Reality Therapy

Revision of the relationship of choice theory to reality therapy
More practical examples of reality therapy practice
Chapter 12 Feminist Therapy

Updated and expanded treatment of the principles of feminist therapy
Increased attention given to cultural and social justice perspectives
More emphasis on concepts of power, privilege, discrimination, and
empowerment
Expansion of relational-cultural theory and implications for practice
Revised and expanded discussion on therapeutic techniques and
strategies
Revised material on strengths from a diversity perspective
Chapter 13 Postmodern Approaches

Updated coverage on parallels between solution-focused brief therapy
(SFBT) and positive psychology
Broadened discussion of the key concepts of SFBT
More emphasis on the client-as-expert in the therapy relationship in
postmodern approaches
More clinical examples to illustrate the use of SFBT techniques
New material on the defining characteristics of brief therapy
Increased emphasis on the collaborative nature of narrative therapy and
SFBT
Revision of narrative therapy section
Chapter 14 Family Systems Therapy

Streamlined to focus mainly on an integrative approach to family
therapy
More on recent developments in family systems therapy
More attention given to feminism, multiculturalism, and postmodern
constructionism as applied to family therapy
Chapter 15 (“An Integrative Perspective”) pulls together themes from all 11 theo-
retical orientations. This chapter represents a major revision of the discussion of the
psychotherapy integration movement; updates of the various integrative approaches;
revision of the section on integration of spirituality in counseling; added material on
research demonstrating the therapeutic alliance; expanded discussion on the central
role of the client in determining therapy outcomes; new section on feedback-informed
treatment; and updated coverage of the conclusions from the research literature on the
effectiveness of psychotherapy. New to this chapter are two cases (Stan and Gwen) that
illustrate integrative approaches. Chapter 15 develops the notion that an integrative
approach to counseling practice is in keeping with meeting the needs of diverse client
populations in many different settings. Numerous tables and other integrating mate-
rial help students compare and contrast the 11 approaches.
Preface to Ten th Ed i ti o n xv
This text can be used in a flexible way. Some instructors will follow the sequenc-
ing of chapters in the book. Others will prefer to begin with the theory chapters
(Part 2) and then deal later with the student’s personal characteristics and ethical
issues. The topics can be covered in whatever order makes the most sense. Readers
are offered some suggestions for using this book in Chapter 1.
In this edition I have made every effort to incorporate those aspects that have
worked best in the courses on counseling theory and practice that I teach. To help
readers apply theory to practice, I have also revised the Student Manual, which is
designed for experiential work. The Student Manual for Theory and Practice of Counseling
and Psychotherapy still contains open-ended questions, many new cases for explora-
tion and discussion, structured exercises, self-inventories, and a variety of activities
that can be done both in class and out of class. The tenth edition features a struc-
tured overview, as well as a glossary, for each of the theories, and chapter quizzes for
assessing the level of student mastery of basic concepts. New to this tenth edition of
the Student Manual are experiential exercises for the Case of Gwen and questions raised
by experts in each of the theory chapters. Each expert addresses the same six ques-
tions as applied to each of the given theories.
MindTap™ is a new online resource available to accompany this textbook. It
contains the video program for Theory and Practice of Counseling and Psychotherapy: The
Case of Stan and Lecturettes, a glossary of key terms, interviews with experts (questions
and answers by experts in the various theories), and case examples for each of the
theories illustrating ways of applying these concepts and techniques to a counseling
case. A concise version of working with Stan from an integrative perspective now
appears in Chapter 15. Chapter 16, “Case Illustration: An Integrative Approach in
Working With Stan,” has been deleted from this edition but is available on Mind-
Tap™. A chapter covering Transactional Analysis is also available on MindTap™.
Case Approach to Counseling and Psychotherapy (Eighth Edition) features experts
working with the case of Ruth from the various therapeutic approaches. The case-
book, which is now available online, can supplement this book or stand alone.
Accompanying this tenth edition of the text and Student Manual are lecturettes
on how I draw from key concepts and techniques from the various theories pre-
sented in the book. This DVD program has been developed for student purchase
and use as a self-study program, and it completes an ideal learning package. The Art
of Integrative Counseling (Third Edition), which expands on the material in Chapter 15
of the textbook, also complements this book.
Some professors have found the textbook and the Student Manual or MindTap™
to be ideal companions and realistic resources for a single course. Others like to use
the textbook and the casebook as companions. With this revision it is now possible
to have a unique learning package of several books, along with the DVD for Integra-
tive Counseling: The Case of Ruth and Lecturettes. The Case Approach to Counseling and Psy-
chotherapy and the Art of Integrative Counseling can also be used in a various classes, a
few of which include case-management practicum, fieldwork courses, or counseling
techniques courses.
Also available is a revised and updated Instructor’s Resource Manual, which includes
suggestions for teaching the course, class activities to stimulate interest, PowerPoint
presentations for all chapters, and a variety of test questions and a final examina-
tion. This instructor’s manual is now geared for the following learning package:
xvi P r e fac e to T e n t h Ed it ion
Theory and Practice of Counseling and Psychotherapy, Student Manual for Theory and Practice
of Counseling and Psychotherapy, Case Approach to Counseling and Psychotherapy, The Art of
Integrative Counseling, and two video programs: DVD for Integrative Counseling: The Case
of Ruth and Lecturettes, and DVD for Theory and Practice of Counseling and Psychotherapy:
The Case of Stan and Lecturettes.
Acknowledgments
The suggestions I received from the many readers of prior editions who took the
time to complete the surveys have been most helpful in the revision process. Many
other people have contributed ideas that have found their way into this tenth edi-
tion. I especially appreciate the time and efforts of those who participated in a pre-
revision review and offered constructive criticism and supportive commentaries, as
well as those professors who have used this book and provided me with feedback
that has been most useful in these revisions. Those who reviewed selected parts of
the manuscript of the tenth edition are:
Jude Austin, doctoral student, University of Wyoming
Julius Austin, doctoral student, University of Wyoming
Mark E. Young, University of Central Florida
Robert Haynes, Borderline Productions
Beverly Palmer, California State University at Dominguez Hills
James Robert Bitter, East Tennessee State University
Patricia Robertson, East Tennessee State University
Jamie Bludworth, Arizona State University
Michelle Muratori, Johns Hopkins University
Jake Morris, Lipscomb University
Special thanks are extended to the chapter reviewers, who provided consultation
and detailed critiques. Their insightful and valuable comments have generally been
incorporated into this edition:
Chapter 4 (Psychoanalytic Therapy): William Blau, Copper Mountain College,
Joshua Tree, California
Chapter 5 (Adlerian Therapy): Matt Englar-Carlson, California State University,
Fullerton; Jon Carlson, Governors State University; Jon Sperry, Lynn University,
Boca Raton. James Robert Bitter, East Tennessee State University, and I coau-
thored Chapter 5.
Chapter 6 (Existential Therapy): Emmy van Deurzen, New School of Psy-
chotherapy and Counselling, London, England, and University of Sheffield;
J. Michael Russell of California State University, Fullerton; David N. Elkins,
Graduate School of Education and Psychology, Pepperdine University; Bryan
Farha, Oklahoma City College
Chapter 7 (Person-Centered Therapy): Natalie Rogers, Person-Centered Expres-
sive Arts Associates, Cotati, California; David N. Elkins, Graduate School of
Education and Psychology, Pepperdine University; David Cain, California
Preface to T en th Ed iti o n xvii
School of Professional Psychology at Alliant International University,

San Diego
Chapter 8 (Gestalt Therapy): Jon Frew, Private Practice, Vancouver, Washing-
ton, and Pacific University, Oregon; Lynne Jacobs, Pacific Gestalt Institute in
Los Angeles; Gary Yontef, Pacific Gestalt Institute in Los Angeles; Jude Austin,
doctoral student, University of Wyoming; Julius Austin, doctoral student, Uni-
versity of Wyoming
Chapter 9 (Behavior Therapy): Sherry Cormier, West Virginia University; Frank
M. Dattilio, Harvard Medical School, and the University of Pennsylvania
School of Medicine; Ronald D. Siegel, Harvard Medical School
Chapter 10 (Cognitive Behavior Therapy): Sherry Cormier, West Virginia
University; Christine A. Padesky, Center for Cognitive Therapy at Huntington
Beach, California; Frank M. Dattilio, Harvard Medical School, and the University
of Pennsylvania School of Medicine; Beverly Palmer, California State University
at Dominguez Hills; Jamie Bludworth, Arizona State University; Jude Austin,
doctoral student, University of Wyoming; Julius Austin, doctoral student,
University of Wyoming; Jon Sperry, Lynn University, Boca Raton; Debbie
Joffe Ellis
Chapter 11 (Choice Theory/Reality Therapy): Robert Wubbolding, Center for
Reality Therapy, Cincinnati, Ohio
Chapter 12 (Feminist Therapy): Carolyn Zerbe Enns, Cornell College; James
Robert Bitter, East Tennessee State University; Patricia Robertson, East Ten-
nessee State University; Elizabeth Kincade, Indiana University of Pennsylvania;
Susan Rachael Seem, The College at Brockport, State University of New York;
Kellie Kirksey, Cleveland Institute of Wellness; Amanda La Guardia of Sam
Houston State University. Barbara Herlihy, University of New Orleans, and I
coauthored Chapter 12.
Chapter 13 (Postmodern Approaches): John Winslade, California State University,
San Bernardino; John Murphy, University of Central Arkansas
Chapter 14 (Family Systems Therapy): James Robert Bitter, East Tennessee
State University, and I co-authored Chapter 14.
Chapter 15 (An Integrative Perspective): Scott D. Miller, The International
Center for Clinical Excellence; Beverly Palmer, California State University at
Dominguez Hills; Jude Austin, doctoral student, University of Wyoming;
Julius Austin, doctoral student, University of Wyoming
The Case of Gwen (all theory chapters) was written by Kellie Kirksey, Cleveland
Clinic Center for Integrative Medicine
This book is the result of a team effort, which includes the combined efforts of
a number of people at Cengage Learning. These people include Jon-David Hague,
Product Director; Julie Martinez, Product Manager, Counseling, Human Services,
and Social Work; Vernon Boes, Art Director, for his work on the interior design and
cover of this book; Kyra Kane, Associate Content Developer, who coordinates the
xviii P r e fac e to Te n t h E d it ion
MindTap™ program and other supplementary materials for the book; Michelle
Muratori, Johns Hopkins University, for her work on updating the Instructor’s
Resource Manual and assisting in developing other supplements; and Rita Jaramillo,
Content Project Manager. Thanks to Ben Kolstad of Cenveo® Publisher Services,
who coordinated the production of this book. Special recognition goes to Kay Mikel,
the manuscript editor of this edition, whose exceptional editorial talents continue
to keep this book reader friendly. I appreciate Susan Cunningham’s work in creat-
ing and revising test items to accompany this text and in preparing the index. The
efforts and dedication of all of these people certainly contribute to the high quality
of this edition.
Gerald Corey
Introduction
and Overview 1
Learning Objectives
1. Understand the author’s 4. Identify key issues within the case

