HUMAN CULTURAL VARIATION

TWO TYPES OF CULTURE

1 . Material culture Composed of tangible things like food, tools, dress, accessories and others.
2. Non-material Culture Composed of intangible things such as habits, ideas, religion, language and
behavior.
HUMAN CULTURAL VARIATION
It refers to the differences in social behaviors that different cultured exhibit around the world.
-> In the Philippines differences in social behaviors are influence with cultures in a specific places and
tribes. So with the different people in different countries they have also different norms and values that
exists within their groups.
-> Humans around the world have been separated by geographical barriers; thus, allowing the creation of
societies with different cultures and traditions which eventually result to cultural variation.
Key elements of culture:
1. Cultural Variation: Symbols and Languages
SYMBOLS and LANGUAGES (verbal and nonverbal) represents the cultural reality in one culture. Cultures
use symbols and languages to communicate with one another as well as to shape the thoughts of the
people.
2. Cultural Variation: Religion
Religion is an important element of a culture as it dictates the moral beliefs of the people which guide their
everyday lives. According to Durkheim, without it, there would be no social order, social control, and social
cooperation.
3. Cultural Variation: Values and Beliefs
Values and beliefs act as guidelines for the people in reference to what is good, desirable, important, and
worthwhile. When the people have different values and beliefs, it can cause conflict as the people might
have incompatible goals or perception in life.
4. Cultural Variation: Custom
A custom is a practice or a behavior that is common to a particular class or group of people that it becomes
an unwritten law followed in a regular basis.
5. Cultural Variation: Laws and Politics
Laws govern the everyday decision making of the people as these can either award them certain rights and
privileges or prevent them from doing something or give them specific obligation.
Politics govern the people depending on the characteristics of the leader who will lead them. Those who
lead or in the top members of the society have the power to influence the actions and behaviors of the
majority.
SOCIAL DIFFERENCES
The differences among the individuals on the basis of social characteristics and qualities.
-> These may include race, ethnicity, gender, and professions. In spite of these differences people continue
to do their responsibilities as members of society.
Causes of Social Differences
1. Social Differences: Class
Most cultures and societies have classes which categorize people according to their social or economic
status.
2. Social Differences: Age
The "age" of a person is usually associated with "maturity" and "wisdom" by different cultures. Some
perceive older people as weak while some perceive them as wise men of a community.
3. Social Differences: Race
Race comes from the idea that human beings are divided into distinct groups which have certain shared
and inherited physical and behavioral characteristics.
4. Social Differences: Ability/Education
The education level of a person dictates how one will perceive oneself in contrast to other members of the
society. Moreover, the higher the level of education of a person the more opportunities he or she usually
gets.
5. Social Differences: Ethnicity
Which refers to the ethnic group who have common culture, language and history
6. Social Differences: Gender Role
Refers to attitudes and behaviors that the society expect a person based on his/her sex.
7. Social Differences: Gender
Gender is the attitudes, feelings, and behaviors that a given culture associates with a person's biological
sex.
GENDER VS SEX
GENDER SEX
Social role of a person Based on person’s anatomy
socially constructed Biological difference between man and woman
LGBTQIA
stands for lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, questioning, intersex and allies

SOCIAL CHANGE
Social change may be defined as the process which is discernible in the alteration of the structure and functioning of a particular
social system.
-> Usually social change refers to a significant change in social behavior or a change in social system rather than minor changes
within a small group.
Two important ways by which societies change:
-> By invention or discovery of new elements or ideas within a society.
-> By diffusion or borrowing of cultural elements, traits or patterns from other societies.
Characteristics of Social Change:
1. Change is Social
Social change means a change in the system of social relationship. Social relationship is understood in terms of social process,
social interactions and social organizations. In any variation of social process, social interactions and social organizations social
change-takes place. In another instance it is found that society is like an organization, which never dies.
2. Universal
Social change is universal. Because it is present in all societies and at all times. No society remains completely static. The society
may be primitive or modern, rural or urban, simple or complex, agrarian or industrial, it is constantly undergoing change.
