LA IMMACULADA CONCEPCION SCHOOL

REVIEWER

PHYSICAL SCIENCE

I. The Origin of Elements

A. Composition of the Universe

- Hydrogen 74%

- Helium -24%

- Other element – 2%

B. Big Bang Theory

> was a phenomenally energetic explosion that initiated the expansion of the universe
from a singularity.

a. Evidences

1. Red shift of Distant Galaxies or Galaxies are moving away

2. Abundance of Light Elements or Cosmic Elemental Abundances of

Hydrogen and Helium and Big Bang Nucleosynthesis

3. Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) Radiation

b. Creation of the Elements

1. Big Bang Nucleosynthesis – process that creates new atomic nucleus

from preexisting nucleons ( protons and neutrons)

2. Stellar Nucleosynthesis – the formation of heavy elements by the

fusion of light nuclei in the interior of stars.

3. Supernova Nucleosynthesis – elements heavier than iron are made

primarily when giant stars explode in supernova event.

●Nebula – contain gas and dust from previously exploded stars

- birthplace of new stars

II. The Atom

A. Atom – “atomos” means indivisible
i. Characteristics
- Indivisible because it is extremely small
- Indivisible because it cannot be broken down to a tinier unit
- Solid, spherical, not empty
 - Surrounded by an empty space
- Eternal because atoms are seamless
- Immeasurable number of shapes
B. Alchemy – a mixture of black magic and scientific knowledge with such superstition.
i. 3 main goals
1. Find the “elixir of life” which can bring wealth, power and
immortality
2. Find the so called “philosopher’s stone” which can turn base
metals into gold (believed to be the purest form of matter)
3. Discover the cosmological relationship of humans
C. Structure of the Atom

Discoverer Atomic Model

John Dalton Billiard Ball
Model
Joseph John Plum –
Thomson Pudding Model
Ernest Nuclear Model
Rutherford of the Atom
Max Karl Quantum
Ludwig Planck Hypothesis and
& Albert Photoelectric
Einstein Effect
Neils Bohr Planetary
Model of the
Atom
Erwin Electron Cloud
Schrodinger Model

D. Radioactivity and the Nuclear Reaction

i. Alpha Emission
ii. Beta Emission
iii. Positron Emission
iv. Electron Capture
v. Gamma Emission
A
Z X

Legend

X – element

A – atomic mass

Z – atomic number

- Number of protons
- Number of electrons
Neutron – (atomic mass – number of protons)

Lewis Dot Structure

5 8
7 1
4 X 2
3 6

Type of Chemical Bonding

1. Covalent Bond – sharing of electron

a. Non metal to non metal
2. Ionic Bond – Transferring of Electron
a. Metal to non metal

III. Particulate Nature of Matter

A. Properties of Liquid
i. Surface Tension – resistance of the liquid to increase its surface area
ii. Capillarity – spontaneous rising of a liquid through a narrow space against the
pull of gravity
iii. Viscosity – resistance of a liquid to flow
B. Biological Molecules
i. Carbohydrates
- Most abundant type of organic macromolecules on earth
- Sugar polymers
- Ex. Starch, Sucrose, Fructose, Cellulose
- Structure: Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen
ii. Lipids
- Insoluble in water but soluble in polar solvents
- Ex. Fatty Acids (fats, oil, waxes), steroids, cholesterol
- Structure: Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen
iii. Proteins
- Performs a specific function, which can be in catalysis, immunity, muscle
contraction, gene regulation, hormone regulation, structure and
transport.
- Amino acids – building blocks of protein
- Structure: Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen
iv. Nucleic Acids
- Macromolecules composed of several nucleotides
- Nucleotides – is made up of a nitrogenous base (adenine (A), guanine
(G), cytosine (C), thymine (T), uracil (U), a sugar, and a phosphate group.
- Ex. DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) (G-C) / (A-T)
- Structure: Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Phosphate
IV. Chemical Reactions
A. Factors Affecting Rate of Reaction
i. Concentration
 - More Collision, Highly Concentrated
- Less Collision, Low Concentrated
ii. Particle Size
- Greater Collision, Larger Surface Area
- Lesser Collision, Smaller Surface Area
iii. Temperature
- Increasing Kinetic Energy, Higher Temperature
- Decreasing Kinetic Energy, Lower Temperature
iv. Presence of Catalyst
- Catalyzed Reaction, Lower Activation Energy
- Uncatalyzed Reaction, Higher Activation Energy
B. Stoichiometry
i. From the Greek word Stoicheion (means element), metron (means measure)
C. Symbols in Chemical Equation

Symbol Description
(s) Solid
(l) Liquid
(g) Gas
(aq) Aqueous Solution
+ Combines with/
reacts with/and
-> Yields/produces

D. Balancing Equation
E. Limiting and Excess Reactants
i. Limiting Reactant – limits the amount of the reactant
ii. Excess Reactant – substance that is not used up completely in a reaction
F. Percentage Yield
i. Theoretical Yield – maximum amount of product that can be produced from a
given amount of reactant
ii. Actual Yield – measured amount of a product obtained from a reaction
Percentage Yield = (actual yield / theoretical yield) × 100%
V. The Chemistry of Cleaning and Personal Care Products
A. Caution – means that the product must be carefully but is relatively safe
B. Warning – means that the product is moderately toxic
C. Danger – means that the product is highly toxic and may cause serious to permanent
damage to skin and eyes

Goodluck! You can DO IT! GOD BLESS YOU!