philosophical stance. of Stan.
2. Identify suggested ways to use this 5. Identify key issues within the case
book. of Gwen.
3. Differentiate between each
contemporary counseling model
discussed in this book.
2 C H A P T E R ON E
Introduction
Counseling students can begin to acquire a counseling style tailored to their own
personality by familiarizing themselves with the major approaches to therapeu-
tic practice. This book surveys 11 approaches to counseling and psychotherapy,
presenting the key concepts of each approach and discussing features such as the
therapeutic process (including goals), the client–therapist relationship, and spe-
cific procedures used in the practice of counseling. This information will help you
develop a balanced view of the major ideas of each of the theories and acquaint
you with the practical techniques commonly employed by counselors who adhere
to each approach. I encourage you to keep an open mind and to seriously consider
both the unique contributions and the particular limitations of each therapeutic
system presented in Part 2.
You cannot gain the knowledge and experience you need to synthesize various
approaches by merely completing an introductory course in counseling theory. This
process will take many years of study, training, and practical counseling experience.
Nevertheless, I recommend a personal integration as a framework for the profes-
sional education of counselors. When students are presented with a single model
and are expected to subscribe to it alone, their effectiveness will be limited when
working with a diverse range of future clients.
An undisciplined mixture of approaches, however, can be an excuse for failing
to develop a sound rationale for systematically adhering to certain concepts and to
the techniques that are extensions of them. It is easy to pick and choose fragments
from the various therapies because they support our biases and preconceptions. By
studying the models presented in this book, you will have a better sense of how to
integrate concepts and techniques from different approaches when defining your
own personal synthesis and framework for counseling.
Each therapeutic approach has useful dimensions. It is not a matter of a theory
being “right” or “wrong,” as every theory offers a unique contribution to understand-
ing human behavior and has unique implications for counseling practice. Accepting
the validity of one model does not necessarily imply rejecting other models. There
is a clear place for theoretical pluralism, especially in a society that is becoming
increasingly diverse.
Although I suggest that you remain open to incorporating diverse approaches
into your own personal synthesis—or integrative approach to counseling—let me
caution that you can become overwhelmed and confused if you attempt to learn
everything at once, especially if this is your introductory course in counseling
theories. A case can be made for initially getting an overview of the major theoreti-
cal orientations, and then learning a particular approach by becoming steeped in
that approach for some time, rather than superficially grasping many theoretical
approaches. An integrative perspective is not developed in a random fashion; rather,
it is an ongoing process that is well thought out. Successfully integrating concepts
and techniques from diverse models requires years of reflective practice and a great
deal of reading about the various theories. In Chapter 15 I discuss in more depth
some ways to begin designing your integrative approach to counseling practice.
Introd u ction and Overvie w 3
Visit CengageBrain.com or watch the DVD for the video program on Chapter 1, Theory and
Practice of Counseling and Psychotherapy: The Case of Stan and Lecturettes. I suggest that you view the
brief lecturette for each chapter in this book prior to reading the chapter.
Where I Stand
My philosophical orientation is strongly influenced by the existential LO1
approach. Because this approach does not prescribe a set of techniques and pro-
cedures, I draw techniques from the other models of therapy that are presented in
this book. I particularly like to use role-playing techniques. When people reenact
scenes from their lives, they tend to become more psychologically engaged than
when they merely report anecdotes about themselves. I also incorporate many tech-
niques derived from cognitive behavior therapy.
The psychoanalytic emphasis on early psychosexual and psychosocial develop-
ment is useful. Our past plays a crucial role in shaping our current personality and
behavior. I challenge the deterministic notion that humans are the product of their
early conditioning and, thus, are victims of their past. But I believe that an explora-
tion of the past is often useful, particularly to the degree that the past continues to
influence present-day emotional or behavioral difficulties.
I value the cognitive behavioral focus on how our thinking affects the way we feel
and behave. These therapies also emphasize current behavior. Thinking and feeling
are important dimensions, but it can be a mistake to overemphasize them and not
explore how clients are behaving. What people are doing often provides a good clue
to what they really want. I also like the emphasis on specific goals and on encourag-
ing clients to formulate concrete aims for their own therapy sessions and in life.
More approaches have been developing methods that involve collaboration
between therapist and client, making the therapeutic venture a shared responsibil-
ity. This collaborative relationship, coupled with teaching clients ways to use what
they learn in therapy in their everyday lives, empowers clients to take an active stance
in their world. It is imperative that clients be active, not only in their counseling
sessions but in daily life as well. Homework, collaboratively designed by clients and
therapists, can be a vehicle for assisting clients in putting into action what they are
learning in therapy.
A related assumption of mine is that we can exercise increasing freedom to cre-
ate our own future. Accepting personal responsibility does not imply that we can
be anything we want to be. Social, environmental, cultural, and biological realities
oftentimes limit our freedom of choice. Being able to choose must be considered
in the sociopolitical contexts that exert pressure or create constraints; oppression
is a reality that can restrict our ability to choose our future. We are also influenced
by our social environment, and much of our behavior is a product of learning and
conditioning. That being said, I believe an increased awareness of these contextual
forces enables us to address these realities. It is crucial to learn how to cope with the
external and internal forces that influence our decisions and behavior.
Feminist therapy has contributed an awareness of how environmental and social
conditions contribute to the problems of women and men and how gender-role
socialization leads to a lack of gender equality. Family therapy teaches us that it is

not possible to understand the individual apart from the context of the system. Both
family therapy and feminist therapy are based on the premise that to understand the
individual it is essential to take into consideration the interpersonal dimensions and
the sociocultural context rather than focusing primarily on the intrapsychic domain.
This comprehensive approach to counseling goes beyond understanding our internal
dynamics and addresses the environmental and systemic realities that influence us.
My philosophy of counseling challenges the assumption that therapy is exclu-
sively aimed at “curing” psychological “ailments.” Such a focus on the medical
model restricts therapeutic practice because it stresses deficits rather than strengths.
Instead, I agree with the postmodern approaches (see Chapter 13), which are
grounded on the assumption that people have both internal and external resources
to draw upon when constructing solutions to their problems. Therapists will view
these individuals quite differently if they acknowledge that their clients possess
competencies rather than pathologies. I view each individual as having resources
and competencies that can be discovered and built upon in therapy.
Psychotherapy is a process of engagement between two people, both of whom
are bound to change through the therapeutic venture. At its best, this is a collabora-
tive process that involves both the therapist and the client in co-constructing solu-
tions regarding life’s tasks. Most of the theories described in this book emphasize
the collaborative nature of the practice of psychotherapy.
Therapists are not in business to change clients, to give them quick advice, or to
solve their problems for them. Instead, counselors facilitate healing through a pro-
cess of genuine dialogue with their clients. The kind of person a therapist is remains
the most critical factor affecting the client and promoting change. If practitioners
possess wide knowledge, both theoretical and practical, yet lack human qualities of
compassion, caring, good faith, honesty, presence, realness, and sensitivity, they are
more like technicians. I believe that those who function exclusively as technicians do
not make a significant difference in the lives of their clients. It is essential that coun-
selors explore their own values, attitudes, and beliefs in depth and work to increase
their own awareness. Throughout the book I encourage you to find ways to apply
what you are reading to your personal life. Doing so will take you beyond a mere
academic understanding of these theories.
With respect to mastering the techniques of counseling and applying them
appropriately and effectively, it is my belief that you are your own very best tech-
nique. Your engagement with your clients is useful in moving the therapeutic pro-
cess along. It is impossible to separate the techniques you use from your personality
and the relationship you have with your clients.
Administering techniques to clients without regard for the relationship vari-
ables is ineffective. Techniques cannot substitute for the hard work it takes to
develop a constructive client–therapist relationship. Although you can learn atti-
tudes and skills and acquire certain knowledge about personality dynamics and the
therapeutic process, much of effective therapy is the product of artistry. Counseling
entails far more than becoming a skilled technician. It implies that you are able to
establish and maintain a good working relationship with your clients, that you can
draw on your own experiences and reactions, and that you can identify techniques
suited to the needs of your clients.
I ntro d u ction an d Ov ervie w 5
As a counselor, you need to remain open to your own personal development and
to address your personal problems. The most powerful ways for you to teach your
clients is by the behavior you model and by the ways you connect with them. I sug-
gest you experience a wide variety of techniques yourself as a client. Reading about a
technique in a book is one thing; actually experiencing it from the vantage point of a
client is quite another. If you have practiced mindfulness exercises, for example, you
will have a much better sense for guiding clients in the practice of becoming increas-
ingly mindful in daily life. If you have carried out real-life homework assignments
as part of your own self-change program, you can increase your empathy for clients
and their potential problems. Your own anxiety over self-disclosing and addressing
personal concerns can be a most useful anchoring point as you work with the anxiet-
ies of your clients. The courage you display in your own personal therapy will help
you appreciate how essential courage is for your clients.
Your personal characteristics are of primary importance in becoming a counselor,
but it is not sufficient to be merely a good person with good intentions. To be effective,
you also must have supervised experiences in counseling and sound knowledge of
counseling theory and techniques. Further, it is essential to be well grounded in the
various theories of personality and to learn how they are related to theories of counseling.
Your conception of the person and the individual characteristics of your client affect
the interventions you will make. Differences between you and your client may require
modification of certain aspects of the theories. Some practitioners make the mistake
of relying on one type of intervention (supportive, confrontational, information giv-
ing) for most clients with whom they work. In reality, different clients may respond
better to one type of intervention than to another. Even during the course of an
individual’s therapy, different interventions may be needed at different times. Prac-
titioners should acquire a broad base of counseling techniques that are suitable for
individual clients rather than forcing clients to fit one approach to counseling.
Suggestions for Using the Book

