CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Project

An audio amplifier is an electronic device that amplifies low-power audio signal (signals
composed primarily of frequencies between 20 - 20 000 Hz the human range of hearing) to a
level suitable for driving Loudspeaker and is the final stage in a typical audio playback chine.
The preceding stages in such a chain are low power audio amplifiers which perform tasks like
Pre-amplifier, equalizer, ton control, mixing/effect, or audio sources like record players, CD
players, and cassette players. Most audio amplifiers require these low-level inputs to adhere to
line levels. While the input signal to an audio amplifier may measure only a few hundred
microwatts, its output may be 20-30 watts. Important applications include public address
systems, theatrical and concert sound reinforcement, and domestic sound systems. The sound
card in a personal computer contains several audio amplifiers (depending on number of
channels), as does every stereo or home-theatre system. Instrument amplifiers include guitar
amplifiers. The audio amplifier was invented in 1909 by Lee De Forest when he invented the
triode vacuum tube. The triode was a three terminal device with a control grid that can
modulate the flow of electrons from the filament to the plate. The triode vacuum amplifier was
used to make the first AM radio. Early audio amplifiers were based on vacuum tubes (also
known as valves), and some of these achieved notably high quality (e.g., the Williamson
amplifier of 1947-9). Most modern audio amplifiers are based on solid state devices (transistors
such as BJTs, FETs and MOSFETs), but there are still some who prefer tube-based amplifiers,
and the valve sound. Audio amplifiers based on transistors became practical with the wide
availability of inexpensive transistors in the late 1960s.

1.2 Purpose of the Project

The purpose of this work is to amplify low-power electronic audio signals such as the signal
from radio receiver or electric guitar pickup to a level that is high enough for driving
loudspeakers or headphones. Amplifier takes weak signal and make it strong to drive a speaker.

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An audio amplifiers usually get necessary amplification energy of input signals from the AC
supply. Ideally without distortion an amplifier can deliver signal at the output without
distortion.

1.3 Project aim and objectives

The main aim of this work is to design and construct an audio amplifier that will deliver
appreciable power of 25w to a load (speaker). The objective of this project are as follows:

 To understand the operation of an audio amplifier

 To read and analyze the circuit diagram of an amplifier
 Understand the wiring and configuration of transistors
 To understand the impact of heat sink on transistors
1.4 Problem / Limitation of the Project

 Noise. This device tends to add some random noise to the signals passing through
them, hence degrading the SNR (signal to noise ratio). This, in turn, limits the accuracy of any
measurement.
 Limited output voltage, current, and power levels. This amplifier is limited to 25w as
the output power.
1.5 Significance of the Project

Today there are many categories of amplifiers used for multifarious purposes. In simple terms
an amplifier picks up a weak signal and converts it into a strong one. It is widely used in
several devices to boost electrical signals. Radios, televisions and telephones are a few
examples to point out in this regard. There are innumerable other applications of amplifiers and
it is not easy to enumerate all of them. Some of the common types of amplifiers are used in
electronic gadgets and audio systems. These are also used in musical instruments and guitars

1.6 Project Work Organization

The various stages involved in the development of this project have been properly put into five
chapters to enhance comprehensive and concise reading. In this project thesis, the project is
organized sequentially as follows:

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Chapter one of this work is on the introduction to an audio amplifier. In this chapter, the
background, significance, objective limitation and problem of an audio amplifier were
discussed.

Chapter two is on literature review of an audio amplifier. In this chapter, all the literature
pertaining to this work was reviewed.

Chapter three is on design methodology. In this chapter all the method involved during the
design and construction were discussed.

Chapter four is on testing analysis. All testing that result accurate functionality was analyzed.

Chapter five is on conclusion, recommendation and references.

1.7 Definition of Terms

Acoustics - the science or study of sound.

Alternating (AC) Current - currents that have a harmonic time dependence.

Ampere (A) - the unit of measurement for electrical current in coulombs per second.

Amplifier - an electrical circuit designed to increase the current or voltage of an applied signal.

Audio frequency - the acoustic spectrum of human hearing, generally regarded to be between
20 Hz and 20 kHz.

