FIGURE 1: DWV WITH COLD AND HOT WATER SUPPLY

CVIL 1083 – ENGINEERING UTILITIES 2 | 1

FIGURE 2: DWV CONNECTED TO THE MAIN SEWER LINE

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 A. DEFINITION OF TERMS
1. Air Gap – (in a water supply system) the unobstructed vertical distance through the free atmosphere
between the lowest opening from any pipe or faucet supplying water to a tank, plumbing fixture, or other
device and the flood level rim of the receptacle.
2. Back Flow – the flow of water, or other liquid mixture or substances into the distributing pipes of a potable
supply of water from any source, other than its intended source.
3. Back Siphonage – the back flow of used contaminated or polluted water from a plumbing fixture or
vessel into a water supply pipe due to a negative pressure in such a pipe.
4. Battery of Fixture – any group of 2 or more similar adjacent fixture which discharges into a common
horizontal waste pipe or soil branch.
5. Bib – synonymous with faucet, cock, tap, plug, etc. The word faucet is preferred.
6. Blind Flange – a flange that closes the end of a pipe. There is no opening for the passage of water.
7. Blow Off – a controlled outlet on a pipeline used to discharge water.
8. Branch – any part of piping system other than the main riser or stack.’
9. Branch Interval – the length of a soil or waste stack corresponding in general to a storey height, but in
no case less than 2.40 meters within which the horizontal branches from one floor or storey of a building
are connected to the stack.
10. Branch Vent – a vent connecting one or more individual vents with a vent stack or stack vent.
11. Calking – plugging an opening with oakum, lead or other materials, that are pounded into the place or
opening.
12. Circuit Vent – a branch vent that serves 2 or more traps, and extends from the front of the last fixture
connection of a horizontal branch to the vent stack.
13. Continuous Vent – a vertical vent that is a continuation of the drain to which the vent connects.
14. Combination Fixtures – a fixture combining one sink and tray or a 2 or 3 compartment sink or tray in
one vent.
15. Combination Waste and Vent System – a specially designed system of waste piping embodying the
horizontal wet venting of one or more sinks or floor drains by means of a common waste and vent pipe
adequately sized to provide free movement of air above the flow line of the drain.
16. Common Vent – a drain from 2 or 3 fixtures connected to a single trap. It is also called a dual vent.
17. Cross Connection – any physical connection between 2 otherwise separate piping system, one contains
potable water, and the other from an unknown or questionable safety, whereby, water may flow from one
system to the other direction of flow depending on the pressure differential between the two systems.
18. Dead End – the extended portion of a pipe that is closed at one end permitting the stagnation of water
or air therein.
19. Developed Length – the length along the center of the pipe and fitting.
20. Diameter – (of a pipe or tube) nominal internal diameter (ID) of such pipe, except brass and copper tube
where the term refers to the outside diameter (OD) of the pipe.
21. Drainage System – includes all piping within the public or private premises that conveys sewage,
rainwater or other liquid waste, to a legal point of disposal. It does not include the mains of public sewer
system, private or public sewerage treatment or disposal plant.
22. Dry Vent – a vent that does not carry water or water-borne wastes.
23. Effective Opening – the minimum cross-sectional area at the point of water supply discharge, measure
or expressed in terms of diameter of a circle. If the opening is not a circle, the diameter of a circle that is
equivalent to the cross-sectional area is used. (This is applicable to air gap)
24. Existing Work – shall apply to that portion of a plumbing system that has been installed and approved
prior to the contemplated addition, alteration or correction.
25. Fixture Branch – a pipe connecting several fixtures.
26. Fixture Drain – the drain from the trap of a fixture to the junction of that drain with any other drain pipe.
27. Fixture Supply – a water supply pipe connecting the fixture with the fixture branch.