Here are some specific recommendations on how to get the fullest value from LO2
this book. The personal tone of the book invites you to relate what you are reading
to your own experiences. As you read Chapter 2, “The Counselor: Person and Profes-
sional,” begin the process of reflecting on your needs, motivations, values, and life
experiences. Consider how you are likely to bring the person you are becoming into
your professional work. You will assimilate much more knowledge about the vari-
ous therapies if you make a conscious attempt to apply the key concepts and tech-
niques of these theories to your own personal life. Chapter 2 helps you think about
how to use yourself as your single most important therapeutic instrument, and it
addresses a number of significant ethical issues in counseling practice.
Before you study each of the theories chapters, I suggest that you at least briefly
read Chapter 15, which provides a comprehensive review of the key concepts from
all 11 theories presented in this textbook. I try to show how an integration of these
perspectives can form the basis for creating your own personal synthesis to coun-
seling. In developing an integrative perspective, it is essential to think holistically.
To understand human functioning, it is imperative to account for the physical,
emotional, mental, social, cultural, political, and spiritual dimensions. If any one of
these facets of human experience is neglected, a theory is limited in explaining how
we think, feel, and act.
To provide you with a consistent framework for comparing and contrasting
the various therapies, the 11 theory chapters share a common format. This format
includes a few notes on the personal history of the founder or another key figure;
a brief historical sketch showing how and why each theory developed at the time
it did; a discussion of the approach’s key concepts; an overview of the therapeutic
process, including the therapist’s role and client’s work; therapeutic techniques and
procedures; applications of the theory from a multicultural perspective; application
of the theory to the cases of Stan and Gwen; a summary; a critique of the theory with
emphasis on contributions and limitations; suggestions of how to continue your
learning about each approach; and suggestions for further reading.
Refer to the Preface for a complete description of other resources that fit as a
package and complement this textbook, including Student Manual for Theory and
Practice of Counseling and Psychotherapy and DVD for Integrative Counseling: The Case of
Ruth and Lecturettes. In addition, in DVD for Theory and Practice of Counseling and Psycho-
therapy: The Case of Stan and Lecturettes I demonstrate my way of counseling Stan from
the various theoretical approaches in 13 sessions and present my perspective on the
key concepts of each theory in a brief lecture, with emphasis on the practical applica-
tion of the theory.
Overview of the Theory Chapters

I have selected 11 therapeutic approaches for this book. Table 1.1 presents LO3
an overview of these approaches, which are explored in depth in Chapters 4 through
14. I have grouped these approaches into four general categories.
Table 1.1 Overview of Contemporary Counseling Models

Psychodynamic Approaches
Psychoanalytic therapy Founder: Sigmund Freud. A theory of personality development, a philosophy of human
nature, and a method of psychotherapy that focuses on unconscious factors that motivate
behavior. Attention is given to the events of the first six years of life as determinants of the
later development of personality.
Adlerian therapy Founder: Alfred Adler. Key Figure: Following Adler, Rudolf Dreikurs is credited with
popularizing this approach in the United States. This is a growth model that stresses
assuming responsibility, creating one’s own destiny, and finding meaning and goals to create
a purposeful life. Key concepts are used in most other current therapies.
Experiential and Relationship-Oriented Therapies
Existential therapy Key figures: Viktor Frankl, Rollo May, and Irvin Yalom. Reacting against the tendency to
view therapy as a system of well-defined techniques, this model stresses building therapy
on the basic conditions of human existence, such as choice, the freedom and responsibility
to shape one’s life, and self-determination. It focuses on the quality of the person-to-person
therapeutic relationship.
Person-centered therapy Founder: Carl Rogers; Key figure: Natalie Rogers. This approach was developed during the
1940s as a nondirective reaction against psychoanalysis. Based on a subjective view of
human experiencing, it places faith in and gives responsibility to the client in dealing with
problems and concerns.
Gestalt therapy Founders: Fritz and Laura Perls; Key figures: Miriam and Erving Polster. An experiential
therapy stressing awareness and integration; it grew as a reaction against analytic therapy.
It integrates the functioning of body and mind and places emphasis on the therapeutic
relationship.
Cognitive Behavioral Approaches
Behavior therapy Key figures: B. F. Skinner, and Albert Bandura. This approach applies the principles of
learning to the resolution of specific behavioral problems. Results are subject to continual
experimentation. The methods of this approach are always in the process of refinement. The
mindfulness and acceptance-based approaches are rapidly gaining popularity.
Cognitive behavior therapy Founders: Albert Ellis and A. T. Beck. Albert Ellis founded rational emotive behavior therapy,
a highly didactic, cognitive, action-oriented model of therapy, and A. T. Beck founded
cognitive therapy, which gives a primary role to thinking as it influences behavior. Judith
Beck continues to develop CBT; Christine Padesky has developed strengths-based CBT;
and Donald Meichenbaum, who helped develop cognitive behavior therapy, has made
significant contributions to resilience as a factor in coping with trauma.
Choice theory/Reality Founder: William Glasser. Key figure: Robert Wubbolding. This short-term approach is based
therapy on choice theory and focuses on the client assuming responsibility in the present. Through
the therapeutic process, the client is able to learn more effective ways of meeting her or his
needs.
Systems and Postmodern Approaches
Feminist therapy This approach grew out of the efforts of many women, a few of whom are Jean Baker
Miller, Carolyn Zerbe Enns, Oliva Espin, and Laura Brown. A central concept is the concern
for the psychological oppression of women. Focusing on the constraints imposed by the
sociopolitical status to which women have been relegated, this approach explores women’s
identity development, self-concept, goals and aspirations, and emotional well-being.
Postmodern approaches A number of key figures are associated with the development of these various approaches
to therapy. Steve de Shazer and Insoo Kim Berg are the cofounders of solution-focused brief
therapy. Michael White and David Epston are the major figures associated with narrative
therapy. Social constructionism, solution-focused brief therapy, and narrative therapy all
assume that there is no single truth; rather, it is believed that reality is socially constructed
through human interaction. These approaches maintain that the client is an expert in his or
her own life.
Family systems therapy A number of significant figures have been pioneers of the family systems approach, two
of whom include Murray Bowen and Virginia Satir. This systemic approach is based on the
assumption that the key to changing the individual is understanding and working with the
family.
First are the psychodynamic approaches. Psychoanalytic therapy is based largely on

insight, unconscious motivation, and reconstruction of the personality. The psy-
choanalytic model appears first because it has had a major influence on all of the
formal systems of psychotherapy. Some of the therapeutic models are extensions of
psychoanalysis, others are modifications of analytic concepts and procedures, and