Capacitor - a charge storage device made up of two metallic plates separated by a dielectric,
with equal but opposite charges. The AC impedance of a Capacitor is (1 / jWL) and acts as an
open circuit in DC applications.

Circuit - a complete path that allows electrical current from one terminal of a voltage source to
the other terminal.

Class A - transistor amp conducts for the entire cycle of input signal, conduction angle 360
deg. Runs hot, as the transistors in the power amp are on all the time, but has high sound
quality.

Class B - positive and negative halves of the signal dealt with by different parts of the circuit,
the output devices switching continually. Runs cooler, but the sound is not as pure.

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Class AB - biasing the transistor amp at a non-zero DC current much smaller than the peek
current of the signal source. Second transistor conducts during negative half cycle of waveform
and the currents from the 2 transistors are combined at the load. A compromise between sound
quality of Class A and efficiency of Class B. Most amp designs employ this method.

Current (I) - the flow of electrical charge measured in amperes.

Decibel (dB) - (1) a logarithmic scale used to denote a change in the relative strength of an
electric signal or acoustic wave. It is a standard unit for expressing the ratio between power and
power level.

Direct Current (DC) - current in only one direction.

Driver - a loudspeaker unit, consisting of the electromagnetic components of a speaker,

typically a magnet and voice coil.

Enclosure - a box that contains the driver(s).

Equalizer - electronic device that acts as active filters used to boost or attenuate certain
frequencies. Farad - the basic unit of capacitance. A capacitor has a value of one farad when it
can store one coulomb of charge with one volt across it.

Filter - any electrical circuit or mechanical device that removes or attenuates energy at certain
frequencies. See Crossover Network.

Frequency- the number of waves (or cycles) arriving at or passing a point in one second,
expressed in hertz (Hz).<br />

Frequency Response - the frequency range to which a system, or any part of it, can respond.

Full-range - a speaker designed to reproduce all or most of the sound spectrum within human
hearing (20Hz - 20KHz).

Ground - refers to a point of zero voltage or potential.

Harmonic - the multiple frequencies of a given sound, created by the interaction of signal
waveforms.

Hertz (Hz) - a measurement of the frequency of sound vibration. One hertz is equal to one
cycle per second. The hertz is named for H.R. Hertz, a German physicist.
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High-pass Filter - an electric circuit that passes high frequencies but blocks low ones by acting
as a large impedance to those frequencies. See Band-pass and Low-pass filters.

Hum - audio noise that has a steady low frequency pitch.

Imaging - it is the speakers ability to localize different instruments playing simultaneously. See
Soundstage.

Impedance - dependent on frequency, it is the AC equivalent of resistance in a DC circuit.

Inductance (L) - the capability of a coil to store energy in a magnetic field surrounding it. It
produces an impedance to an AC current (jwL) and acts as a short circuit to DC. Inductors are
commonly used in audio as low pass crossovers. See Le.

Input - connection from signal source.

Maximum power rating - a value which means almost nothing, but is used nonetheless by
manufacturers to entice the unsuspecting into purchasing their product based solely on the big
number. Technically, it is the maximum wattage that an audio component can deliver/handle as
a brief burst during a musical peak. Most reputable manufacturers will provide both an RMS
and Max power rating. Typically, the given value for the maximum power rating is twice to
three times that of RMS.

Microfarads (mF) - a measurement of capacitance (XC*10^-6).

Ohm - a unit of electrical resistance or impedance.

Ohm's Law - a basic law of electric circuits. It states that: the current [I] in amperes in a circuit
is equal to the voltage [V] in volts divided by the resistance [R] in ohms; thus, I = V/R.<br />

Oversampling - used in DAC systems. Increases signal frequency, making it easier for
conversion circuitry and ancillary systems to filter out unwanted signals.

Out of Phase - when your speakers are mounted in reverse polarity, i.e., one speaker is wired
+/+ and -/- from the amp and the other is wired +/- and -/+. Bass response will be very thin due
to cancellation.

Output - the sound level produced by a loudspeaker.

Peak - the maximum amplitude of a voltage or current.