3. Continuous
Social change is a continuous process but not an intermittent process. Because the changes are neither stopped nor the societies
are kept in museum to save them from change. It is an on- going process without any break.
4. Inevitable
Change is inevitable. It is the human nature that desires change and also it is his tendency to bring change and to oppose or
accept change. Human wants are unlimited which always keep on changing.
5. Temporal
Social change is temporal. Change in anything or any object or in a situation takes place through time. Sometimes some social
changes may bring about immediate results while some others may take years to produce results.
6. Degree or rate of change is not uniform
Though social change is an ever-present phenomenon, its degree or rate or what we call the speed is not uniform. It varies from
society to society and even in the same society from time to time.
7. Social Change may be planned or unplanned
Social change takes place sometimes with planning and sometimes without planning. Social change which occurs in the natural
course is called the unplanned change.
-> The unplanned changes are spontaneous, accidental or the product of sudden decision. It is the inborn tendency of human
beings that they desire change.
8. Social change is multi-causal
A single factor may cause a particular change but it is always associated with a number of factors. The physical, biological,
demographical, cultural, technological and many other factors interact to generate change.
9. Social change creates chain-reactions
Social change produces not a single reaction but chain-reactions as all the parts of the society are inter-related and
interdependent.
10. Prediction is uncertain
We can see some elements for prediction in social change. But the prediction we make is uncertain. It is because of three
reasons. They are:
(a) There is no inherent law of social change,
(b) The forces of social change may not remain on the scene for all times to come, and
(c) The process of social change does not remain uniform.
POLITICAL IDENTITIES
WHAT ARE THE COMPONENTS OF POLITICAL IDENTITY?
-> Political identity frequently refers to a specific political party affiliation or partisan identity. For many voters, belonging to a
political party is not simply a voting decision.
-> Political identity is almost always associated with a group affiliation and describes the ways in which being a member of a
particular group might express specific political opinions and attitudes.
-> Everyting that makes up our sense of self are components of our political identity. Thiis includes our ethnicity, religion,
gender, class, ideolpgy, nationality and even our age and generation.
Some Factors that can Affect Political Identity:
1. Race
2. Economic Status
3. Gender
4. Age
5. Religion
Why Is Political Identity Important in Studying Comparative Politics?
->Understanding how individuals and groups see their own identity as it relates to politics and the state [government] is critical
to the analysis of the political culture and political system of any country. In the United States, for example, there is a tendency
to think of White evangelicals as likely to affiliate with the Republican Party and for Persons of Color to be more likely to affiliate
with the Democratic Party.
-> People with different political identities might also have different ideas of what it means to be 'patriotic' or even 'American'.
Identity can be the driving force behind a social or political movement. Identity also can be the goal of a social or political
movement in terms of gaining acceptance or redefining traditional identities (Bernstein, 2005).
WHAT IS IDENTITY POLITICS?
-> Refers to the “tendency for people of a particular religion, race,social background, etc., to form exclusive political alliences,
moving away from traditional broad-based party politics.
Open and Critical Attitude Toward Different Social, Political, and Cultural Phenomena Through
Observation and Reflection
WHAT IS PHENOMENA
-> A phenomenon (singular) is something that is observed to occur or to exist. It is simply a fact or event
that can be observed with the senses, especially sight.
I. SOCIAL PHENOMENA
-> are the individual, external, and social constructions that influence a person’s life and development.
Observable Events Under Social Phenomena
SOCIAL NORMS are unwritten rules and expectations that govern behavior within a society or social group.
SOCIAL STRATIFICATION is the hierarchical arrangement of individuals or groups within a society based on
factors like wealth, power, and social status.
SOCIAL MOVEMENTS are collective efforts by groups of people to bring about social or political change,
often in response to perceived injustices.
EXAMPLES OF SOCIAL PHENOMENA:
Food Taboo - It is the act of prohibiting the consumption of certain food and drinks.
Istambay - A Filipino term for "standby." This refers to a person who has nothing to do, or who is jobless or
lazy or someone who does not make use of his time in productive and sensible activities.
