24-11-2023

INTRODUCTION TO
QUALITY EVALUATION OF
TEXTILE MATERIALS
Dr S Chakraborty
2021-…

Sampling:
It is not possible or desirable to test all the raw material or all the final output from a production
process because of time and cost constraints.

Many tests are destructive so that there would not be any material left after it had been tested.
Because of this, representative samples of the material are tested.

Terms used in sampling:

Consignment:

This is the quantity of material delivered at the same time. Each consignment may consist of one or
several lots.

Test lot or batch:

This consists of all the containers of a textile material of one defined type and quality, delivered to one
customer according to one dispatch note. The material is presumed to be uniform so that this is the
whole of the material whose properties are to be characterised by one set of tests. It can be
considered to be equivalent to the statistical population.

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Laboratory sample:

This is the material that will be used as a basis for carrying out the measurement in the laboratory. This is
derived by appropriate random sampling methods from the test lot.

Test specimen:

This is the one that is actually used for the individual measurement and is derived from the laboratory sample.
Normally, measurements are made from several test specimens.

Package:

Elementary units (which can be unwound) within each container in the consignment. They might be bump
top, hanks, skeins, bobbins, cones or other support on to which have been wound tow, top, sliver, roving or
yarn.

Container or case:

A shipping unit identified on the dispatch note, usually a carton, box, bale or other container which may or
may not contain packages.

Random Sampling Definition: Random sampling is a part of the sampling technique in which each
sample has an equal probability of being chosen. A sample chosen randomly is meant to be an
unbiased representation of the total population.

Systematic sampling is a probability sampling method where researchers select members of the
population at a regular interval – for example, by selecting every 15th person on a list of the
population. If the population is in a random order, this can imitate the benefits of simple random
sampling.

Stratified sampling Definition: Stratified sampling is a type of sampling method in which the total
population is divided into smaller groups or strata to complete the sampling process. The strata is
formed based on some common characteristics in the population data.

Cluster sampling In cluster sampling, researchers divide a population into smaller groups known as
clusters. They then randomly select among these clusters to form a sample. Cluster sampling is a
method of probability sampling that is often used to study large populations, particularly those that
are widely geographically dispersed.

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A haphazard sample is just that, i.e., a selection based on no formal predetermined

rules whatever. It cannot be considered an unbiased sample. The “person in the
street” approach of television interviewers usually uses haphazard sampling.

Judgmental sampling, also called purposive sampling or authoritative sampling, is a

non-probability sampling technique in which the sample members are chosen only
on the basis of the researcher's knowledge and judgment.

SAMPLING

Sample:
It is a relatively small fraction which is selected to represent a population.

Reasons for sampling:

To minimize time requirement for testing.

Design nature of many of the tests.

For example :

1) Only 20mg of cotton sample is used from 250kg of cotton:

2) 10 random sample of cones from one container of 15ton of yarns:

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Aim of sampling:

To produce an unbiased sample in which the population of the different fibre length in the
sample are same as those in the bulk or through sampling systems of each fibre in the bale
should have equal chance of being chosen for the sample.

Sampling methods are governed by:

1. Form of the material (fibre/yarn/fabric).

2. Amount of material available.
3. Nature of the test.
4. Type of testing instruments.
5. Information required.
6. Degree of accuracy required.

TYPES OF SAMPLE:
RANDOM SAMPLE:
In this type of sample every individual in the population has an equal chance of being included in
it. It is free from bias, therefore truly representative of the population.

NUMERICAL SAMPLE:
A sample in which the proportion by number of, say, long, medium, and short fibers would be the
same in sample as in the population.

BIASED SAMPLE:
When the selection of an individual is influenced by factors other than chance, a sample ceases to
be truly representative of the bulk and a biased sample results.

Causes of bias in sampling:

Bias due to physical characteristics:
Longer fibers always have a greater chance of being selected. Position relative to the person:
Lab assistant may pick bobbins from top layer of a case of yarn (whether to save himself the task
of digging down into the case or because he has never been told otherwise, we do not know), but
the bobbin chosen will be biased due to their position.

Subconscious bias:
Person selecting cones will pick the best looking ones free from ridges, cubwebbed ends, etc.,
without thinking about it.

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Sampling distribution

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Idealized Sliver

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Numerical sample
In a numerical sample the percentage by number of fibres in each length group should be the same
in the sample as it is in the bulk.

A and B represent two planes separated by a short distance in a sample consisting of parallel fibres.
If all the fibres whose right-hand ends (shown by cross marks) lay between A and B were selected by
some means they would constitute a numerical sample.

Length-biased sample

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Length Biased Sample

Opto-electric Method
Optical method of measuring the density along the length of a tuft of parallel fibres,
Sample is prepared by fibro-sampler.

