SA 1 \ was CHAPTER Solutions Examinations, AAA Wn SOLUTION LigidSottion sol eS Sou Solent ee SoWvent T Tonnmsssovein Soliton et gen as = palogue = = Laid oem mee oo » Sota) a ‘ah ro lg cepale ana of meny (Sold —eamonorirroger ar cae ‘soda EXPRESSING CONCENTRATION IN SOLUTIONS I r ¥ t t Mass Percentage Mass by Volume Percentage Woe Faction Molaity M100 = x 100 m= My 1000 Wee Yr M, * Wyo) Vowume Percentage Past per Mion Moaaty = 4100 MO Bats) op = M8 1000 Val ena My “Viney ‘SOLUBILITY Sout ofa Sold ina Laud as na id ——_, 7 + ec ofTenoeraire increases [le of Pressure) (Wan Law an WS/Apiaions)) (ERG Temper idious “wath neease i Ticnse 233) (Mo tec) Pam = Ketgn (CHS) inten ne ces Le Chataiers Principle20 ageeder wed® Chemistry —I2 ‘VAPOUR PneESSURE OF LiaUiD SOLUTIONS | __—— at 7 a sure of Solu Vapour Pressure of Liquid-Liquid Raoul’s Law as a Special case of Vapour Pessoa Salton of Solutions Henry's Law = 0% Pane oy | paige 2 poy 1GHSE 223, aouits Law Daion’s Uaw of Partial Pressure | Pits er | { Pike : TORT IDEAL AND NOW-IDEAL SOLUTIONS eee = deal Soltons 9. benzene and toluene Non deat Solutions €.., Phenol and anne Ethanol and acetone Follow Raout's la, Ag, = 0 AY, = 0 + (ens 20251 Posie and Negative deviation cys 20281 [AZEOTROPES ‘Minimum boting azeotropes e.g. Ethanol-water mixture Maximum boiling azeotropes ¢.9. HNO, ~ H,0 mixture AH = +¥e, aV = +ve, Forces A~B < A-AorB-B ve, Forces A~8 > A-Aand B~8 ed (CBSE 2025 CCOLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES AND DETERMINATION OF MOLAR MASS | a2 7 ¥ ¥ + Relative lowering of vapour Elevation of Depression in ‘Osmosis and Osmotic _—_—Reverse Osmosis and pressure Boling point Freezing point Pressure Water Purtiaton =P, aT =Kjxm aT, = Ky xm nV = RT aT icuse 2023) x = CRT { Motal Elevation Constant or ‘Ebullioscopic Constant | (Molal Depression Constant or Cryoscopic Constant | XM xTE go DAMORT © 000% aH 7000 As eee [ABNORMAL MOLAR MASSES: SSeS ere ja Ja = 1 a JeMSE 2023} ee e vat Hot Factor () 1 1 4 t= 1 tor = 1 tor tevamer, i= 1 tors, 4 tor dimer 1 = 4 tor tevamer, = 4 tor syTOPICS COVERED Types of Soluti ion, Expressing Concentration of Solution .. Mass fraction of = s. Mass/Volume per cent = Mass per cent Mass of solute * 100 Mass of solute + Mass of solvent . Mole per cent No. of moles of solute No.of moles of solute + No. of moles oF SoWeN We Wi, where Ms the mass of 4" and Wis mass of “B" x 100 1. Volume per cent of 7 Volume of Volume of 4+ Volume of B Mass of Volume of Solution 100 arts per million (ppm) No. of parts of A Total No. of parts of all components of the solution 10° . Mole fraction of solute (x5) = No.of moles of solute ‘No. of moles of solute + No. of moles of solvent He matte Ws, We My My where 1, is the number of moles of solvent and ry is the number of moles of solute. xy tXy= I where x, is the mole fraction of solvent and.x, is the mole fraction of solute. xy tap tae fora ternary solution. (Three components) 8, 10, 24 Solutions Number of moles of solute Molarity (44) = YO) ~ Volume of solution (in L ny 1000 Mp” Volume of solution in mL where I, is the mass of solute and M, is the molar mass of solute. Molality (mm) = My W, Gn grams) where IV, is the mass of solute, Mis the molar mass of solute and H’, is the mass of solvent (in grams), Relation between Molarity (44) and Molality (m) ‘M1000 ‘Mass of solution — Mass of solute M1000 © Volume of solution * d — M™ M.WVr of solute M1000 1000 d= MM where “Af is molarity, ‘m’ is molality, “dis density in g em and M.Wtis the molecular weight of solute. Relation between Mole fraction and Molality eT 1000 My where ‘x,” is mole fraction of solute, ‘mis molality and -M, is molecular weight of solvent. _¥4 (mole fraction in vapour phase)1. Henry's law: It states that “the solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly proportional to the pressure of the gas.” where ‘p’ is partial pressure of gas over solution, ‘x” is the mole fraction of gas in solution and K;, is Henry's aw constant. Higher the value of &;,, the lower is the solubility of gas inthe liquid. IAL 2016} Solubility of a gas in liquid decreases with increase in temperature because K;, increases with increase in solubility decreases. | CBSE 2023] Application: Cold drink bottles are filled at high pressure 80 as to increase solubility of CO, gas in water, temperature, sRaoult’s law for volatile solute: In solution of volatile liquids, the partial vapour pressure of each component is directly proportional to its