Marriage - A formal union and social and legal contract between two individuals that legally, economically,
and emotionally unites their lives.
II. POLITICAL PHENOMENA
are not only limited to public offices as these also include how institutions like schools, churches, or
companies are run and governed.
Observable Events Under Political Phenomena
POLITICAL IDEOLOGY is a set of beliefs and values that guide a person's or group's political views and
actions.
POLITICAL ACTIVISM is the engagement in activities aimed at influencing political decisions and policies,
often through protests or advocacy.
POLITICAL CORRUPTION is the misuse of political power for personal gain, often involving bribery,
embezzlement, or other unethical practices.
EXAMPLES OF POLITICAL PHENOMENA:
Elections - It is the formal and organized process of electing or being elected, especially of members of a
political body or legislative body.
Political Dynasty - It is a term used in politics to refer to a family in which several members are involved in
public governance.
Political Candidate Endorsement by a Celebrity - It is when a political candidate seeks the help of a well-
known or influential personality in a campaign.
III. CULTURAL PHENOMENA
happens when something or someone gains widespread popularity.
-> However, it is noteworthy that it is not the subject that is the cultural phenomenon but rather the
process of becoming famous.
Observable Events Under Cultural Phenomena
Cultural Diffusion is the spread of cultural beliefs, practices, and customs from one society or group to
another.
Cultural Hegemony is the domination of one culture's beliefs, values, and practices over others, often
through social institutions and media.
Cultural Appropriation is the adoption or use of elements from one culture by members of another
culture, often without permission and in a way that can be seen as disrespectful or insensitive.
EXAMPLES OF CULTURAL PHENOMENA:
Popularity (Fan base) - Popularity is the state of being liked, admired, or supported by many people.
Social Media Buzz - Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram are social networking sites where many people are
members and interact with other members through information, picture, music, and video sharing.
-> Social, political, and cultural behaviors and phenomena in the society are results of interactions within
society. People talk and share stories. People share ways of living among other things. People do things
together and work for the attainment of the common good and social order.
-> These behaviors, be they usual or not, are natural responses to changes and ideologies developing
within society as a result of constant interactions between its members.
How should a person show curiosity about social, cultural, and political phenomena?
1. Observe
Observation means paying close attention to the world around us. It means actively seeking out
information and being an engaged participant in our community.
2. Reflection
means taking time to process and analyze the information we observe. It means questioning assumptions
and considering different angles.
3. APPLY
By applying our observations and reflections, we can make informed decisions and take action to improve
our community and the world at large.
Why an Open and Critical Attitude Matters Toward Social, Political, and Cultural Phenomena?
CHALLENGES TO OUR BELIEFS
An open and critical attitude allows us to challenge our beliefs and consider alternative viewpoints. It helps
us avoid confirmation bias and recognize our own limitations.
FOSTERING EMPATHY
By being open to different perspectives, we can develop a greater sense of empathy and understanding
towards people from different backgrounds and experiences.
ENCOURAGING GROWTH
A critical attitude pushes us to grow and adapt. It promotes curiosity and drives us to seek out knowledge
and new experiences.
CHALLENGES TO MAINTAINING AN OPEN AND CRITICAL ATTITUDE
Confirmation Bias
The tendency to seek out and interpret information in a way that confirms pre-existing beliefs.
False Dichotomies
The idea that complex issues can be reduced to simplistic binary choices.
GROUPTHINK
The pressure to conform to group opinion and avoid conflict or change.
WAYS IN MAINTAINING AN OPEN AND CRITICAL ATTITUDE
THINK CRITICALLY
Critical thinking helps you discern between well-founded knowledge and misinformation.
ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Some topics or experiences may involve sensitive or potentially harmful aspects. Approach them with care
and sensitivity, and consider the potential consequences of your actions.
RESPECTFUL ENGAGEMENT
hen exploring social, cultural, and political phenomena, it's essential to approach them with respect for the
individuals and communities involved. Respect their boundaries, traditions, and beliefs. Avoid intrusive or
disrespectful behavior.