still others emerged as a reaction against psychoanalysis. Many theories of psycho-
therapy have borrowed and integrated principles and techniques from psychoana-
lytic approaches.
Adlerian therapy differs from psychoanalytic theory in many respects, but it can
broadly be considered an analytic perspective. Adlerians focus on meaning, goals,
purposeful behavior, conscious action, belonging, and social interest. Although
Adlerian theory accounts for present behavior by studying childhood experiences, it
does not focus on unconscious dynamics.
The second category comprises the experiential and relationship-oriented therapies:
the existential approach, the person-centered approach, and Gestalt therapy. The
existential approach stresses a concern for what it means to be fully human. It suggests
certain themes that are part of the human condition, such as freedom and respon-
sibility, anxiety, guilt, awareness of being finite, creating meaning in the world, and
shaping one’s future by making active choices. This approach is not a unified school
of therapy with a clear theory and a systematic set of techniques. Rather, it is a philos-
ophy of counseling that stresses the divergent methods of understanding the subjec-
tive world of the person. The person-centered approach, which is rooted in a humanistic
philosophy, places emphasis on the basic attitudes of the therapist. It maintains
that the quality of the client–therapist relationship is the prime determinant of the
outcomes of the therapeutic process. Philosophically, this approach assumes that
clients have the capacity for self-direction without active intervention and direction
on the therapist’s part. Another experiential approach is Gestalt therapy, which offers
a range of experiments to help clients gain awareness of what they are experiencing
in the here and now—that is, the present. In contrast to person-centered therapists,
Gestalt therapists tend to take an active role, yet they follow the leads provided by
their clients. These approaches tend to emphasize emotion as a route to bringing
about change, and in a sense, they can be considered emotion-focused therapies.
Third are the cognitive behavioral approaches, sometimes known as the action-
oriented therapies because they all emphasize translating insights into behavioral
action. These approaches include choice theory/reality therapy, behavior therapy,
rational emotive behavior therapy, and cognitive therapy. Reality therapy focuses on
clients’ current behavior and stresses developing clear plans for new behaviors. Like
reality therapy, behavior therapy puts a premium on doing and on taking steps to make
concrete changes. A current trend in behavior therapy is toward paying increased
attention to cognitive factors as an important determinant of behavior. Rational emo-
tive behavior therapy and cognitive therapy highlight the necessity of learning how to
challenge inaccurate beliefs and automatic thoughts that lead to behavioral prob-
lems. These cognitive behavioral approaches are used to help people modify their
inaccurate and self-defeating assumptions and to develop new patterns of acting.
The fourth general approach encompasses the systems and postmodern perspectives.
Feminist therapy and family therapy are systems approaches, but they also share
postmodern notions. The systems orientation stresses the importance of under-
standing individuals in the context of the surroundings that influence their devel-
opment. To bring about individual change, it is essential to pay attention to how
the individual’s personality has been affected by his or her gender-role socialization,
culture, family, and other systems.
The postmodern approaches include social constructionism, solution-focused brief

therapy, and narrative therapy. These newer approaches challenge the basic assump-
tions of most of the traditional approaches by assuming that there is no single truth
and that reality is socially constructed through human interaction. Both the post-
modern and the systemic theories focus on how people produce their own lives in
the context of systems, interactions, social conditioning, and discourse.
In my view, practitioners need to pay attention to what their clients are thinking,
feeling, and doing, and a complete therapy system must address all three of these fac-
ets. Some of the therapies included here highlight the role that cognitive factors play
in counseling. Others place emphasis on the experiential aspects of counseling and
the role of feelings. Still others emphasize putting plans into action and learning by
doing. Combining all of these dimensions provides the basis for a comprehensive
therapy.
Introduction to the Case of Stan

You will learn a great deal by seeing a theory in action, preferably in a live LO4
demonstration or as part of experiential activities in which you function in the alter-
nating roles of client and counselor. An online program (available in DVD format as
well) demonstrates one or two techniques from each of the theories. As Stan’s coun-
selor, I show how I would apply some of the principles of each of the theories you are
studying to Stan. Many of my students find this case history of the hypothetical cli-
ent (Stan) helpful in understanding how various techniques are applied to the same
person. Stan’s case, which describes his life and struggles, is presented here to give
you significant background material to draw from as you study the applications of
the theories. Each of the 11 theory chapters in Part 2 includes a discussion of how
a therapist with the orientation under discussion is likely to proceed with Stan. We
examine the answers to questions such as these:
What themes in Stan’s life merit special attention in therapy?
What concepts would be useful to you in working with Stan on his
problems?
What are the general goals of Stan’s therapy?
What possible techniques and methods would best meet these goals?
What are some characteristics of the relationship between Stan and his
therapist?
How might the therapist proceed?
How might the therapist evaluate the process and treatment outcomes
of therapy?
In Chapter 15 (which I recommend you read early) I explain how I would work with
Stan, suggesting concepts and techniques I would draw on from many of the mod-
els (forming an integrative approach).
A single case illustrates both contrasts and parallels among the approaches.
It also will help you understand the practical applications of the 11 models and
provide a basis for integrating them. A summary of the intake interview with Stan,
his autobiography, and some key themes in his life are presented next to provide a
context for making sense of the way therapists with various theoretical orientations
10 C H AP T E R ON E
might work with Stan. Try to find attributes of each approach that you can incorpo-
rate into a personalized style of counseling.
Intake Interview and Stan’s Autobiography

The setting is a community mental health agency where both individual and group
counseling are available. Stan comes to counseling because of his drinking. He was
convicted of driving under the influence, and the judge determined that he needed
professional help. Stan recognizes that he does have problems, but he is not con-
vinced that he is addicted to alcohol. Stan arrives for an intake interview and pro-
vides the counselor with this information:
At the present time I work in construction. I like building houses, but probably
won’t stay in construction for the rest of my life. When it comes to my personal
life, I’ve always had difficulty in getting along with people. I could be called a
“loner.” I like people in my life, but I don’t seem to know how to stay close to
people. It probably has a lot to do with why I drink. I’m not very good at making
friends or getting close to people. Probably the reason I sometimes drink a bit too
much is because I’m so scared when it comes to socializing. Even though I hate
to admit it, when I drink, things are not quite so overwhelming. When I look at
others, they seem to know the right things to say. Next to them I feel dumb. I’m
afraid that people don’t find me very interesting. I’d like to turn my life around,
but I just don’t know where to begin. That’s why I went back to school. I’m a part-
time college student majoring in psychology. I want to better myself. In one of my
classes, Psychology of Personal Adjustment, we talked about ourselves and how
people change. We also had to write an autobiographical paper.
That is the essence of Stan’s introduction. The counselor says that she would
like to read his autobiography. Stan hopes it will give her a better understanding of
where he has been and where he would like to go. He brings her the autobiography,
which reads as follows:
Where am I currently in my life? At 35 I feel that I’ve wasted most of my life. I
should be finished with college and into a career by now, but instead I’m only a
junior. I can’t afford to really commit myself to pursuing college full time because
I need to work to support myself. Even though construction work is hard, I like
the satisfaction I get when I look at what I have done.
I want to get into a profession where I could work with people. Someday, I’m
hoping to get a master’s degree in counseling or in social work and eventually
work as a counselor with kids who are in trouble. I know I was helped by someone
who cared about me, and I would like to do the same for someone else.
I have few friends and feel scared around most people. I feel good with
kids. But I wonder if I’m smart enough to get through all the classes I’ll need
to become a counselor. One of my problems is that I frequently get drunk. This
happens when I feel alone and when I’m scared of the intensity of my feelings. At
first drinking seemed to help, but later on I felt awful. I have abused drugs in the
past also.
I feel overwhelmed and intimidated when I’m around attractive women. I feel
cold, sweaty, and terribly nervous. I think they may be judging me and see me as not
I ntro d u ction an d Ov erview 11
much of a man. I’m afraid I just don’t measure up to being a real man. When I am
sexually intimate with a woman, I am anxious and preoccupied with what she is
thinking about me.
I feel anxiety much of the time. I often feel as if I’m dying inside. I think about
committing suicide, and I wonder who would care. I can see my family coming to
my funeral feeling sorry for me. I feel guilty that I haven’t worked up to my poten-
tial, that I’ve been a failure, that I’ve wasted much of my time, and that I let people
down a lot. I get down on myself and wallow in guilt and feel very depressed. At
times like this I feel hopeless and that I’d be better off dead. For all these reasons,
I find it difficult to get close to anyone.
There are a few bright spots. I did put a lot of my shady past behind me, and
did get into college. I like this determination in me—I want to change. I’m tired of
feeling the way I do. I know that nobody is going to change my life for me. It’s up
to me to get what I want. Even though I feel scared at times, I like that I’m willing
to take risks.
What was my past like? A major turning point for me was the confidence my
supervisor had in me at the youth camp where I worked the past few summers.
He helped me get my job, and he also encouraged me to go to college. He said he
saw a lot of potential in me for being able to work well with young people. That
was hard for me to believe, but his faith inspired me to begin to believe in myself.
Another turning point was my marriage and divorce. This marriage didn’t last
long. It made me wonder about what kind of man I was! Joyce was a strong and
dominant woman who kept repeating how worthless I was and how she did not
want to be around me. We had sex only a few times, and most of the time I was not
very good at it. That was hard to take. It made me afraid to get close to a woman.
My parents should have divorced. They fought most of the time. My mother
(Angie) constantly criticized my father (Frank Sr.). I saw him as weak and passive.
He would never stand up to her. There were four of us kids. My parents compared
me unfavorably with my older sister (Judy) and older brother (Frank Jr.). They
were “perfect” children, successful honors’ students. My younger brother (Karl)
and I fought a lot. They spoiled him. It was all very hard for me.
In high school I started using drugs. I was thrown into a youth rehabilita-
tion facility for stealing. Later I was expelled from regular school for fighting,
and I landed in a continuation high school, where I went to school in the morn-
ings and had afternoons for on-the-job training. I got into auto mechanics, was
fairly successful, and even managed to keep myself employed for three years as a
mechanic.
I can still remember my father asking me: “Why can’t you be like your sister
and brother? Why can’t you do anything right?” And my mother treated me much
the way she treated my father. She would say: “Why do you do so many things to
hurt me? Why can’t you grow up and be a man? Things are so much better around
here when you’re gone.” I recall crying myself to sleep many nights, feeling terribly
alone. There was no talk of religion in my house, nor was there any talk of sex. In
fact, I find it hard to imagine my folks ever having sex.
Where would I like to be five years from now? What kind of person do I want
to become? Most of all, I would like to start feeling better about myself. I would
like to be able to stop drinking altogether and still feel good. I want to like myself
much more than I do now. I hope I can learn to love at least a few other people,
12 C H AP T E R ON E
most of all, a woman. I want to lose my fear of women. I would like to feel equal
with others and not always have to feel apologetic for my existence. I want to let
go of my anxiety and guilt. I want to become a good counselor for kids. I’m not
certain how I’ll change or even what all the changes are I hope for. I do know that
I want to be free of my self-destructive tendencies and learn how to trust people
more. Perhaps when I begin to like myself more, I’ll be able to trust that others will
find something about me to like.
Effective therapists, regardless of their theoretical orientation, would pay

attention to suicidal thoughts. In his autobiography Stan says, “I think about
committing suicide.” At times he doubts that he will ever change and wonders if
he’d be “better off dead.” Before embarking on the therapeutic journey, the thera-
pist would need to make an assessment of Stan’s current ego strength (or his abil-
ity to manage life realistically), which would include a discussion of his suicidal
thoughts.
Overview of Some Key Themes in Stan’s Life