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28. Fixture Units – a quantity in terms of which the load producing effects on the plumbing system of different
kinds of plumbing fixtures are expressed on some arbitrary chosen scale.
29. Fixture Unit Flow Rate – the total discharge flow in gallons per minute (gpm) of a simple fixture divide
by 7.5 gallons that provides the flow rate of that particular plumbing fixture as a unit of flow. Fixtures are
rated as multiple of this unit of flow.
30. Flood Level – a device located inside the tank for the purpose of maintaining water level for effective
flushing of the water closet.
31. Ferrule – a metallic sleeve called or otherwise joined to an opening in pipe into which a plug is screwed
that can be removed for the purpose of cleaning or examining the interior of the pipe.
32. Flush Valve – a device located at the bottom of the tank for flushing water closets and similar fixtures.
33. Flushometer Valve – a device which discharges a predetermined quantity of water to the fixture for
flushing purposes activated by direct water pressure.
34. Grade – the slope or fall of pipe in reference to a fraction of an inch per foot length of pipe.
35. Group Vent – a branch vent that performs its function for 2 or more traps.
36. Horizontal Pipe – any pipe or fitting which makes an angle of more than 45° with the vertical.
37. Invert – the lowest point of the inside of any pipe or conduit that is not vertical.
38. Liquid Waste – the discharge from any fixture, appliance or appurtenance in connection with a plumbing
system which does not receive fecal matter.
39. Local Vent Pipe – a pipe on the fixture side of the trap through which vapor or foul air is removed from
a room or fixture.
40. Looped Vent – the same as circuit vent except that it loops back and connects with a stack vent instead
of a vent stack.
41. Lateral – (in plumbing) a secondary pipe. (in sewage) a common sewer to which no other common sewer
is tributary. It receives sewage only from the building sewer.
42. Main – (of any system of continuous piping) the principal artery of the system to which branches may be
connected.
43. Main Sewer – a sewer line or system directly controlled by public authority.
44. Main Vent – the principal artery of the venting system to which vent branches may be connected.
45. Plumbing Fixtures – installed receptacles, devices or appliances which are supplied with water, or which
receives or discharges liquid or liquid-borne waste, with or without discharge into drainage system which
maybe directly or indirectly connected.
46. Plumbing System – includes the water distribution pipes; plumbing fixtures and traps; soil, waste and
vent pipes; house drain and house sewers including their respective connections, devices and
appurtenances within the property line of premises; and water treating or water using equipment.
47. Relief Vent – its primary function is to provide circulation of air between drainage and vent systems.
48. Re-Vent Pipe – (sometimes called individual vent) part of the vent pipeline which connects directly with
an individual waste or group of wastes, underneath or back of the fixture, and extend either to the main
or branch vent pipe.
49. Riser – a water supply pipe which extends vertically one full storey or more to convey water to branches
or fixtures.
50. Rough-In – the installation of all parts of the plumbing system which can be completed prior to the
installation of fixtures. This includes drainage, water supply, vent piping and the necessary fixture
supports.
51. Return Bend – an open return bend usually with inside threads, but applied also to 180° bend in pipe.
52. Public Sewer – a common sewer directly controlled by public authorities where all abutters have equal
rights of connection.
53. Sanitary Sewage – the sewage containing human excrement liquid household waste. It is also called
domestic waste.
54. Sanitary Sewer – a sewer intended to receive sanitary sewage with or without industrial wastes and
without the admixture of surface water, storm water or drainage.
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 55. Secondary Branch – any branch in a building drain other than the primary branch.
56. Sewerage of Sewage Work – a comprehensive term including all construction or collection,
transportation, pumping, treatment and final disposition of sewage.
57. Siamese Connection – a Y connection used on fire lines so that 2 lines of hose maybe connected to a
hydrant or to the same nozzle.
58. Standpipe – a vertical pipe usually used for the storage of water, frequently under pressure.
59. Side Vent – a vent connecting to the drain pipe through a fitting at an angle not greater than 45° or to
the vertical.
60. Soil Pipe – any pipe that conveys the discharge of water closets or fixture having similar functions, with
or without the discharge from other fixtures, to the building drains (house drain) or building sewer (house
sewer).
61. Stack – the vertical main of a system of soil, waste or vent pipe.
62. Stack Group – a term applied to the location of fixtures in relation to the stack so that by means of proper
fittings, vents may be reduced to a minimum.
63. Stack Vent – the extension of a soil or waste stack above the highest horizontal drain connected to the
stack. It is sometimes called soil vent or waste vent.
64. Stack Venting – a method of venting fixture/s through the soil or waste stack.
65. Subsoil Drain – underground drain pipes that receive sub-surface or seepage water only and convey it
to a place of disposal.
66. Sump – a pit or receptacle at a low point to which the liquid wastes are drained.
67. Trap – a fitting or device so designed as to provide when properly vented a liquid seal that will prevent
the back passage of air without materially affecting the flow of sewage through it.
68. Trap Seal – the maximum vertical depth of liquid that trap will retain, measured between the crown weir
and top of the dip of the trap.
69. Vent Stack – a vertical pipe installed primarily for the purpose of providing circulation of air to different
parts of the drainage system.
70. Vent System – pipe/s installed to provide a flow or circulation of air within the plumbing system to protect
trap seals siphoning and back pressure.
71. Vertical Pipe – a pipe installed in a vertical position or at an angle of not more than 45° with the vertical.
72. Waste Pipe – a pipe that conveys liquid waste from fixture that is free of fecal matter.
73. Water Distributing Pipe – (in a building or premises) a pipe that conveys water from the water service
pipe to the plumbing fixtures and other water outlets.
74. Water Service Pipe – the pipe from the water main or other source of water supply to the building served.
75. Water Supply System – (of a building or premises) consists of the water service pipe, the water
distributing pipes and the necessary connecting pipes, fitting, controlling valves and all appurtenance in
or adjacent to the building or premises.
76. Wet Vent – a vent that receives the discharge from wastes other than water closet.