Avoid Echo Chambers
Avoid surrounding yourself exclusively with people who share your views. Echo chambers can reinforce
existing beliefs and hinder critical thinking.
DIVERSE INFORMATION SOURCES
Make an effort to gather information from a variety of sources with different perspectives. Engage in
constructive and open dialogues with people who hold different viewpoints.
balance skepticism with openness
While it's essential to be skeptical, don't let cynicism prevent you from being open to new ideas and
solutions.
REFLECT
Periodically reflect on your own attitudes and beliefs. Be willing to self-correct when necessary.
TAKE BREAKS
Occasionally, take breaks from the constant stream of information and news. This can help prevent
information overload and burnout, allowing you to approach issues more thoughtfully.
BENEFITS OF CULTIVATING AN OPEN AND CRITICAL ATTITUDE
mental flexibility
An open and critical attitude encourages mental flexibility, allowing us to adapt to new situations and
information.
Creative Thinking
By questioning assumptions and considering alternatives, we can cultivate more creative and innovative
thinking.
Personal Growth
By recognizing our limitations and being open to new experiences, we can achieve personal growth and
development.
 ANTHROPOLOGY
It is the scientific study of humanity, concerned with human behavior, human biology, cultures, societies,
and linguistics in both the present and past including past human species.
-> The word "anthropology" comes from the Greek anthropos ("human") and logia ("study").
Anthropology is the study of people everywhere — today, yesterday, and long ago.
FATHER OF ANTHROPOLOGY
Franz Boas
is regarded as both the “father of modern anthropology” and the “father of American anthropology.” He
was the first to apply the scientific method to anthropology, emphasizing a research- first method of
generating theories.
NATURE OF ANTHROPOLOGY
-> - Anthropology is a dynamic subject, characterized by rapid change and diversification, So that the
present statement or any particular moment in time.
-> - A subject is concerned with the study of the social, cultural and biological diversity of humans.
-> - It can be divided into a number of specialization, although the boundaries between these are rarely
exclusive and change overtime.
-> - Study of humans and their ways of life from a global inflationary perspective.
BRANCHES OF ANTHROPOLOGY
1. PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY
-> Branch of anthropology concerned with the origin, evolution, and diversity of people. Physical
anthropologists work broadly on three major sets of problems: human and nonhuman primate evolution,
human variation and its significance (see also race), and the biological bases of human behaviour.
-> Deals with the evolution of humans, their variability, and adoptions to environmental stresses.
2. LINGUISTIC ANTHROPOLOGY
-> Linguistic anthropology studies the nature of human languages in the context of those cultures that
developed them. Scholars in the field seek to understand the social and cultural foundations of language
itself, while exploring how social and cultural formations are grounded in linguistic practices.
-> Linguistic anthropology is the interdisciplinary study of how language influences social life.
3. CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY
-> Cultural anthropologists study how people who share a common cultural system organize and shape the
physical and social world around them, and are in turn shaped by those ideas, behaviors, and physical
environments. Cultural anthropology is hallmarked by the concept of culture itself.
-> Cultural anthropology is a branch of anthropology focused on the study of cultural variation.
4. ARCHEOLOGY ANTHROPOLOGY
-> Archaeological anthropology is the study of past humans and cultures through material remains. It
involves the excavation, analysis and interpretation of artifacts, soils, and cultural processes.
PERSPECTIVE OF ANTHROPOLOGY
-> A hallmark is its holistic perspective, understanding humankind in terms of the dynamic
interrelationships of all aspects of human existence.
-> The key anthropological perspectives are holism, relativism, comparison, and fieldwork.
1. Holism
-> is the perspective on the human condition that assumes that mind, body, individuals, society, and the
environment interpenetrate, and even define one another. In anthropology holism tries to integrate all
that is known about human beings and their activities.