A number of themes appear to represent core struggles in Stan’s life. Here are some
of the statements we can assume that he may make at various points in his therapy
and themes that will be addressed from the theoretical perspectives in Chapters 4
through 15:
Although I’d like to have people in my life, I just don’t seem to know
how to go about making friends or getting close to people.
I’d like to turn my life around, but I have no sense of direction.
I want to make a difference.
I am afraid of failure.
I know when I feel alone, scared, and overwhelmed, I drink heavily to
feel better.
I am afraid of women.
Sometimes at night I feel a terrible anxiety and feel as if I’m dying.
I often feel guilty that I’ve wasted my life, that I’ve failed, and that I’ve
let people down. At times like this, I get depressed.
I like it that I have determination and that I really want to change.
I’ve never really felt loved or wanted by my parents.
I’d like to get rid of my self-destructive tendencies and learn to trust
people more.
I put myself down a lot, but I’d like to feel better about myself.
In the chapters in Part 2, I write about how I would apply selected concepts and
techniques of the particular theory in counseling Stan. In addition, in these chapters
you are asked to think about how you would continue counseling Stan from each
of these different perspectives. In doing so, refer to the introductory material given
here and to Stan’s autobiography as well. To make the case of Stan come alive for
each theory, I highly recommend that you view and study the video program, DVD
for Theory and Practice of Counseling and Psychotherapy: The Case of Stan and Lecturettes.
In this video program I counsel Stan from each of the various theories and provide
brief lectures that highlight each theory.
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DANCE ON STILTS AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI
Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least

the Newala of to-day does; there was once another Newala in a lovely
valley at the foot of the plateau. I visited it and found scarcely a trace
of houses, only a Christian cemetery, with the graves of several
missionaries and their converts, remaining as a monument of its
former glories. But the surroundings are wonderfully beautiful. A
thick grove of splendid mango-trees closes in the weather-worn
crosses and headstones; behind them, combining the useful and the
agreeable, is a whole plantation of lemon-trees covered with ripe
fruit; not the small African kind, but a much larger and also juicier
imported variety, which drops into the hands of the passing traveller,
without calling for any exertion on his part. Old Newala is now under
the jurisdiction of the native pastor, Daudi, at Chingulungulu, who,
as I am on very friendly terms with him, allows me, as a matter of
course, the use of this lemon-grove during my stay at Newala.
FEET MUTILATED BY THE RAVAGES OF THE “JIGGER”
(Sarcopsylla penetrans)
The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley,

some 1,600 feet lower down. The way is not only long and fatiguing,
but the water, when we get it, is thoroughly bad. We are suffering not
only from this, but from the fact that the arrangements at Newala are
nothing short of luxurious. We have a separate kitchen—a hut built
against the boma palisade on the right of the baraza, the interior of
which is not visible from our usual position. Our two cooks were not
long in finding this out, and they consequently do—or rather neglect
to do—what they please. In any case they do not seem to be very
particular about the boiling of our drinking-water—at least I can
attribute to no other cause certain attacks of a dysenteric nature,
from which both Knudsen and I have suffered for some time. If a
man like Omari has to be left unwatched for a moment, he is capable
of anything. Besides this complaint, we are inconvenienced by the
state of our nails, which have become as hard as glass, and crack on
the slightest provocation, and I have the additional infliction of
pimples all over me. As if all this were not enough, we have also, for
the last week been waging war against the jigger, who has found his
Eldorado in the hot sand of the Makonde plateau. Our men are seen
all day long—whenever their chronic colds and the dysentery likewise
raging among them permit—occupied in removing this scourge of
Africa from their feet and trying to prevent the disastrous
consequences of its presence. It is quite common to see natives of
this place with one or two toes missing; many have lost all their toes,
or even the whole front part of the foot, so that a well-formed leg
ends in a shapeless stump. These ravages are caused by the female of
Sarcopsylla penetrans, which bores its way under the skin and there
develops an egg-sac the size of a pea. In all books on the subject, it is
stated that one’s attention is called to the presence of this parasite by
an intolerable itching. This agrees very well with my experience, so
far as the softer parts of the sole, the spaces between and under the
toes, and the side of the foot are concerned, but if the creature
penetrates through the harder parts of the heel or ball of the foot, it
may escape even the most careful search till it has reached maturity.
Then there is no time to be lost, if the horrible ulceration, of which
we see cases by the dozen every day, is to be prevented. It is much
easier, by the way, to discover the insect on the white skin of a
European than on that of a native, on which the dark speck scarcely
shows. The four or five jiggers which, in spite of the fact that I
constantly wore high laced boots, chose my feet to settle in, were
taken out for me by the all-accomplished Knudsen, after which I
thought it advisable to wash out the cavities with corrosive
sublimate. The natives have a different sort of disinfectant—they fill
the hole with scraped roots. In a tiny Makua village on the slope of
the plateau south of Newala, we saw an old woman who had filled all
the spaces under her toe-nails with powdered roots by way of
prophylactic treatment. What will be the result, if any, who can say?
The rest of the many trifling ills which trouble our existence are
really more comic than serious. In the absence of anything else to
smoke, Knudsen and I at last opened a box of cigars procured from
the Indian store-keeper at Lindi, and tried them, with the most
distressing results. Whether they contain opium or some other
narcotic, neither of us can say, but after the tenth puff we were both
“off,” three-quarters stupefied and unspeakably wretched. Slowly we
recovered—and what happened next? Half-an-hour later we were
once more smoking these poisonous concoctions—so insatiable is the
craving for tobacco in the tropics.
Even my present attacks of fever scarcely deserve to be taken
seriously. I have had no less than three here at Newala, all of which
have run their course in an incredibly short time. In the early
afternoon, I am busy with my old natives, asking questions and
making notes. The strong midday coffee has stimulated my spirits to
an extraordinary degree, the brain is active and vigorous, and work
progresses rapidly, while a pleasant warmth pervades the whole
body. Suddenly this gives place to a violent chill, forcing me to put on
my overcoat, though it is only half-past three and the afternoon sun
is at its hottest. Now the brain no longer works with such acuteness
and logical precision; more especially does it fail me in trying to
establish the syntax of the difficult Makua language on which I have
ventured, as if I had not enough to do without it. Under the
circumstances it seems advisable to take my temperature, and I do
so, to save trouble, without leaving my seat, and while going on with
my work. On examination, I find it to be 101·48°. My tutors are
abruptly dismissed and my bed set up in the baraza; a few minutes
later I am in it and treating myself internally with hot water and
lemon-juice.
Three hours later, the thermometer marks nearly 104°, and I make
them carry me back into the tent, bed and all, as I am now perspiring
heavily, and exposure to the cold wind just beginning to blow might
mean a fatal chill. I lie still for a little while, and then find, to my
great relief, that the temperature is not rising, but rather falling. This
is about 7.30 p.m. At 8 p.m. I find, to my unbounded astonishment,
that it has fallen below 98·6°, and I feel perfectly well. I read for an
hour or two, and could very well enjoy a smoke, if I had the
wherewithal—Indian cigars being out of the question.
Having no medical training, I am at a loss to account for this state
of things. It is impossible that these transitory attacks of high fever
should be malarial; it seems more probable that they are due to a
kind of sunstroke. On consulting my note-book, I become more and
more inclined to think this is the case, for these attacks regularly
follow extreme fatigue and long exposure to strong sunshine. They at
least have the advantage of being only short interruptions to my
work, as on the following morning I am always quite fresh and fit.
My treasure of a cook is suffering from an enormous hydrocele which
makes it difficult for him to get up, and Moritz is obliged to keep in
the dark on account of his inflamed eyes. Knudsen’s cook, a raw boy
from somewhere in the bush, knows still less of cooking than Omari;
consequently Nils Knudsen himself has been promoted to the vacant
post. Finding that we had come to the end of our supplies, he began
by sending to Chingulungulu for the four sucking-pigs which we had
bought from Matola and temporarily left in his charge; and when
they came up, neatly packed in a large crate, he callously slaughtered
the biggest of them. The first joint we were thoughtless enough to
entrust for roasting to Knudsen’s mshenzi cook, and it was
consequently uneatable; but we made the rest of the animal into a
jelly which we ate with great relish after weeks of underfeeding,
consuming incredible helpings of it at both midday and evening
meals. The only drawback is a certain want of variety in the tinned
vegetables. Dr. Jäger, to whom the Geographical Commission
entrusted the provisioning of the expeditions—mine as well as his
own—because he had more time on his hands than the rest of us,
seems to have laid in a huge stock of Teltow turnips,[46] an article of
food which is all very well for occasional use, but which quickly palls
when set before one every day; and we seem to have no other tins
left. There is no help for it—we must put up with the turnips; but I
am certain that, once I am home again, I shall not touch them for ten
years to come.
Amid all these minor evils, which, after all, go to make up the
genuine flavour of Africa, there is at least one cheering touch:
Knudsen has, with the dexterity of a skilled mechanic, repaired my 9
× 12 cm. camera, at least so far that I can use it with a little care.
How, in the absence of finger-nails, he was able to accomplish such a
ticklish piece of work, having no tool but a clumsy screw-driver for
taking to pieces and putting together again the complicated
mechanism of the instantaneous shutter, is still a mystery to me; but
he did it successfully. The loss of his finger-nails shows him in a light
contrasting curiously enough with the intelligence evinced by the
above operation; though, after all, it is scarcely surprising after his
ten years’ residence in the bush. One day, at Lindi, he had occasion
to wash a dog, which must have been in need of very thorough
cleansing, for the bottle handed to our friend for the purpose had an
extremely strong smell. Having performed his task in the most
conscientious manner, he perceived with some surprise that the dog
did not appear much the better for it, and was further surprised by
finding his own nails ulcerating away in the course of the next few
days. “How was I to know that carbolic acid has to be diluted?” he
mutters indignantly, from time to time, with a troubled gaze at his
mutilated finger-tips.
Since we came to Newala we have been making excursions in all
directions through the surrounding country, in accordance with old
habit, and also because the akida Sefu did not get together the tribal
elders from whom I wanted information so speedily as he had
promised. There is, however, no harm done, as, even if seen only
from the outside, the country and people are interesting enough.
The Makonde plateau is like a large rectangular table rounded off
at the corners. Measured from the Indian Ocean to Newala, it is
about seventy-five miles long, and between the Rovuma and the
Lukuledi it averages fifty miles in breadth, so that its superficial area
is about two-thirds of that of the kingdom of Saxony. The surface,
however, is not level, but uniformly inclined from its south-western
edge to the ocean. From the upper edge, on which Newala lies, the
eye ranges for many miles east and north-east, without encountering
any obstacle, over the Makonde bush. It is a green sea, from which
here and there thick clouds of smoke rise, to show that it, too, is
inhabited by men who carry on their tillage like so many other
primitive peoples, by cutting down and burning the bush, and
manuring with the ashes. Even in the radiant light of a tropical day
such a fire is a grand sight.
Much less effective is the impression produced just now by the
great western plain as seen from the edge of the plateau. As often as
time permits, I stroll along this edge, sometimes in one direction,
sometimes in another, in the hope of finding the air clear enough to
let me enjoy the view; but I have always been disappointed.
Wherever one looks, clouds of smoke rise from the burning bush,
and the air is full of smoke and vapour. It is a pity, for under more
favourable circumstances the panorama of the whole country up to
the distant Majeje hills must be truly magnificent. It is of little use
taking photographs now, and an outline sketch gives a very poor idea
of the scenery. In one of these excursions I went out of my way to
make a personal attempt on the Makonde bush. The present edge of
the plateau is the result of a far-reaching process of destruction
through erosion and denudation. The Makonde strata are
everywhere cut into by ravines, which, though short, are hundreds of
yards in depth. In consequence of the loose stratification of these
beds, not only are the walls of these ravines nearly vertical, but their
upper end is closed by an equally steep escarpment, so that the
western edge of the Makonde plateau is hemmed in by a series of
deep, basin-like valleys. In order to get from one side of such a ravine
to the other, I cut my way through the bush with a dozen of my men.
It was a very open part, with more grass than scrub, but even so the
short stretch of less than two hundred yards was very hard work; at
the end of it the men’s calicoes were in rags and they themselves
bleeding from hundreds of scratches, while even our strong khaki
suits had not escaped scatheless.
NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR