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Phase - Refers to the timing relationship of two or more signals or soundwaves. It's especially
important to be sure that your stereo speakers are playing in phase. This means that the drivers
(cones and domes) of your right and left speakers are moving in and out at the same time. If
your speakers are out of phase you'll hear significantly less bass, and instead of producing a
strong center image, the sound tends to stay localized at the speakers.

Phase Coherence - the relationship and timing of sounds that come from different drivers
(subs, mids, tweets) mounted in different locations in the vehicle.

Phase Distortion - a type of audible distortion caused by time delay between various parts of
the signal; can be caused by equalizers.

Polarity - the orientation of magnetic or electric fields. The polarity of the incoming audio
signal determines the direction of movement of the speaker cone. Must be observed when
wiring speakers, so that they are in phase. See Out of Phase.

Power (P) - the time rate at which work is done or the rate at which energy is used. Basic
equations for Electrical Power are: P = V^2/R or P = I^2*R.

Resistance (Re) - in electrical or electronic circuits, a characteristic of a material that opposes

the flow of electrons. The higher the gauge of wire, the less cross sectional area contributing to
DC series resistance (DCR).

RMS - an acronym for root mean square. Used in audio to help rate the continuous power
output of an amplifier or input capability of speakers. This is the preferred method for
comparing anything in audio applications.

Sensitivity - The sound pressure level directly in front of the speaker (on axis) at a given
distance (usually 1 meter) produced by a given amount of power (usually 1 watt).

Signal-to-noise (S/N) - the ratio, expressed in dB, between the signal and noise.

Volt (E) - a unit of measurement used to measure how much pressure is used to force
electricity through a circuit.

Watt - a unit of electrical power. A watt of electrical power is the use of one joule of energy
per second. Watts of electrical power equals volts times amperes.

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 CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 What is Amplifier?

An amplifier is an electronic device that increases the voltage, current, or power of a signal.
Amplifiers are used in wireless communications and broadcasting, and in audio equipment of
all kinds. They can be categorized as either weak-signal amplifiers or power amplifiers.

Weak-signal amplifiers are used primarily in wireless receivers. They are also employed in
acoustic pickups, audio tape players, and compact disc players. A weak-signal amplifier is
designed to deal with exceedingly small input signals, in some cases measuring only a few
nano volts (units of 10-9 volt). Such amplifiers must generate minimal internal noise while
increasing the signal voltage by a large factor. The most effective device for this application is
the field effect transistor. The specification that denotes the effectiveness of a weak-signal
amplifier is sensitivity, defined as the number of micro volts (units of 10 -6 volt) of signal input
that produce a certain ratio of signal output to noise output (usually 10 to 1).

Power amplifiers are used in wireless transmitters, broadcast transmitters, and hi-fi audio
equipment. The most frequently-used device for power amplification is the bipolar transistor.
However, vacuum tubes, once considered obsolete, are becoming increasingly popular,
especially among musicians. Many professional musicians believe that the vacuum tube
(known as a "valve" in England) provides superior fidelity. Two important considerations in
power amplification are power output and efficiency. Power output is measured in watts or
kilowatts. Efficiency is the ratio of signal power output to total power input (wattage demanded
of the power supply or battery). This value is always less than 1. It is typically expressed as a
percentage. In audio applications, power amplifiers are 30 to 50 percent efficient. In wireless
communications and broadcasting transmitters, efficiency ranges from about 50 to 70 percent.
In hi-fi audio power amplifiers, distortion is also an important factor. This is a measure of the
extent to which the output waveform is a faithful replication of the input waveform. The lower
the distortion, in general, the better the fidelity of the output sound. An audio power amplifier
is also referred to as power amplifier. It is an electronic device that amplifies low-power
electronic audio signals such as signal from radio receiver or electric guitar pick up to a level