Holism (example)
Rituals and Beliefs: cultural Rituals, Whether Religious or Secular, Often involve multiple elements like
Music,Dance,Clothing,And sumbols. Holistically,These with a cultures or spiritual Beliefs, Values And solcial
structures.The Hindu festival of diwala,for instance, includes rituals, lightning of lamps ,exchanging gistft,
and signifies the triumph of light duer darkness
2. Relativism
The guiding philosophy of modern anthropology is cultural relativism—the idea that we should seek to
understand another person's beliefs and behaviors from the perspective of their culture rather than our
own.
Relativism ( Example)
-Dress code: in some cultures, modest clothing that lovers most of the body is the norm, while in other
more revealing attire is acceptable. Cultural relativism would mean understanding and respecting there
different dress codes without imposing ones own standard.
3. Comparative
This is the comparative perspective, the attempt to explain both the similarities and differences among
people in the context of humanity as a whole. Anthropology seeks to uncover the principles governing
human behavior that are applicable to all human communities, not just to a select few of them.
Comparative (Example)
-marriage custom: compare the traditional marriage custom in india, where arranged marriages are
common , with those in the united states, where love marriages are more relevant
4. Fieldwork
Why is it important to anthropology? Fieldwork is among the most distinctive practices anthropologists
bring to the study of human life in society. Through fieldwork, the social anthropologist seeks a detailed
and intimate understanding of the context of social action and relations.
Fieldwork(Example)
-anthropology: an anthropology living with remote indigenous tribe to study their culture, Traditions, and
social structure firsthand

GOAL OF ANTHROPOLOGY
• discover what makes people different from one another.
• Discover what all people have in common.
• Look at your/our own culture more objectively, like an outsider.
• Produce new knowledge and new theories about humankind and human behaviors.
• To understand both our shared humanity and diversity, and engaging with diverse ways of being in the
world.
Biological anthropology
-trace the evolution of our lineage through time in the fossil record, and provide a comparative perspective
on human uniqueness by placing our species in the context of other living organisms.

Archeology anthropology
-Reconstructing the material world of past societies as fully as possible.
-interpreting the historical significance and cultural meaning of that material world
Social-cultural anthropology
-to study the diversity of human societies in time and space, while looking for commonalities across them.
Linguistic anthropology
- to understand the social and cultural foundations of language itself, while exploring how social and
cultural formations are grounded in linguistic practices.
IMPORTANCE OF ANTHROPOLOGY
Studying anthropology fosters broad knowledge of other cultures, skills in observation and analysis, critical
thinking, clear communication, and applied problem-solving. Anthropology encourages us to extend our
perspectives beyond familiar social contexts to view things from the perspectives of others.
 WHAT IS SOCIOLOGY?
Sociology is the scientific study of society, human behavior, and social interactions. It investigates social
structures, interactions, culture, social change, and social problems. Sociologists use research methods and
theoretical perspectives to understand and address societal issues, and they apply their knowledge to
areas like social work, public policy, healthcare, and education to improve social well-being.
-> Sociology is a good major for anyone interested in a career path that focuses on how human society
functions. It’s important for those interested in the field to examine the sociology major and explore the
subjects it covers.
BRANCHES OF SOCIOLOGY
1. GENERAL SOCIOLOGY
This encompasses the study of society as a whole, focusing on social institutions, culture, and social
change.
2. CULTURAL SOCIOLOGY
Examines the role of culture in shaping society, including cultural norms, values, and symbols.
3. SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
Investigates how individual behavior and attitudes are influenced by social interactions and societal
factors.
4. ECONOMIC SOCIOLOGY
Explores the relationship between economic systems, institutions, and social behavior, including topics like
inequality and labor markets.
5.POLITICAL SOCIOLOGY
Studies the interplay between politics and society, examining power structures, political behavior, and
social movements.
5. CRIMINOLOGY
Concentrates on the causes, control, and prevention of crime and delinquency within society.
7.SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION
Analyzes educational systems, their impact on socialization, and educational inequalities
8.MEDICAL SOCIOLOGY
Investigates the social aspects of health, illness, healthcare systems, and the impact of social factors on
well-being.
9.ENVIRONMENTAL SOCIOLOGY
Explores the relationship between society and the environment, including topics like sustainability and
environmental justice..