MAHUTA
I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time
back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have
no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human
occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very
slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not
yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid
timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed
forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled
his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process
may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main
road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe—
not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few
steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been
cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more,
between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last
pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a
melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them—
cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also
piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and
son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too
busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites
so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles
of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken
the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their
smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if
they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes,
perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.
This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the
virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already
cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble
of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the
secondary bush.
After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the
hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the
country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact,
receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in
the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains,
where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its
abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have
the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working
for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were
accustomed to rule.
But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no
harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has
been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in
time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe
and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and
lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and
desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by
man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and
even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth
is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible,
impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black
occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and
come back to his starting point.
The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.
According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing
else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been
settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great
stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the
south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence
their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the
Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast,
to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied
African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of
population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth
could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on
the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however,
correct.
The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us
of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the
thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau,
instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks
and springs of the low country.
“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern
side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was
nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never
washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.
He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree
growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the
bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and
was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the
Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a still-
born child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the
valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which
was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of
Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In
course of time, the couple had many more children, and called
themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the
Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their
forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to
bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who
was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also
warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams,
for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to
have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest watering-
place; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”
The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is
somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I
extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by
Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my
results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?
Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the
supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other
people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself
by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short,
woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is
likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is
nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from
various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood,
ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and
representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia,
Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well
done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the
keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and
meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably)
would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the
scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures
were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial
deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded
by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely
be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that
they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably
unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.
The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the
Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru
valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the
travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their
descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with
its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible
at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent
to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie
within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly
the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a
point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive
Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.
Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they
had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health
conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the
African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled
by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil
spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to
assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish
districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.
This knowledge is crystallized in the
ancestral warning against settling in the
valleys and near the great waters, the
dwelling-places of disease and death. At the
same time, for security against the hostile
Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted
that every settlement must be not less than a
certain distance from the southern edge of the
plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the
present day. It is not such a bad one, and
certainly they are both safer and more
comfortable than the Makua, the recent
intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF
good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR
plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of
country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings
anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain,
especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a
Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the
most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly
spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with
the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.
The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during
the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings
or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a
veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts
only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists
merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone
have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening
the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but
ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood
or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in
two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If
the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s
upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely
against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle
of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece
horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.
It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few
inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course
cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the
owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding
out how the back door is fastened.
MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

This is the general way of closing a house. The Makonde at Jumbe
Chauro, however, have a much more complicated, solid and original
one. Here, too, the door is as already described, except that there is
only one post on the inside, standing by itself about six inches from
one side of the doorway. Opposite this post is a hole in the wall just
large enough to admit a man’s arm. The door is closed inside by a
large wooden bolt passing through a hole in this post and pressing
with its free end against the door. The other end has three holes into
which fit three pegs running in vertical grooves inside the post. The
door is opened with a wooden key about a foot long, somewhat
curved and sloped off at the butt; the other end has three pegs
corresponding to the holes, in the bolt, so that, when it is thrust
through the hole in the wall and inserted into the rectangular
opening in the post, the pegs can be lifted and the bolt drawn out.[50]
MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY
With no small pride first one householder and then a second

showed me on the spot the action of this greatest invention of the
Makonde Highlands. To both with an admiring exclamation of
“Vizuri sana!” (“Very fine!”). I expressed the wish to take back these
marvels with me to Ulaya, to show the Wazungu what clever fellows
the Makonde are. Scarcely five minutes after my return to camp at
Newala, the two men came up sweating under the weight of two
heavy logs which they laid down at my feet, handing over at the same
time the keys of the fallen fortress. Arguing, logically enough, that if
the key was wanted, the lock would be wanted with it, they had taken
their axes and chopped down the posts—as it never occurred to them
to dig them out of the ground and so bring them intact. Thus I have
two badly damaged specimens, and the owners, instead of praise,
come in for a blowing-up.
The Makua huts in the environs of Newala are especially
miserable; their more than slovenly construction reminds one of the
temporary erections of the Makua at Hatia’s, though the people here
have not been concerned in a war. It must therefore be due to
congenital idleness, or else to the absence of a powerful chief. Even
the baraza at Mlipa’s, a short hour’s walk south-east of Newala,
shares in this general neglect. While public buildings in this country
are usually looked after more or less carefully, this is in evident
danger of being blown over by the first strong easterly gale. The only
attractive object in this whole district is the grave of the late chief
Mlipa. I visited it in the morning, while the sun was still trying with
partial success to break through the rolling mists, and the circular
grove of tall euphorbias, which, with a broken pot, is all that marks
the old king’s resting-place, impressed one with a touch of pathos.
Even my very materially-minded carriers seemed to feel something
of the sort, for instead of their usual ribald songs, they chanted
solemnly, as we marched on through the dense green of the Makonde
bush:—
“We shall arrive with the great master; we stand in a row and have
no fear about getting our food and our money from the Serkali (the
Government). We are not afraid; we are going along with the great
master, the lion; we are going down to the coast and back.”
With regard to the characteristic features of the various tribes here
on the western edge of the plateau, I can arrive at no other
conclusion than the one already come to in the plain, viz., that it is
impossible for anyone but a trained anthropologist to assign any
given individual at once to his proper tribe. In fact, I think that even
an anthropological specialist, after the most careful examination,
might find it a difficult task to decide. The whole congeries of peoples
collected in the region bounded on the west by the great Central
African rift, Tanganyika and Nyasa, and on the east by the Indian
Ocean, are closely related to each other—some of their languages are
only distinguished from one another as dialects of the same speech,
and no doubt all the tribes present the same shape of skull and
structure of skeleton. Thus, surely, there can be no very striking
differences in outward appearance.
Even did such exist, I should have no time
to concern myself with them, for day after day,
I have to see or hear, as the case may be—in
any case to grasp and record—an
extraordinary number of ethnographic
phenomena. I am almost disposed to think it
fortunate that some departments of inquiry, at
least, are barred by external circumstances.
Chief among these is the subject of iron-
working. We are apt to think of Africa as a
country where iron ore is everywhere, so to
speak, to be picked up by the roadside, and
where it would be quite surprising if the
inhabitants had not learnt to smelt the
material ready to their hand. In fact, the
knowledge of this art ranges all over the
continent, from the Kabyles in the north to the
Kafirs in the south. Here between the Rovuma
and the Lukuledi the conditions are not so
favourable. According to the statements of the
Makonde, neither ironstone nor any other
form of iron ore is known to them. They have
not therefore advanced to the art of smelting
the metal, but have hitherto bought all their
THE ANCESTRESS OF
THE MAKONDE
iron implements from neighbouring tribes.
Even in the plain the inhabitants are not much
better off. Only one man now living is said to
understand the art of smelting iron. This old fundi lives close to
Huwe, that isolated, steep-sided block of granite which rises out of
the green solitude between Masasi and Chingulungulu, and whose
jagged and splintered top meets the traveller’s eye everywhere. While
still at Masasi I wished to see this man at work, but was told that,
frightened by the rising, he had retired across the Rovuma, though
he would soon return. All subsequent inquiries as to whether the
fundi had come back met with the genuine African answer, “Bado”
(“Not yet”).
BRAZIER
Some consolation was afforded me by a brassfounder, whom I