Random draw method (for Sliver)

1. This method is used for sampling card sliver, ball sliver and top.
2. The sliver to be sampled is parted carefully by hand so that the end to
be used has no broken or cut fibres.
3. The sliver is placed over two velvet boards with the parted end near
sliver the front of the first board.
4. The opposite end of the sliver is weighed down with a glass plate to
stop it moving as shown in Fig.
5. A wide grip which is capable of holding individual fibres is then used
to remove and discard a 2mm fringe of fibres from the parted end.
6. This procedure is repeated, removing and discarding 2mm draws of
fibre until a distance equal to that of the longest fibre in the sliver has
been removed.
7. The sliver end has now been 'normalised' and any of the succeeding
draws can be used to make up a sample as they will be representative
of all fibre lengths.

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Cut square method

1. The untwisted end of the yarn is cut about 5mm from the edge
of the plate as shown in Fig.

2. All the fibres that project in front of the glass plate are
removed one by one with a pair of forceps and discarded.

3. By doing this all the cut fibres are removed, leaving only fibres
with their natural length.

4. The glass plate is then moved back a few millimetres, exposing

more fibre ends.

5. These are then removed one by one and measured. When these
have all been measured the plate is moved back again until a
total of 50 fibres have been measured.

6. In each case once the plate has been moved all projecting fibre
ends must be removed and measured.

The Zoning Technique

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Core sampling of Raw Wool

at one side

Hollow tube with slit at one side..

As the hollow core tube is inserted into the bale fiber is material forced to move
/collected through the hollow slitted tube.

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https://youtu.be/BRppF7b_wu8

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(A) Hand stapling method : (By trained classers):

1. Selecting a sample and preparing the fibres by hand doubling and drawing to
give a fairly well straightened tuft of about ½ inch wide.
2. This is laid on flat black background and the staple length is measured.
3. The shorter fibres will lie in body of the tuft and extreme ends (tips) will not be
the limits used for measurement of staple length.
4. The classer chooses the length where there are reasonably well defined edges.
5. Subjective in nature, so difference in results between classers.

(B) Comb Sorter Method:

Baer sorter method …

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In the diagram
OQ = 1/2 OA
OK = 1/4 OP
5 KS = 1/2 KK'
OL = 1/4 OR
Short fibre percentage = (RB/OB) × 100%
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7 LL' = Effective length (because many m/c settings are related with this
1 length)
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LL'-MM' = NL'=Inter-quartile range

Dispersion% = NL'/LL'
4 9 3 8 (For flatter middle zone, dispersion is minimum)
Frequency distribution in opposite way, i.e. the curve is known but the
frequency distribution is to be obtained.

(C) Single fibre length measurement:

Each fibre is taken separately and gently straightened over the slide and length is recorded.
(Tedious and time consuming; not used in mill practice, used where number of fibres are small).

(D) Length measurement by weighing method:

After combing, the fibres are placed on a velvet pad.
Then ranked into groups so that length range in each group is 1/8''.
Groups are then weighed on a sensitive balance.
Mean length =∑WL/ ∑W
where L = Group length
W = Mass of fibre in length group
Upper Quartile Length ( 1/4 th of the fibres by mass is longer than that length).

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The clamped tuft method

Two halves of a metal clamp A are fastened around the sliver so

clamping all the fibres that pass through that area. The sliver is then
combed at each side of the clamp so that any fibres not gripped are
removed, but a tuft is left protruding from each side.

The clamp is made with the top narrower than the base so that a
blade can be run along each edge cutting off the protruding tufts.
The tufts are then weighed together, the clamp opened and its
contents weighed separately. The mean fibre length (massbiased)
can then be calculated from the following formula:

Thickness gauging method (Uster stapler):

It is designed to reduce the time taken to produce sorter diagram

and, at the same time, eliminate some operator errors by the use
of mechanized fibre control systems

Draw frame sliver may be used and has the advantage of well
mixed fibres

Where the raw cotton is used a sample between 10 and 30mg is

prepared as described for bear sorter apparatus.

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The apparatus consists of three mabi units:(1) The mechanical comb sorter and transport
comb.(2) The tuft forming unit.(3) The gauging unit.

The sliver ‘or sample is placed on the bed of combs and the top combs lowered into position.

A sliding grip handles the fibres and is first used to remove any protruding fibres. Fibre
removal can be continued after one or two combs have been dropped; in this way a form of
fibre sampling by the ‘squaring’ method is achieved.

A raw cotton sample should be laid inside the front combs, therefore one or two combs must be
dropped and lifted before fibres can be transferred from the comb bed to the transport comb.

The gauging unit does the measuring operation by measuring the thickness of the fibre tuft
from the point where it is gripped to the tip of the fibre fringe.

Measured thickness (a measure of the number of the fibres at that point) is done by an
electrical vibrating feeler.

Almeter…

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Fringes of fibre are prepared by hand and carefully placed

Shirley photoelectric stapler:
For quicker measurement of length (staple length).
Objective measuring technique of earlier staple length
measuring method. (Classer judges by eye).
over black velvet pad (The density of the fringe should be
such that traces of the black velvet can be seen through
central part where density is highest).
The photoelectric stapler detects the distance between where
the density gradient are maximum (on either side).