10.URBAN SOCIOLOGY
Focuses on the study of cities and urban life, including issues of urbanization, urban planning, and
community development.
11.RURAL SOCIOLOGY
Examines social dynamics in rural areas, including agriculture, community life, and rural development.
NATURE OF SOCIOLOGY
1. SOCIOLOGY IS AN INDEPENDENT SCIENCE. It is not treated and studied as a branch of any other science
2. Sociology is a social science, not a physical science
3. Sociology is a categorical and not a normative discipline
4. Sociology is a pure science and not an applied science
5. Sociology is a relatively abstract science, not a concrete science
6. Sociology is a generalizing and not a particularizing or Individualizing Science
7. Sociology is a general Science and not a special Social Science
8. Sociology is both a Rational and an Empirical Science
GOALS OF SOCIOLOGY
1. UNDERSTANDING SOCIETY
Sociology seeks to understand the structure and functioning of society, including its institutions, cultures,
and social norms.
2.EXPLAINING SOCIAL BEHAVIOR
It aims to explain why people and groups behave the way they do within a social context, including the
causes and consequences of various behaviors.
3.PREDICTING SOCIAL PATTERNS
Sociology strives to identify and predict social trends, helping anticipate future developments and changes
within society.
4.PROMOTING SOCIAL JUSTICE
It works towards identifying and addressing inequalities and injustices within society, advocating for
fairness and equity
5.FACILITATING SOCIAL CHANGE
Sociology can provide insights into how to bring about positive social change, whether through policy
recommendations, activism, or community initiatives.
6.INFORMING PUBLIC POLICY
Sociological research can inform the development of effective social policies and interventions to address
societal problems and improve the well-being of communities.
7.ENHANCING INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS
Sociology can provide insights into how individuals can navigate complex social dynamics and foster
healthier relationships within their communities and networks.
PERSPECTIVE OF SOCIOLOGY
Sociology encompasses various perspectives or theoretical approaches that help sociologists study and
analyze society from different angles. Some major sociological perspectives include:
1.FUNCTIONALISM
This perspective views society as a complex system with different parts (institutions) working together to
maintain stability and equilibrium. It emphasizes the functions and roles of social institutions in society.
2.CONFLICT THEORY
Conflict theory sees society as characterized by inequality and conflict over limited resources. It focuses on
power struggles, social inequalities, and how dominant groups control and oppress others.
3.SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM
This perspective examines the small-scale interactions and symbols that shape social life. It emphasizes the
role of symbols, language, and communication in constructing meaning and social reality.
4.FEMINIST THEORY
Feminist sociology focuses on the inequalities and gender-based discrimination that exist in society. It
aims to understand and challenge patriarchal structures and norms.
5.CRITICALTHEORY
Critical theory is a broader approach that critiques society and its power structures, aiming to uncover
hidden inequalities and promote social change.
6.INTERACTIONIST PERSPECTIVE
This micro-level approach focuses on the day-to-day interactions of individuals and how they create and
interpret symbols and meanings. ritiques society and its power structures, aiming to uncover hidden
inequalities and promote social change.
7.STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM
This perspective examines the functions and dysfunctions of various social institutions and how they
contribute to the overall stability or instability of society.
8.RATIONAL CHOICE THEORY
This perspective views individuals as rational actors who make decisions based on their self-interest,
considering the costs and benefits of their actions.
9.POSTMODERNISM
Postmodernism challenges traditional sociological theories and emphasizes the fluid and fragmented
nature of contemporary society. It questions grand narratives and embraces diversity and ambiguity.
1. SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION
Analyzes educational systems, their impact on socialization, and educational inequalities.
2. MEDICAL SOCIOLOGY
Investigates the social aspects of health, illness, healthcare systems, and the impact of social factors on
well-being.
3. GENERAL SOCIOLOGY
This encompasses the study of society as a whole, focusing on social institutions, culture, and social
change.
4. SOCIOLOGY
the scientific study of society, human behavior, and social interactions. It investigates social structures,
interactions, culture, social change, and social problems.