came across in the bush near Akundonde’s. This man is the favourite
of women, and therefore no doubt of the gods; he welds the glittering
brass rods purchased at the coast into those massive, heavy rings
which, on the wrists and ankles of the local fair ones, continually give
me fresh food for admiration. Like every decent master-craftsman he
had all his tools with him, consisting of a pair of bellows, three
crucibles and a hammer—nothing more, apparently. He was quite
willing to show his skill, and in a twinkling had fixed his bellows on
the ground. They are simply two goat-skins, taken off whole, the four
legs being closed by knots, while the upper opening, intended to
admit the air, is kept stretched by two pieces of wood. At the lower
end of the skin a smaller opening is left into which a wooden tube is
stuck. The fundi has quickly borrowed a heap of wood-embers from
the nearest hut; he then fixes the free ends of the two tubes into an
earthen pipe, and clamps them to the ground by means of a bent
piece of wood. Now he fills one of his small clay crucibles, the dross
on which shows that they have been long in use, with the yellow
material, places it in the midst of the embers, which, at present are
only faintly glimmering, and begins his work. In quick alternation
the smith’s two hands move up and down with the open ends of the
bellows; as he raises his hand he holds the slit wide open, so as to let
the air enter the skin bag unhindered. In pressing it down he closes
the bag, and the air puffs through the bamboo tube and clay pipe into
the fire, which quickly burns up. The smith, however, does not keep
on with this work, but beckons to another man, who relieves him at
the bellows, while he takes some more tools out of a large skin pouch
carried on his back. I look on in wonder as, with a smooth round
stick about the thickness of a finger, he bores a few vertical holes into
the clean sand of the soil. This should not be difficult, yet the man
seems to be taking great pains over it. Then he fastens down to the
ground, with a couple of wooden clamps, a neat little trough made by
splitting a joint of bamboo in half, so that the ends are closed by the
two knots. At last the yellow metal has attained the right consistency,
and the fundi lifts the crucible from the fire by means of two sticks
split at the end to serve as tongs. A short swift turn to the left—a
tilting of the crucible—and the molten brass, hissing and giving forth
clouds of smoke, flows first into the bamboo mould and then into the
holes in the ground.
The technique of this backwoods craftsman may not be very far
advanced, but it cannot be denied that he knows how to obtain an
adequate result by the simplest means. The ladies of highest rank in
this country—that is to say, those who can afford it, wear two kinds
of these massive brass rings, one cylindrical, the other semicircular
in section. The latter are cast in the most ingenious way in the
bamboo mould, the former in the circular hole in the sand. It is quite
a simple matter for the fundi to fit these bars to the limbs of his fair
customers; with a few light strokes of his hammer he bends the
pliable brass round arm or ankle without further inconvenience to
the wearer.
SHAPING THE POT
SMOOTHING WITH MAIZE-COB
CUTTING THE EDGE

FINISHING THE BOTTOM
LAST SMOOTHING BEFORE

BURNING
FIRING THE BRUSH-PILE

LIGHTING THE FARTHER SIDE OF
THE PILE
TURNING THE RED-HOT VESSEL
NYASA WOMAN MAKING POTS AT MASASI

Pottery is an art which must always and everywhere excite the
interest of the student, just because it is so intimately connected with
the development of human culture, and because its relics are one of
the principal factors in the reconstruction of our own condition in
prehistoric times. I shall always remember with pleasure the two or
three afternoons at Masasi when Salim Matola’s mother, a slightly-
built, graceful, pleasant-looking woman, explained to me with
touching patience, by means of concrete illustrations, the ceramic art
of her people. The only implements for this primitive process were a
lump of clay in her left hand, and in the right a calabash containing
the following valuables: the fragment of a maize-cob stripped of all
its grains, a smooth, oval pebble, about the size of a pigeon’s egg, a
few chips of gourd-shell, a bamboo splinter about the length of one’s
hand, a small shell, and a bunch of some herb resembling spinach.
Nothing more. The woman scraped with the
shell a round, shallow hole in the soft, fine
sand of the soil, and, when an active young
girl had filled the calabash with water for her,
she began to knead the clay. As if by magic it
gradually assumed the shape of a rough but
already well-shaped vessel, which only wanted
a little touching up with the instruments
before mentioned. I looked out with the
MAKUA WOMAN closest attention for any indication of the use
MAKING A POT. of the potter’s wheel, in however rudimentary
SHOWS THE a form, but no—hapana (there is none). The
BEGINNINGS OF THE embryo pot stood firmly in its little
POTTER’S WHEEL
depression, and the woman walked round it in
a stooping posture, whether she was removing
small stones or similar foreign bodies with the maize-cob, smoothing
the inner or outer surface with the splinter of bamboo, or later, after
letting it dry for a day, pricking in the ornamentation with a pointed
bit of gourd-shell, or working out the bottom, or cutting the edge
with a sharp bamboo knife, or giving the last touches to the finished
vessel. This occupation of the women is infinitely toilsome, but it is
without doubt an accurate reproduction of the process in use among
our ancestors of the Neolithic and Bronze ages.
There is no doubt that the invention of pottery, an item in human
progress whose importance cannot be over-estimated, is due to
women. Rough, coarse and unfeeling, the men of the horde range
over the countryside. When the united cunning of the hunters has
succeeded in killing the game; not one of them thinks of carrying
home the spoil. A bright fire, kindled by a vigorous wielding of the
drill, is crackling beside them; the animal has been cleaned and cut
up secundum artem, and, after a slight singeing, will soon disappear
under their sharp teeth; no one all this time giving a single thought
to wife or child.
To what shifts, on the other hand, the primitive wife, and still more
the primitive mother, was put! Not even prehistoric stomachs could
endure an unvarying diet of raw food. Something or other suggested
the beneficial effect of hot water on the majority of approved but
indigestible dishes. Perhaps a neighbour had tried holding the hard
roots or tubers over the fire in a calabash filled with water—or maybe
an ostrich-egg-shell, or a hastily improvised vessel of bark. They
became much softer and more palatable than they had previously
been; but, unfortunately, the vessel could not stand the fire and got
charred on the outside. That can be remedied, thought our
ancestress, and plastered a layer of wet clay round a similar vessel.
This is an improvement; the cooking utensil remains uninjured, but
the heat of the fire has shrunk it, so that it is loose in its shell. The
next step is to detach it, so, with a firm grip and a jerk, shell and
kernel are separated, and pottery is invented. Perhaps, however, the
discovery which led to an intelligent use of the burnt-clay shell, was
made in a slightly different way. Ostrich-eggs and calabashes are not
to be found in every part of the world, but everywhere mankind has
arrived at the art of making baskets out of pliant materials, such as
bark, bast, strips of palm-leaf, supple twigs, etc. Our inventor has no
water-tight vessel provided by nature. “Never mind, let us line the
basket with clay.” This answers the purpose, but alas! the basket gets
burnt over the blazing fire, the woman watches the process of
cooking with increasing uneasiness, fearing a leak, but no leak
appears. The food, done to a turn, is eaten with peculiar relish; and
the cooking-vessel is examined, half in curiosity, half in satisfaction
at the result. The plastic clay is now hard as stone, and at the same
time looks exceedingly well, for the neat plaiting of the burnt basket
is traced all over it in a pretty pattern. Thus, simultaneously with
pottery, its ornamentation was invented.
Primitive woman has another claim to respect. It was the man,
roving abroad, who invented the art of producing fire at will, but the
woman, unable to imitate him in this, has been a Vestal from the
earliest times. Nothing gives so much trouble as the keeping alight of
the smouldering brand, and, above all, when all the men are absent
from the camp. Heavy rain-clouds gather, already the first large
drops are falling, the first gusts of the storm rage over the plain. The
little flame, a greater anxiety to the woman than her own children,
flickers unsteadily in the blast. What is to be done? A sudden thought
occurs to her, and in an instant she has constructed a primitive hut
out of strips of bark, to protect the flame against rain and wind.
This, or something very like it, was the way in which the principle
of the house was discovered; and even the most hardened misogynist
cannot fairly refuse a woman the credit of it. The protection of the
hearth-fire from the weather is the germ from which the human
dwelling was evolved. Men had little, if any share, in this forward
step, and that only at a late stage. Even at the present day, the
plastering of the housewall with clay and the manufacture of pottery
are exclusively the women’s business. These are two very significant
survivals. Our European kitchen-garden, too, is originally a woman’s
invention, and the hoe, the primitive instrument of agriculture, is,
characteristically enough, still used in this department. But the
noblest achievement which we owe to the other sex is unquestionably
the art of cookery. Roasting alone—the oldest process—is one for
which men took the hint (a very obvious one) from nature. It must
have been suggested by the scorched carcase of some animal
overtaken by the destructive forest-fires. But boiling—the process of
improving organic substances by the help of water heated to boiling-
point—is a much later discovery. It is so recent that it has not even
yet penetrated to all parts of the world. The Polynesians understand
how to steam food, that is, to cook it, neatly wrapped in leaves, in a
hole in the earth between hot stones, the air being excluded, and
(sometimes) a few drops of water sprinkled on the stones; but they
do not understand boiling.
To come back from this digression, we find that the slender Nyasa
woman has, after once more carefully examining the finished pot,
put it aside in the shade to dry. On the following day she sends me
word by her son, Salim Matola, who is always on hand, that she is
going to do the burning, and, on coming out of my house, I find her
already hard at work. She has spread on the ground a layer of very
dry sticks, about as thick as one’s thumb, has laid the pot (now of a
yellowish-grey colour) on them, and is piling brushwood round it.
My faithful Pesa mbili, the mnyampara, who has been standing by,
most obligingly, with a lighted stick, now hands it to her. Both of
them, blowing steadily, light the pile on the lee side, and, when the
flame begins to catch, on the weather side also. Soon the whole is in a
blaze, but the dry fuel is quickly consumed and the fire dies down, so
that we see the red-hot vessel rising from the ashes. The woman
turns it continually with a long stick, sometimes one way and
sometimes another, so that it may be evenly heated all over. In
twenty minutes she rolls it out of the ash-heap, takes up the bundle
of spinach, which has been lying for two days in a jar of water, and
sprinkles the red-hot clay with it. The places where the drops fall are
marked by black spots on the uniform reddish-brown surface. With a
sigh of relief, and with visible satisfaction, the woman rises to an
erect position; she is standing just in a line between me and the fire,
from which a cloud of smoke is just rising: I press the ball of my
camera, the shutter clicks—the apotheosis is achieved! Like a
priestess, representative of her inventive sex, the graceful woman
stands: at her feet the hearth-fire she has given us beside her the
invention she has devised for us, in the background the home she has
built for us.
At Newala, also, I have had the manufacture of pottery carried on
in my presence. Technically the process is better than that already
described, for here we find the beginnings of the potter’s wheel,
which does not seem to exist in the plains; at least I have seen
nothing of the sort. The artist, a frightfully stupid Makua woman, did
not make a depression in the ground to receive the pot she was about
to shape, but used instead a large potsherd. Otherwise, she went to
work in much the same way as Salim’s mother, except that she saved
herself the trouble of walking round and round her work by squatting
at her ease and letting the pot and potsherd rotate round her; this is
surely the first step towards a machine. But it does not follow that
the pot was improved by the process. It is true that it was beautifully
rounded and presented a very creditable appearance when finished,
but the numerous large and small vessels which I have seen, and, in
part, collected, in the “less advanced” districts, are no less so. We
moderns imagine that instruments of precision are necessary to
produce excellent results. Go to the prehistoric collections of our
museums and look at the pots, urns and bowls of our ancestors in the
dim ages of the past, and you will at once perceive your error.
MAKING LONGITUDINAL CUT IN
BARK
DRAWING THE BARK OFF THE LOG
REMOVING THE OUTER BARK