Two photoelectric cells connected opposition to each other

Depending on light intensity, the opposed cells pass a

current, which is proportional to the difference in the
intensity.

Variation in current is shown in sensitive galvanometer.

As the fringe is advanced inside the instrument, two

maximum density gradient point will be there and this
distance is “staple length” (max. deflection of galvanometer
in opposite direction)

E.L. = P. E. Staple length × 1.1

Fibre Fineness and Its Measurements

1. The cross-section of many types of fibres is not circular.
Wool has an approximately circular cross-section but silk
has a triangular cross-section and cotton is like a
flattened tube as shown.
2. The cross-sections of the fibres may not be uniform along
the fibre length. This is often the case with natural
fibres.
3. The cross-sectional shape of the fibres may not be
Cross-section of cotton fibres × 1500 uniform from fibre to fibre.

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The Projection Microscope

Number of measurements required for
a given accuracy

The Projection Microscope

Fibre fineness by the airflow method

The surface area of a fibre (length × circumference) is proportional to its diameter but for a
given weight of sample the number of fibres increases with the fibre fineness so that the
specific surface area (area per unit weight) is inversely proportional to fibre diameter.

Fibre diameter measurement by airflow

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In the standard micronaire test, 50 gr (3.24 g) of fiber are loosely packed into a cylindrical holder. The
cylinder and the walls enclosing it are both perforated to allow the flow of air under pressure that
compresses the fiber into a 1-in. diameter by 1-in.- long porous plug that will offer resistance to the flow of
air under 6 lb/in-2. Research has shown that the flow through the cotton is given by Q = aMH where a is a
constant, M is maturity, and H is fineness. These results imply that for a constant maturity, a micronaire
instrument will be nearly linearly dependent on fineness.

The direct method for fiber maturity is not

practicable routine test. So indirect method can
be used for the same.

After sorter diagram test tufts of cotton are left

on the velvet pad. Each tuft is laid on a
microscope slide. the fibers are parallel but
separated, and a cover slip put over the middle.

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Determination of Fire Fineness by Vibrating String Method

F = natural fundamental frequency of

vibration (c/s)
T= tension
M= mass per unit length (gm/cm)~ denier
L= free length
l = wave length

Tension range = 0.3 to 0.5 cN/tex, usually applied by weighted clip on the end of the fibre.
The fibre is then caused to vibrate either by vibrating the top comb or by using transducers; the amplitude of the
vibrations is measured over a range of frequencies. The frequency which given maximum vibration amplitude is the
fibre resonance frequency. From which the linear density is measured.
• Refinement of above equation (to allow for stiffness of fibre, since different fiber have different Young’s modulus)
M = (W×g / λ2 f2) ×9×105 {1+ (R / l) √Eπ/T}2
Where,
R = radius of fibre
E= Young’s modulus
l= length

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The velocity of propagation of a wave in a string (v), is proportional

to the square root of the force of tension of the string (T), and
inversely proportional to the square root of the linear density (μ) of
the string
Let Δ x be the length of a piece of string, m its mass, and μ its linear density. If angles α and β are
small, then the horizontal components of tension on either side can both be approximated by a
constant T, for which the net horizontal force is zero. Accordingly, using the small angle
approximation, the horizontal tensions acting on both sides of the string segment are given by

From Newton's second law for the vertical component, the mass
(which is the product of its linear density and length) of this piece
times its acceleration, a, will be equal to the net force on the piece:

Dividing this expression by T and substituting the first and second equations
obtains (we can choose either the first or the second equation for T , so we
conveniently choose each one with the matching angle β and α)

Dividing this expression by T and substituting the first and second equations obtains (we can choose either the first or
the second equation for T , so we conveniently choose each one with the matching angle β and α)

According to the small-angle approximation, the tangents of the angles at the ends of the string piece are equal to the
slopes at the ends, with an additional minus sign due to the definition of α and β. Using this fact and rearranging
provides

In the limit that Δx approaches zero, the left hand side ¡s the definition of the second derivative of y:

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Three of the most significant direct methods include:

1. The caustic swelling test, in which whole fibers are swollen in 18% caustic
soda(NaOH) and examined under the light microscope with a specific assessment of
the relative width of the fiber versus its wall thickness used to identify a fiber as
mature, immature, or dead.

2. The polarized light test, in which beards of parallel fiber are placed on microscope
slides on a polarized light microscope using crossed polars and a seleniteretardation
plate. The interference color of the secondary wall will be a direct measureof its
thickness and thus maturity. Generally, mature fibers appear orange to
greenishyellow whereas immature fibers appear as blue-green to deep blue to purple.

3. The absolute reference method of image analysis of fiber bundle cross sections,
wherein an image analysis computer system is used to automatically measure the
area and perimeter of several hundred fiber sections and statistically analyzed to
measure the average θ and perimeter.

When the viscous forces are dominant (slow flow, low Re), they
are sufficient to keep all the fluid particles in line, then the flow
is laminar. When the inertial forces dominate over the viscous
forces (when the fluid flows faster and Re is larger), the flow is
turbulent.

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