7
that is high enough for driving loudspeakers or headphones (Rahman & Razzak, 2012).
Amplifiers, as the name implies, are electronic devices that boost or strengthen an input signal.
Amplification is defined as the process of increasing the size (magnitude) of a variable quantity
especially the magnitude of a voltage or current, without substantially changing or altering any
other quality (Oliveira et al., 2000). The nature of the signal could be of any type such as
voltage, current or power of a circuit (Oti & Ahanonu, 2015). The first practical device that
could amplify was the triode vacuum tube, invented in 1906 by Lee De Forest (who is regarded
as the father of amplifier) (Gupta, 2018). The triode was a three-terminal device with a control
grid that can modulate the flow of electrons from the filament to the plate. The triode vacuum
amplifier was used to make the first AM radio. Early audio amplifiers were based on vacuum
tubes otherwise known as valves (Rahman & Razzak, 2012). These vacuum tubes were used in
almost all amplifiers until around 1960 to 1967 when transistors replaced them. Today, most
amplifiers used transistors with chips (IC) but vacuum tubes are being used in some
applications (Cordell, 2011). Most modern audio amplifiers are based on solid-state devices
(transistors such as BJTs, FETs and MOSFETs). Audio amplifiers based on transistors became
practical with wide availability of cheap transistors in the late 1960s (Ben, 2000). A practical
amplifier always consists of a number of stages that amplify a weak signal until sufficient
power is available to operate a loudspeaker or other output devices. The few stages in a
multistage amplifier have the function of only voltage amplification; however, the last stage is
designed to provide maximum power and this final stage is known as power stage. The term
‘audio’ means the range of frequencies which human ears can hear. The range of human
hearing extends from 20 KHz to 200KHz. For this reason, audio amplifiers amplify electrical
signals that have a frequency range corresponding to the range of human hearing range to a
level suitable for driving loudspeakers (Mehta, 2008). Audio power amplifier are classified
primarily by the design of the output stage and the classification is based on the amount of time
the output devices operate during the cycle of signal swing (Gupta, 2018).

Many centuries back people found it difficult to be heard over a few metres away from them
while addressing their audience. This motivated the need for man to pursue new technologies
which will increase his reliability and efficiency. Man in search of the audio boosting
instrument developed an aspect of communication called Public Address System (PAS) which
helps an individual to address or communicate to a large group of people. Through this system

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for instance, a clergyman can address his congregation, an entertainer can communicate to his
audience, a politician can address his supporters and so on.

The Public Address System (PAS) comprises of a microphone which converts sound energy
to electrical energy, an amplifier which increases the strength of the electrical signals and a
loudspeaker which reconverts the electrical energy of the signals to sound energy.

In the PAS, the sound energy at the loudspeaker has greater power than that at the
microphone hence, the sound is more louder. This reduces the stress of the individual using the
microphone from shouting. The power output of the speaker depends on the power rating of the
loudspeaker and that of the amplifier.

Moreover, an amplifier may be defined as a system or an electronic circuit which accepts

signals at its input and gives out signals at its output grater than the signal at its input in
amplitude or power or current. The output signal is similar to the input signal in shape, form
and frequency.

2.2 Design parameters

Key design parameters for audio amplifiers are frequency response, gain, noise, and distortion.
These are interdependent; increasing gain often leads to undesirable increases in noise and
distortion. While negative feedback actually reduces the gain, it also reduces distortion. Most
audio amplifiers are linear amplifiers operating in class AB.

2.3 Amplifier Gain

Measured at the output with the signal measured at the input. There are three different kinds of
Then the gain of an amplifier can be said to be the relationship that exists between the signal
Amplifier Gain, Voltage Gain, ( Av ), Current Gain ( Ai ) and Power Gain ( Ap ) and examples
of these are given below.

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2.3.1 Amplifier Gain of the Input Signal

Figure 2.1 Amplification Stage

2.3.2 Power Amplifier Gain

Power Gain(Ap ) x Av x Ai

Note that for the Power Gain you can also divide the power obtained at the output with the
power obtained at the input. Also when calculating the gain of an amplifier, the subscripts v, i
and p are used to denote the type of signal gain being used.

The power Gain or power level of the amplifier can also be expressed in Decibels, (dB). The
Bel is a logarithmic unit (base 10) of measurement that has no units. Since the Bel is too large a
unit of measure, it is prefixed with deci making it Decibels instead with one decibel being one
tenth (1/10th) of a Bel. To calculate the gain of the amplifier in Decibels or dB, we can use the
following expressions.