BEATING THE BARK
WORKING THE BARK-CLOTH AFTER BEATING, TO MAKE IT

SOFT
MANUFACTURE OF BARK-CLOTH AT NEWALA

To-day, nearly the whole population of German East Africa is
clothed in imported calico. This was not always the case; even now in
some parts of the north dressed skins are still the prevailing wear,
and in the north-western districts—east and north of Lake
Tanganyika—lies a zone where bark-cloth has not yet been
superseded. Probably not many generations have passed since such
bark fabrics and kilts of skins were the only clothing even in the
south. Even to-day, large quantities of this bright-red or drab
material are still to be found; but if we wish to see it, we must look in
the granaries and on the drying stages inside the native huts, where
it serves less ambitious uses as wrappings for those seeds and fruits
which require to be packed with special care. The salt produced at
Masasi, too, is packed for transport to a distance in large sheets of
bark-cloth. Wherever I found it in any degree possible, I studied the
process of making this cloth. The native requisitioned for the
purpose arrived, carrying a log between two and three yards long and
as thick as his thigh, and nothing else except a curiously-shaped
mallet and the usual long, sharp and pointed knife which all men and
boys wear in a belt at their backs without a sheath—horribile dictu!
[51]
Silently he squats down before me, and with two rapid cuts has
drawn a couple of circles round the log some two yards apart, and
slits the bark lengthwise between them with the point of his knife.
With evident care, he then scrapes off the outer rind all round the
log, so that in a quarter of an hour the inner red layer of the bark
shows up brightly-coloured between the two untouched ends. With
some trouble and much caution, he now loosens the bark at one end,
and opens the cylinder. He then stands up, takes hold of the free
edge with both hands, and turning it inside out, slowly but steadily
pulls it off in one piece. Now comes the troublesome work of
scraping all superfluous particles of outer bark from the outside of
the long, narrow piece of material, while the inner side is carefully
scrutinised for defective spots. At last it is ready for beating. Having
signalled to a friend, who immediately places a bowl of water beside
him, the artificer damps his sheet of bark all over, seizes his mallet,
lays one end of the stuff on the smoothest spot of the log, and
hammers away slowly but continuously. “Very simple!” I think to
myself. “Why, I could do that, too!”—but I am forced to change my
opinions a little later on; for the beating is quite an art, if the fabric is
not to be beaten to pieces. To prevent the breaking of the fibres, the
stuff is several times folded across, so as to interpose several
thicknesses between the mallet and the block. At last the required
state is reached, and the fundi seizes the sheet, still folded, by both
ends, and wrings it out, or calls an assistant to take one end while he
holds the other. The cloth produced in this way is not nearly so fine
and uniform in texture as the famous Uganda bark-cloth, but it is
quite soft, and, above all, cheap.
Now, too, I examine the mallet. My craftsman has been using the
simpler but better form of this implement, a conical block of some
hard wood, its base—the striking surface—being scored across and
across with more or less deeply-cut grooves, and the handle stuck
into a hole in the middle. The other and earlier form of mallet is
shaped in the same way, but the head is fastened by an ingenious
network of bark strips into the split bamboo serving as a handle. The
observation so often made, that ancient customs persist longest in
connection with religious ceremonies and in the life of children, here
finds confirmation. As we shall soon see, bark-cloth is still worn
during the unyago,[52] having been prepared with special solemn
ceremonies; and many a mother, if she has no other garment handy,
will still put her little one into a kilt of bark-cloth, which, after all,
looks better, besides being more in keeping with its African
surroundings, than the ridiculous bit of print from Ulaya.
MAKUA WOMEN

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eTextbook 978-1305263727 Theory and

Practice of Counseling and

in this book—with appreciation for their contributions

to contemporary counseling practice.

Gerald Corey is Professor Emeritus of Human Services and Counseling at

Jerry Corey is coauthor (with Barbara Herlihy) of Boundary Issues in Counseling:

Summary and Evaluation 124 Application: Therapeutic Techniques and

12 Feminist Therapy 337 PA R T 3

What’s New in This Tenth Edition

Chapter 4 Psychoanalytic Therapy

Chapter 5 Adlerian Therapy

Chapter 6 Existential Therapy

Chapter 7 Person-Centered Therapy

Chapter 8 Gestalt Therapy

Chapter 9 Behavior Therapy

Chapter 10 Cognitive Behavior Therapy

Chapter 11 Choice Theory/Reality Therapy

Chapter 12 Feminist Therapy

Chapter 13 Postmodern Approaches

Chapter 14 Family Systems Therapy

School of Professional Psychology at Alliant International University,

1. Understand the author’s 4. Identify key issues within the case

socialization leads to a lack of gender equality. Family therapy teaches us that it is

Suggestions for Using the Book

Overview of the Theory Chapters

Table 1.1 Overview of Contemporary Counseling Models

First are the psychodynamic approaches. Psychoanalytic therapy is based largely on

psychoanalysis, others are modifications of analytic concepts and procedures, and

The postmodern approaches include social constructionism, solution-focused brief

Introduction to the Case of Stan

Intake Interview and Stan’s Autobiography

Effective therapists, regardless of their theoretical orientation, would pay

Overview of Some Key Themes in Stan’s Life

Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least

The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley,

NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR

MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY

With no small pride first one householder and then a second

Some consolation was afforded me by a brassfounder, whom I

SMOOTHING WITH MAIZE-COB

CUTTING THE EDGE

LAST SMOOTHING BEFORE

FIRING THE BRUSH-PILE

TURNING THE RED-HOT VESSEL

NYASA WOMAN MAKING POTS AT MASASI

DRAWING THE BARK OFF THE LOG

REMOVING THE OUTER BARK

WORKING THE BARK-CLOTH AFTER BEATING, TO MAKE IT

MANUFACTURE OF BARK-CLOTH AT NEWALA

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