B. WATER: THE SUBSTANCE

Water

- is the name given to the liquid compound H2O. A molecule of water is composed of one oxygen atom
and two hydrogen atoms. In a pure state, it is tasteless and odorless. The physical properties of water
are provided in Tables 12.1 and 12.2.
Under standard atmospheric pressure (14.696 psi, 101.04 kPa):

Boiling point temperature of water = 212°F (100°C)

Freezing point of water = 32°F (0°C)

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❖ The temperature at which water boils decreases with lower atmospheric or system pressure and
increases at higher pressures. Thus, the temperature at which water boils decreases with elevation
increase. For example, at standard atmospheric conditions at an elevation of 5000 ft (1524 m) above sea
level, water boils at 202.4°F (94.7°C). It boils at 193.2°F (89.6°C) at 10 000 ft (3048 m) above sea level.

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Fundamental Units
Several fundamental units describe the properties and behavior of water in building plumbing systems.
Customary and SI unit conversions for water based on weight, pressure, flow, and volume are provided in Table
12.3.

1. Specific Weight (Density) (w)

- is weight per unit volume.

❖ Water density varies with temperature; it is most dense at 39°F (4°C). Below this temperature, crystals
begin to form, increasing its volume and therefore decreasing its density. Water attains a specific weight
of 62.42 lb/ft3 (1.00 kg/L) at a temperature of 39°F (4°C). Above and below 39°F, water is less dense; for
example, the specific weight of water at 80°F (27°C) is 62.2 lb/ft3 (0.996 kg/L). A specific weight of 62.4
lb/ft3 (1.00 kg/L) is commonly used for liquid water in engineering computations.

2. Specific Gravity (s.g.)

- (fluid or solid) is the ratio of the specific weight of the fluid or solid to the specific weight of water at a
temperature of 39°F (4°C), the temperature at which water is most dense (62.42 lb/ft 3 or 1.00 kg/L).

❖ It is a comparison of its weight with the weight of an equal volume of water. Materials with a specific
gravity less than 1.0 are less dense than water (e.g., oil) and will float on pure water; substances with a
specific gravity more than 1.0 are denser than water and will sink. The specific gravity of water is assumed
to be 1.0 at common plumbing system temperatures.

3. Volume (V)
- is the amount of space occupied by a substance.

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❖ Water volume is typically expressed in cubic inches (in 3) or cubic feet (ft3) in the customary system, and
in cubic meters (m3) or liters (L) in the SI system. In plumbing system design, volume is commonly
expressed in gallons (g or gal).
1 ft3 = 7.48 gal
1 gal = 3.8 L

4. Volumetric Flow Rate (Q)

- frequently called the flow rate, is the volume of a substance that passes a point in a system per unit
of time.

❖ Flow rate is usually expressed in liters per second (L/s), liters per minute (L/min), or cubic meters per
second (m3/s) in the SI system. In the customary system, volumetric flow rate is expressed in cubic feet
per second (cfs or ft3/s), cubic feet per minute (cfm or ft 3/min), gal per second (gps or g/s), and gal per
minute (gpm or g/min).

Volumetric flow rate (Q) may be determined with volume (V) and time (t):
Q = V/t

5. Velocity
- is the rate of linear motion of a substance in one direction.

❖ The magnitude of velocity, known as speed, is usually expressed in terms of distance covered per unit
of time. In the customary system of weights and measures, velocity is expressed in inches per second
(in/s) or feet per second (ft/s). In the international system of measure (the SI system), velocity is
expressed in meters per second (m/s).