mole fraction. Pa PRX: Py= Pp xy where p, and py are vapour pressure of components ‘A° and ‘B"in solution, pand pare vapour pressure of pure ‘components “A” and ‘B’, x, and x, are the mole fractions of ‘4° and “B’. Proat = Pa X¢+ Pp Xp andx, + X51 Positive deviation from Raoult’s law: When partial vapour pressure of each component as well as solution is higher than calculated from Raoult’s Law. AH = +ve, e.g, water and ethanol, ethanol and CCl,, methanol and CHCl, benzene and methanol, acetic acid and toluene, acetone and ethanol, methanol and water, etc. ICBSE 2023] Negative deviation from Raoult’s law: When partial pressure of each component as well as solution is lower, than calculated from Raoult’s law. AH! = —ve, AV = ve, e.g. H,O and HCl, H,0 and HNO,, chloroform and acetone, ete. ICBSE 2023; AI 2016] - Azeotropes: Liquid mixtures which distill over without changes in composition are called constant boiling ‘mixtures or Azeotropes ot Azeotropic mixtures. Non-ideal solutions showing large positive deviation from Raoult’s law form minimum boiling azeotropes and non-ideal solutions showing large negative deviation from Raoult’s law form maximum boiling azeotropes. {CBSE 2023]1. Raoult’s law for non-volatile solute: The relative lowering of vapour pressure for a solution is equal to the mole fraction of solute when solvent alone is volatile [Foreign 2017} Indie solution, Me cece Ma fp My Relative lowering of vapour pressure PAR Ps Pi ~ Fee Ms W, where p° — p, is lowering of vapour pressure, pf is vapour pressure of pure component ‘A", Wis the mass of solute, M, is the molar mass of solute, 1, is the mass of solvent and M, is the molar mass of solvent. ‘where A7; is elevation in boiling point. Kis molal boiling point elevation constant (ebullioseopic constant) and ‘m” is molality. K, = A7, (when, m= 1) Re MyxTp Also, K, = Ma" Ti 1000* 0 vay where R is gas constant, M, is molar mass of solvent, T, is boiling point in kelvin and 4,_# is enthalpy of ‘vaporization of solvent.30 Fagecher week Chemistry—12 3. Depression in freezing point: cx Wa, 1000 Mp Wa AT,=K,xm where K; is eryoscopic constant or molal freezing point depression constant, It is equal to depression in freezing point when solution is 1 mola. Vapour pressure —> Sjuioall 8 enthalpy where 7; is freezing point in kelvit of fusion of solvent. 4. Osmotic pressure: RV © ny RT . Isotonic solution: Solut where 1 is osmotic pressure, V is volume of solution in Titres, 1, =No. of moles of solute, ‘Ris gas constant and Tis temperature in kelvin. 6 i » RT = CRT, [a1 2017001 where ‘C’is molarity. Reverse Osmosis: When pressure applied on solution side is more than osmotic pressure, solvent molecules from solution pass through semipermeable membrane and enter solvent, is called reverse osmosis. The semipermeable membrane is made up of cellulose acetate which is permeable to water but impermeable to impurities. tis used for desalination of sea water. R.O. purifiers are based on reverse osmosis. [CBSE 2020; A1 2016] ns having same molar concentration and same osmotic pressure are called isotonic. All intravenous injections must be isotonic to body fluids. ICBSE 2023: KVS] 3. Hypertonie solution: The solution in which concentration is more than body fluids is called hypertonic. Ifa cell is placed in hypertonic solution, it will shrink. [AL 2016] iypotonic solution: The solution in which concentration is less than body fluids is called hypotonic. The cell will swell and may burst in hypotonic solution, [AL 2016]1 van" Hoff factor () = Observed colligative property ‘Normal colligative property Normal molecular mass of solute Observed molecular mass of solute Formula to be used where solute undergoes (i) association ot (if) dissociation: Pi-Pa Pa (®) AT,=iK,*m (AT, 1K xm (@) xV=inRT=iCRT Also, @ 3 a= + for dissociation of electrolyte 7 here ‘a’ is degree of dissociation, ‘is van't Hoff factor and ‘nis the number of ions produced per formula of the compound. If 1 = 5, solute is dimer, benzoic aid in benzene. i= 4 solute is tetramer, e.. Py. 1f = 1, solute is octa-atomie molecule, eg. Sy 2. Association and dissociation: Association occurs in ‘non-polar solvents like benzene because polar solvents help in dissociation, e.g. HO helps in dissociation. Where a. is degree of association. 3. Abnormal molecular mass: If the solute undergoes either association or dissociation in the solvent, the molecular mass calculated with the help of colligative property will be abnormal.