ANSWERS

Date : 28 . 12 . 2023

1. The placenta is a vascular organ that connects the developing fetus to the uterine
wall, facilitating nutrient and waste exchange. Its weight varies but is typically
around 500 grams.

2. Functions of the placenta include nutrient and gas exchange, hormone production
(hCG, estrogen, progesterone), immune protection, and waste elimination.

3. Chorion is the outermost fetal membrane, derived from trophoblast cells. It

encases the embryo/fetus and contributes to placental formation.

4. Chorionic villi are finger-like projections on the chorion's surface. Types include
primary (initial), secondary (branching), and tertiary (extensively branched).

5. Primary villi lack vessels, secondary develop blood vessels, and tertiary villi have
a well-developed vascular network for efficient exchange.

6. The intervillous space is the cavity where maternal blood surrounds chorionic
villi. It contains fetal capillaries and facilitates nutrient exchange.

7. Hofbaeur's cells are macrophages found in chorionic villi, playing a role in

immune defense.

8. Early placental barrier layers include syncytiotrophoblast, cytotrophoblast,

connective tissue, and endothelium.

9. Late stages see a thinning of the syncytiotrophoblast and cytotrophoblast layers,

enhancing exchange efficiency.

10. Substances like oxygen and nutrients cross the placental barrier, while large
molecules like antibodies usually do not.

11. Chorionic plate is the fetal side of the placenta, comprising chorionic vessels and
connective tissue.

12. Basal plate is the maternal side, composed of decidua basalis and uterine blood
vessels.

13. Syncytiotrophoblast is a multinucleated layer producing hormones, while

cytotrophoblast forms a cellular layer supporting placental structure.
1. The length of the umbilical cord is approximately 50-60 centimeters. It connects
the fetus to the placenta.

2. The umbilical cord's microstructure includes two umbilical arteries, one umbilical
vein, Wharton's jelly, and a covering called amnion.

3. Wharton's jelly is a gelatinous connective tissue in the umbilical cord, composed

mainly of mucopolysaccharides and fibroblasts.

4. Mesenchymal cells in the umbilical cord are undifferentiated cells with the
potential to develop into various cell types. Their functions include supporting tissue
structure and contributing to repair and regeneration.

5. The membrane covering the umbilical cord is the amnion, and its lining
epithelium is a simple squamous epithelium.

6. A section of the umbilical cord typically contains two umbilical arteries and one
umbilical vein. Other remnants may include remnants of the allantois.

7. Umbilical arteries differ from other medium-sized arteries as they carry

deoxygenated blood from the fetus to the placenta, while other arteries carry
oxygenated blood away from the heart.

8. The umbilical vein differs from other veins as it carries oxygenated blood from
the placenta to the fetus, whereas other veins typically carry deoxygenated blood
back to the heart.

9. Valves of Hoboken are mucoid connective tissue nodules in the umbilical vein.
They appear due to turbulence in blood flow, preventing backflow and ensuring
unidirectional blood flow.

1. The trachea is a tubular, fibrocartilaginous structure in the respiratory system,

extending from the larynx to the bronchi. Its length ranges from 10 to 12 cm, and it
has a diameter of approximately 2 to 2.5 cm.

2. Layers of the trachea include the mucosa, composed of pseudostratified ciliated

columnar epithelium with goblet cells; submucosa, housing seromucous glands;
hyaline cartilage rings in the tracheal wall; and adventitia, a fibrous connective
tissue layer.

3. The lining epithelium of the trachea is pseudostratified ciliated columnar

epithelium, consisting of ciliated cells that move mucus and non-ciliated goblet cells
secreting mucus. Basal cells provide structural support.

4. Cilia function to propel mucus, containing trapped particles, towards the pharynx
for removal. Goblet cells contribute to the mucociliary clearance mechanism.
1. The length of the umbilical cord is approximately 50-60 centimeters. It connects
the fetus to the placenta.

2. The umbilical cord's microstructure includes two umbilical arteries, one umbilical
vein, Wharton's jelly, and a covering called amnion.

3. Wharton's jelly is a gelatinous connective tissue in the umbilical cord, composed

mainly of mucopolysaccharides and fibroblasts.

4. Mesenchymal cells in the umbilical cord are undifferentiated cells with the
potential to develop into various cell types. Their functions include supporting tissue
structure and contributing to repair and regeneration.

5. The membrane covering the umbilical cord is the amnion, and its lining
epithelium is a simple squamous epithelium.

6. A section of the umbilical cord typically contains two umbilical arteries and one
umbilical vein. Other remnants may include remnants of the allantois.

7. Umbilical arteries differ from other medium-sized arteries as they carry

deoxygenated blood from the fetus to the placenta, while other arteries carry
oxygenated blood away from the heart.

8. The umbilical vein differs from other veins as it carries oxygenated blood from
the placenta to the fetus, whereas other veins typically carry deoxygenated blood
back to the heart.