In a fluidic system such as a plumbing system, water velocity is expressed as an average velocity
because water molecules each have different speeds and directions of travel; that is, water molecules
flowing in the center of a pipe tend to travel faster than water molecules at or near the inner wall of the
pipe.

❖ Average velocity (v)

- Average velocity of a fluid such as water flowing through a pipe may be found by the following
equations based upon average volumetric flow rate (Q) and cross-sectional area (A) or inside
diameter (Di). Units must be consistent in these equations (e.g., volume, area, and diameter must be
expressed in units of in, ft, m, and so on).
𝑄 𝑄
𝑣= = 𝜋
𝐴 2
4 𝐷𝑖

❖ The following equation, in customary units, is useful in plumbing system design. It may be used to find
the average velocity (v) of a fluid flowing through a pipe, in ft/s, based on the volumetric flow rate (Q), in
gpm, and an inside diameter (Di) of the pipe, in inches:
𝑄
𝑣 = 0.409
𝐷𝑖 2

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 ❖ The following equation, in SI (metric) units, may be used to find the average velocity (v) of a fluid flowing
through a pipe, in m/s, based on the volumetric flow rate (Q), in L/min, and an inside diameter (Di) of the
pipe, in mm:
𝑄
𝑣 = 21.22 2
𝐷𝑖

6. Pressure (P)
- is the force per unit area exerted by liquid or gas on a surface such as the sidewall of a container or
pipe.

❖ In the customary system of measure, pressure is expressed in pounds per square inch (lb/in2 or psi) or
pounds per square foot (lb/ft 2 or psf). In the international system (SI), pressure is expressed in Newton
per square meter or the Pascal (N/m 2 or Pa). Although units of lb/in 2 are dimensionally correct, the
acronym “psi” will be used for pounds per square inch of gauge pressure because it is universally
accepted in the plumbing industry. The acronym “psia” will be used for absolute pressure.

❖ Standard atmospheric pressure (Ps)

- is the typical barometric pressure of air at sea level and 70°F (21°C). It is equal to 14.696 psia (101
325 Pa). Atmospheric pressure varies with weather conditions and elevation. In Denver, Colorado,
atmospheric pressure is about 11.8 psia because Denver is about a mile above sea level; it is above
about 20% of the earth’s atmosphere.

❖ Gauge pressure (Pg)

- is the pressure of a fluid (gas or liquid) excluding pressure exerted by the atmosphere. Pressure can
be expressed in terms of absolute and gauge pressure.

❖ Absolute pressure (Pa)

- is the pressure of a fluid (gas or liquid) including pressure exerted by the atmosphere:
Pa = Pg + Ps

A gauge is frequently used to record the pressure difference between the system and the atmospheric pressure.
Normally, if pressure in a system is below atmospheric pressure, it is called vacuum pressure or a suction
pressure. It is expressed as a negative gauge pressure.

Saturation Vapor Pressure

- is the pressure that water vapor molecules exert when the air is fully saturated at a given temperature.
Saturation vapor pressure is directly proportional to the temperature: it increases with rising
temperature and falls with decreasing temperature.
In plumbing systems there are three additional classifications of pressure:

1. Static pressure
- is the pressure that exists without any flow. It is the pressure available at a location in the system.
2. Residual pressure
- is the pressure available at a fixture or outlet during a period of maximum demand. It is the pressure
that exists after pressure losses from friction from water flow, elevation change, and other pressure
losses in the system are subtracted.

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 3. Discharge pressure
- is the pressure of the water at the point of discharge, such as at the mouth of a showerhead, faucet,
or hose bibb.
Partial Pressure

The constituent gases that make up a mixture of gases such as air each exert a partial pressure that contributes
to the total pressure exerted by the gas mixture. For example, atmospheric air consists of about 75% nitrogen,
by weight, so 75% of the total pressure exerted by atmospheric air is from the nitrogen constituent. Thus, under
standard conditions (14.696 psia), the partial pressure of nitrogen is 11 psia, 75% of the total pressure. The
partial pressure of a constituent gas in a mixture of gases equals the pressure it would exert if it occupied the
same volume alone at the same temperature.