5. URBAN SOCIOLOGY
Focuses on the study of cities and urban life, including issues of urbanization, urban planning, and
community development.
1. Sociology is a dependent science.FALSE
2. Sociology is a categorical and not a normative discipline.TRUE
3. Sociology is a generalizing and not a particularizing or Individualizing Science.TRUE
4. Sociology is a Rational Science and not Empirical Science.FALSE
5. Sociology a physical science.FALSE
 POLITICAL SCIENCE
-> Derived from the word “polis” and “scire” which means “ city state and to know or to study.
-> branch of Social Science that seal with the theory and practice politics, description and analysis of
political system and political behavior.
-> branch of public law which deals with the organization and operation of the governmental organs of the
state and defines the relation of the state with inhabitant of its territory.
POLITICAL ACTORS
-> This would include all think leaders and relatively high level policymaker who have significant impact on
the formation execution of policies that have an impact on society or foreign affairs.
FUNCTIONAL AND IMPORTANCE OF POLITICAL SCIENCE
-> • Supplies frameworks from which special interest groups, politicians, and electorate may analyze issues
-> • Guides politicans, political parties, political movements, or non-governmental organizations in the
course of their work
-> • Seek patterns in the reasons and outcomes of political events so that generalizations and theories can
be made
-> • Solves political, cultural, and social problems
-> • Make generalizations that would explain individual and group political actions
NATURE OF POLITICAL SCIENCE
-> • According to the department of social sciences and philosophy political science is a classical discipline
that deals with the study of political phenomena
-> • It focuses of fundamental values of equality, freedom and justice and the process linked with the
dynamics of conflict resolution and corporations
SCOPES OF POLITICAL SCIENCE
1. Political Theory
• Deals with the entire body of doctrines relating to the origin, form, behavior, and purposes of the state
2. Public Law
• Deals with the organization of government
• Deals with limitations upon government authority
• Deals with power and duties of government officers and offices
• Deals with limitations upon government authority
3. Public Administration
• Focus upon the method and techniques used in the actual management of the state affairs by the three
branches of government.
Perspective of Political Science
Comparative Politics
is a comparative study of other countries, citizen, different political units either in whole or in part and
analyze the similarities and differences between those political units
International Relations
attempts to explain the interaction of state in the global interstate system and it also ateempts to explain
the interactions of others whose behavior originates within one country and east targeted toward
members of the countries
Political Research Methods
involves the study of the history of political thought as well as problems in contemporary political life that
have a philosophical dimension
Why Study the Three?
-> The three field are essential to understanding societal problems.
-> While they may be independent from each other, it is one way of knowing that social issues cannot be
seen in one angle alone
-> It promotes a holistic approach to understanding problems in order to find holistic and realistic solutions
as well
 Goals of Political Science
Education for Citizenship
The primary objective of the political science curriculum is to equip students to discharge the obligations of
demogratic citizenship
Essential part of Liberal Education
Intelligent, responsible citizenship can save democracy; ignorance and negligence lost it
Knowledge and Understanding of Government
The “good” citizen knows how his government operates, what his rights and obligations are, and what the
stand for
State and Nation
State
-> A community off persons permanently occupying a fixed territory and possessed of an independent
government organized for the political ends to which great body of inhabitants render habitual obedience
-> Group of people permanently inhabiting a definite place or a territory, having an organized government
while exercising sovereignty
Nation
-> Group of people permanently inhabiting a definite place or a territory, having an organized government
while exercising sovereignty
-> People bond together by common attractions and repulsions into a living organism possessed of a
common pulse, a common intelligence and inspiration and destined apparently to have common history
and fate
ELEMENTS OF THE STATE
1. People/population
-> The mass of the population living within the state
2 Territory
-> Fixed space or portion of the earth inhabited by the people of the state
-> Demarcated area that rightly belongs to the population
3 Government
-> Agency or instrumentality through which the will of the state formulated, expressed and realized
4 Sovereignty
May be defined as the supreme power of the state to command and enforce obedience to its will form the