9. Valves of Hoboken are mucoid connective tissue nodules in the umbilical vein.
They appear due to turbulence in blood flow, preventing backflow and ensuring
unidirectional blood flow.

1. The trachea is a tubular, fibrocartilaginous structure in the respiratory system,

extending from the larynx to the bronchi. Its length ranges from 10 to 12 cm, and it
has a diameter of approximately 2 to 2.5 cm.

2. Layers of the trachea include the mucosa, composed of pseudostratified ciliated

columnar epithelium with goblet cells; submucosa, housing seromucous glands;
hyaline cartilage rings in the tracheal wall; and adventitia, a fibrous connective
tissue layer.

3. The lining epithelium of the trachea is pseudostratified ciliated columnar

epithelium, consisting of ciliated cells that move mucus and non-ciliated goblet cells
secreting mucus. Basal cells provide structural support.

4. Cilia function to propel mucus, containing trapped particles, towards the pharynx
for removal. Goblet cells contribute to the mucociliary clearance mechanism.
5. Lamina propria in the mucosa contains loose connective tissue, blood vessels, and
lymphatics. The submucosa houses seromucous glands, contributing to mucus
secretion.

6. Tracheal glands are mixed glands in the submucosa, producing both serous and
mucous secretions for lubrication and protection of the tracheal lining.

7. The tracheal cartilage is hyaline cartilage, providing structural support. It is C-

shaped, with the open part of the "C" facing the esophagus.

8. Other examples of hyaline cartilage in the body include costal cartilage in the ribs
and nasal cartilage in the nose.

9. The trachealis muscle is a smooth muscle located in the posterior wall of the
trachea, connecting the ends of the incomplete cartilage rings. It contracts during
coughing or forced expiration.

10. The deficiency of cartilage in the posterior tracheal wall allows flexibility for the
esophagus to expand during swallowing. The trachealis muscle fills this area, aiding
in adjustments for variations in the diameter of the esophagus.

11. The respiratory tract includes the nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi,
bronchioles, and alveoli. The types of epithelium lining them vary, ranging from
stratified squamous in the nasopharynx to pseudostratified ciliated columnar in the
trachea and bronchi, transitioning to simple cuboidal in bronchioles, and finally,
simple squamous in the alveoli.

12. Bronchi have a mucosa with pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium,

hyaline cartilage rings in the submucosa, and smooth muscle in the adventitia.
Bronchioles lack cartilage and have a layer of smooth muscle.

13. The primary bronchus has hyaline cartilage in irregular plates, while
intrapulmonary bronchi have cartilage in irregular plates and patches.

14. Microscopic differences between bronchus and bronchioles include epithelium

(ciliated columnar to simple cuboidal), cartilage (present in bronchus, absent in
bronchioles), smooth muscle (decreases in bronchioles), lymphoid tissue (decreases
in bronchioles), and glands (present in bronchus, absent in bronchioles).

15. Epithelial changes from bronchus to alveolus: Pseudostratified ciliated columnar

in bronchus, simple columnar in bronchioles, simple cuboidal in respiratory
bronchioles, and finally, simple squamous in alveoli.

16. Bronchioles have different lining epithelia: lobular bronchioles have ciliated
simple cuboidal, terminal bronchioles have non-ciliated simple cuboidal, and
respiratory bronchioles have simple cuboidal transitioning to simple squamous.
17. Type 1 pneumocytes are thin, flat cells for gas exchange, while type 2
pneumocytes are cuboidal, producing surfactant to reduce surface tension and
prevent alveolar collapse.

18. The interalveolar septum is the tissue between alveoli, consisting of connective
tissue, capillaries, and elastic fibers, facilitating gas exchange.

19. Pores of Kohn are openings in the interalveolar septa allowing collateral
ventilation between adjacent alveoli, promoting equalization of pressure and
preventing collapse.

20. Other cells in respiratory epithelium include basal cells, brush cells, and
neuroendocrine cells.

21. Alveolar macrophages are immune cells in the alveoli, phagocytosing debris and
pathogens.

22. Heart failure cells are hemosiderin-laden macrophages, and dust cells are
macrophages in the alveoli containing inhaled particles. These Heart failure cells are
hemosiderin-laden macrophages due to congestive heart failure, while dust cells are
alveolar macrophages laden with inhaled particles.

23. Clara cells are non-ciliated, dome-shaped cells in bronchioles, producing

surfactant and detoxifying harmful substances.

24. Undifferentiated cells play a role in repairing and regenerating damaged

respiratory epithelium.

25. Kulchitsky (APUD) cells are neuroendocrine cells, producing hormones like
serotonin in response to neural stimuli. Thus stimulation is mediated through
producing regulatory peptides.

26. Layers in the blood-air barrier include alveolar epithelium (type 1 pneumocytes),
fused basal lamina, endothelial cells of capillaries, and their associated basement
membrane. Its purpose is to facilitate efficient gas exchange between the alveoli and
capillaries.