• Voltage Gain in dB: av = 20 log Av

• Current Gain in dB: ai = 20 log Ai

• Power Gain in dB: ap = 10 log Ap

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Note that the DC power gain of an amplifier is equal to ten times the common log of the output
to input ratio, where as voltage and current gains are 20 times the common log of the ratio.
Note however, that 20dB is not twice as much power as 10dB because of the log scale. Also, a
positive value of dB represents a Gain and a negative value of dB represents a Loss within the
amplifier. For example, an amplifier gain of +3dB indicates that the amplifiers output signal
has "doubled", (x2) while an amplifier gain of -3dB indicates that the signal has "halved",
(x0.5) or in other words a loss.

The -3dB point of an amplifier is called the half-power point which is -3dB down from
maximum, taking 0dB as the maximum output value.

Generally, amplifiers can be divide into two distinct types depending upon their power or
voltage gain, Small Signal Amplifiers such as pre-amplifiers, instrumentation amplifiers etc,
which are designed to amplify very small signal voltage levels of only a few micro-volts (μV)
from sensors or audio signals and Large Signal Amplifiers such as audio power amplifiers or
switching amplifiers, which are designed to amplify large input voltage signals or switch heavy
load currents.
2.4 Amplifier Classes

The classification of an amplifier as either a voltage or a power amplifier is made by comparing

the characteristics of the input and output signals by measuring the amount of time in relation
to the input signal that the current flows in the output circuit. We saw in the Common Emitter
transistor tutorial that for the transistor to operate within its "Active Region" some form of
"Base Biasing" was required. This small Base Bias voltage added to the input signal allowed
the transistor to reproduce the full input waveform at its output with no loss of signal.
However, by altering the position of this Base bias voltage, it is possible to operate an amplifier
in an amplification mode other than that for full waveform reproduction. By changing the
amplifiers Base bias voltage different ranges or modes of operation can be obtained and these
are categorized according to their Classification better known as Amplifier Class.

Audio power amplifiers are classified in an alphabetical order according to their circuit
configurations and mode of operation. Amplifiers are designated by different classes of
operation such as class "A", class "B", class "C", class "AB", etc. These different classes of
11
operation range from a near linear output but with low efficiency to a non-linear output but
with a high efficiency. No one class of operation is "better" or "worse" than any other class
with the type of operation being determined by the use of the amplifying circuit. There are
typical maximum efficiencies for the various types or class of amplifier, with the most
commonly used being:

• Class A - has low efficiency of less than 40% but good signal reproduction and linearity.

• Class B - is twice as efficient as class A amplifiers with a maximum theoretical efficiency

of about 70% because the amplifying device only conducts (and uses power) for half of the
input signal.
• Class AB - has an efficiency rating between that of Class A and Class B but poorer signal
reproduction than class A amplifiers.
• Class C - is the most efficient amplifier class as only a very small portion of the input
signal is amplified therefore the output signal bears very little resemblance to the input signal.
Class C amplifiers have the worst signal reproduction.

2.5 Class A Operation

Class A Amplifier operation is were the entire input signal waveform is faithfully reproduced
at the amplifiers output as the transistor is perfectly biased within its active region, thereby
never reaching either of its Cut-off or Saturation regions. This then results in the AC input
signal being perfectly "centered" between the amplifiers upper and lower signal limits as
shown below.

2.5.1 Class A Output Waveform

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 Figure 2.2 Class A Amplifier Output Waveform

In this configuration, the Class A amplifier uses the same transistor for both halves of the
output waveform and due to its biasing arrangement the output transistor always has current
flowing through it, even if there is no input signal. In other words the output transistors never
turns "OFF". This results in the class A type of operation being very inefficient as its
conversion of the DC supply power to the AC signal power delivered to the load is usually very
low. Generally, the output transistor of a Class A amplifier gets very hot even when there is no
input signal present so some form of heat sinking is required. The DC current flowing through
the output transistor (Ic) when there is no output signal will be equal to the current flowing
through the load. then a pure Class A amplifier is very inefficient.