people within its jurisdiction and corollarity to have freedom from foreign control
Differences Between State and Nation
State Nation

- legal/political concept - ethnic concept

- free from external control - may or may not be free from external control
- one state may consist of one or more nations - one nation may made up of several states
GOVERNMENT
Forms of Government
Monarchy
The power of the government is vested upon a single person(Example: king and queen)
.Aristocracy and Oligarchy
The power of the government vested on a few privileged class (aristocrats)
Aristocracy- refined version of oligarchy Rule of the rest; Corrupt but served the people
Oligarchy- serve only for their own interests
Democracy
The power of the government is vested on the people
Pure Democracy/Direct - the people participate in the affairs of the government directly
Indirect/Republican - the people participate in the affairs of the government indirectly through their
elected representative
 Differences Between State and Government
State Government

- principal - government agent

- abstraction - enternalize the will of the state
- cannot exist with out the government - can exist without a state
-cannot be changed so long as the elements are - can be changed
present
Political Ideologies
-> could be seen as commitments in order to change political system
-> Ideologies provide an explanation for problems but confronts modern societies by providing futuristic
visions
FEATURES OF IDEOLOGY
-> It offers an account of the existing order, usually in the “world view”
-> it advances a model of the desired future, a vision of the good society
-> it explains how political change can should be brought about - how to get from the two other features
INTELLECTUAL COMPONENTS OF AN IDEOLOGY
- Values
- The vision of the ideal polity
- the conception of the human nature
- the strategy of action
- Political Tactics
Ideologies
Liberalism (the left)
“liber” which means ‘’free men”
A view that sees more need for change and improvement in social relations requiring governmental
involvement and that society must be free, free from government interventions
2 types of Liberalism
Classical Lieralism
subscribed to egotistical individualism; have a belief in negative freedom and have a broadly positive view
of civil society
Neoliberalism
the state are constantly interacting with each other and that they value cooperation as part of their own
interest
Conservatism (the right)
the term “conservatism” derived from the term conservation. It is a political philosophy that tend to
support the status quo and advocates change only in moderation upholding the value of tradition and
seeks to preserve all that is good about the past
Socialism
- derived from “socialist” meaning to combine or to share
- is an economic and political doctrine advocating governmental ownership and direction of production
and services but would retain existing institutions as the means of regulating
Social Democracy
- it is moderate or reformist brand of socialism that favor the balance between the market and the state
rather than the abolition of capitalism
- become welfare states that the focus on improvement of living conditions such as unemployment and
medical insurance, generous pension and subsidized food and housing
Communism
it is an economic, social and political system seeking government ownership of the means production and
services directed by a process of scientific administration and universal assent
it is an extreme left wing ideology, based on the revolutionary teachings of Karl Marx, characterized by
collective ownership and planned economy
 Fascism
- derived from “fasces”, which means a bundle of rods with an axe-blade protruding that signified the
authority that magistrates in Imperial Rome
- is a movement that stand outmoded, repressive social and political condition rejecting democracy,
repudiates constitutionalism and stresses that all values arise from the state against which the individual
has no rights
Salient Features of Fascism
-Totalitarianism
-Nationalism
-Anti-Liberalism
-Militarism and Violence
-Leadership
Religious Fundamentalisme
- fundamentalism from the Latin word “fundamental”, meaning base
- it is associated with inflexibility, dogmatism, authoritarianism or worst violence. it is characterize by a
rejection of the distinction between politics and religion
Themes of Religious Fundamentalism
-Religion as Politics
-The fundamental impulse
-Anti- modernism
-Militancy
Feminism
- derive from the Latin word “femina” meaning female or woman, concerned with the attainment of
gender equality in the political, economic and social spheres of life
- The basic idea of feminism: that woman experience a poor state of society as consequence of the
patriarchy, male domination of women should be overthrown
Environmentalism
- an ideology focusing on the idea that environment is endangered and must be preserved through
regulation and lifestyle changes
- its concern is about the natural environment and particularly about reducing environmental degradation
that is more policy