Water Vapor Pressure

- is the pressure that the water vapor molecules alone exert in air. It is based on the amount of water
vapor that exists in the air. Like all constituent gases in air, water vapor exerts a pressure, which is
known as vapor pressure. Water vapor pressure is the contribution of water vapor to the total pressure
exerted by a gas. In buildings, this gas is atmospheric air.
A difference in pressure in a system is required for a fluid to flow; for example, a pump increases the pressure
of the liquid passing through it, thereby causing flow. Flow will always be from a high-pressure region to a low-
pressure region. Pressure difference is the driving force behind water flow. An increase in pressure difference
will increase flow.

EXAMPLES:

1. Raw sewage is found to weigh 60.5 lb/ft3. Determine its specific gravity.
SOLUTION:
s.g. = wraw sewage/wwater = 60.5 lb/ft3/62.42 lb/ft3 = 0.969

2.
a. Determine the volumetric flow rate, in gpm, for water flowing out of a faucet based on 2 gal in 23 s.
b. Determine the volumetric flow rate, in L/s, for water flowing out of a faucet based on 6 L in 8 s.
SOLUTION:
V
a. Q = t
2 gal
Q= 1 min
23 s x
60 s
Q = 5.22 gpm
V
b. Q = t
6L
Q= 1 min
8sx
60 s
Q = 45 L/s

❖ A faucet supplying water at a volumetric flow rate of 5 gpm will fill a 5 gal bucket in exactly 1 min or a 1
gal bucket in 12.5 s (one-fifth of a minute). In plumbing system design, volumetric flow rate is found by
multiplying the area of the inside diameter of the pipe carrying the water by the average velocity of the
flowing water.

CVIL 1083 – ENGINEERING UTILITIES 2 | 10

3. Determine the average velocity for water flow in a pipe under the following conditions:
a. A 3⁄4 in diameter, Type L copper tube (0.875 in outside diameter and 0.785 in inside diameter) carrying
water at a volumetric flow rate of 10 gpm.
b. A 2 in diameter, Schedule 40 chlorinated polyvinyl chloride (CPVC) pipe (2.375 in outside diameter and
2.047 in inside diameter) carrying cold water at a volumetric flow rate of 40 gpm.
SOLUTION:
𝑄
a. 𝑣 = 0.409 𝐷𝑖 2

10
𝑣 = 0.409
(0.785)2

v = 6.64 ft/s
𝑄
b. 𝑣 = 0.409 𝐷𝑖 2

40
𝑣 = 0.409
(2.047)2

v = 3.90 ft/s

4. Determine the average velocity for water flow in a 20 mm diameter copper tube (21.4 mm outside
diameter and 19.9 mm inside diameter) carrying water at a volumetric flow rate of 40 L/min.
SOLUTION:
𝑄
𝑣 = 21.22 2
𝐷𝑖
40
𝑣 = 21.22
(19.9)2
v = 2.14 m/s

5.
a. At sea level, atmospheric pressure is 14.7 psia (101 325 Pa). A pressure gauge placed at the bottom
of an 8 ft (2.45 m) deep tank filled with water measures a water pressure at the tank bottom of 3.5 psi
(24 130 Pa). Determine the absolute and gauge pressure.
b. At sea level, atmospheric pressure is 14.7 psia (101 325 Pa). A bicycle tire (at sea level) is inflated
to 50 psi (344 737 Pa). Determine the gauge and absolute pressures in the inflated tire.
c. In Denver, atmospheric pressure is about 11.8 psi (81 358 Pa). A bicycle tire (in Denver) is inflated
to 50 psi (344 737 Pa). Determine the gauge and absolute pressures in the inflated tire.
SOLUTION:
a. Gauge pressure at the bottom of the tank:
Pg = 3.5 psi (24 130 Pa)
Absolute pressure at the bottom of the tank:
Pa = Pg + Ps
Pa = 3.5 + 14.7
Pa = 18.2 psia
or
Pa = 24 130 + 101 325
Pa = 125 455 Pa

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b. Gauge pressure of the inflated tire:
Pg = 50 psi (344 737 Pa)
Absolute pressure of the inflated tire:
Pa = Pg + Ps
Pa = 50 + 14.7
Pa = 64.7 psia
Or
Pa = 344 737 + 101 325
Pa = 446 062 Pa

c. Gauge pressure of the inflated tire:

Pg = 50 psi (344 737 Pa)
Absolute pressure of the inflated tire:
Pa = Pg + Ps
Pa = 50 + 11.8
Pa = 61.8 psia
Or
Pa = 344 737 + 81 358
Pa = 426 095 Pa

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