2.6 Class B Operation

Unlike the Class A amplifier above that uses a single transistor for its output stage, the Class B
Amplifier uses two complimentary transistors (an NPN and a PNP) for each half of the output
waveform. One transistor conducts for the positive half of the waveform and another conducts
for the negative half of the waveform. This means that each transistor spends half of its time in
the active region and half its time in the Cut-off region thereby amplifying only 50% of the
input signal. Class B operation has no DC bias voltage instead the transistor only conducts
when the input signal is greater than the base-emitter voltage and for silicon devices is about
0.7v. Therefore, at zero input there is zero output. This then results in only half the input signal
being presented at the amplifiers output giving a greater efficiency as shown below.

2.6. 1 Class B Output Waveform

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 Figure 2.3 Class B Amplifier Output Waveform

In a class B amplifier, no DC current is used to bias the transistors, so for the output
transistors to start to conduct each half of the waveform, both positive and negative, they need
the base-emitter voltage to be greater than the 0.7v required for a bipolar transistor to start
conducting. Then the lower part of the output waveform which is below this 0.7v window will
not be reproduced accurately resulting in a distorted area of the output waveform as one
transistor turns "OFF" waiting for the other to turn back "ON". The result is that there is a
small part of the output waveform at the zero voltage cross over point which will be distorted.
This type of distortion is called Crossover Distortion and is looked at later on in this section.

2.7 Class AB Operation

The Class AB Amplifier is a compromise between the Class A and the Class B
configurations above. While Class AB operation still uses two complementary transistors in
its output stage a very small biasing voltage is applied to the Base of the transistor to bias it
close to the Cut-off region when no input signal is present. An input signal will cause the
transistor to operate as normal in its Active region thereby eliminating any crossover
distortion which is present in class B configurations. A small Collector current will flow when
there is no input signal but it is much less than that for the Class A amplifier configuration.
This means then that the transistor will be "ON" for more than half a cycle of the waveform.
This type of amplifier configuration improves both the efficiency and linearity of the amplifier
circuit compared to a pure Class A configuration.

2.7.1 Class AB Output Waveform

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 Figure 2.4 Class AB Amplifier Output Waveform
The class of operation for an amplifier is very important and is based on the amount of
transistor bias required for operation as well as the amplitude required for the input signal.
Amplifier classification takes into account the portion of the input signal in which the
transistor conducts as well as determining both the efficiency and the amount of power that
the switching transistor both consumes and dissipates in the form of wasted heat. Then we can
make a comparison between the most common types of amplifier classifications in the
following table.

2.8 The PNP Transistor

The PNP Transistor is the exact opposite to the NPN Transistor device we looked at in the
previous tutorial. Basically, in this type of transistor construction the two diodes are reversed
with respect to the NPN type giving a Positive-Negative-Positive configuration, with the
arrow which also defines the Emitter terminal this time pointing inwards in the transistor
symbol.

Also, all the polarities for a PNP transistor are reversed which means that it "sinks" current as
opposed to the NPN transistor which "sources" current. The main difference between the two
types of transistors is that holes are the more important carriers for PNP transistors, whereas
electrons are the important carriers for NPN transistors. Then, PNP transistors use a small
output base current and a negative base voltage to control a much larger emitter-collector
current. The construction of a PNP transistor consists of two P-type semiconductor materials
either side of the N-type material as shown below.

2.8.1 A PNP Transistor Configuration

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 (Note: Arrow defines the emitter and conventional current flow, "in" for a PNP

transistor.)

Figure 2.5 PNP Transistor Configuration circuit

The construction and terminal voltages for an NPN transistor are shown above. The PNP
Transistor has very similar characteristics to their NPN bipolar cousins, except that the
polarities (or biasing) of the current and voltage directions are reversed for any one of the
possible three configurations looked at in the first tutorial, Common Base, Common Emitter
and Common Collector.

Figure 2.6 PNP Transistor Connections

The voltage between the Base and Emitter ( V BE ), is now negative at the Base and positive at
the Emitter because for a PNP transistor, the Base terminal is always biased negative with
respect to the Emitter. Also the Emitter supply voltage is positive with respect to the Collector

16
( VCE ). So for a PNP transistor to conduct the Emitter is always more positive with respect to
both the Base and the Collector. The voltage sources are connected to a PNP transistor are as
shown. This time the Emitter is connected to the supply voltage V CC with the load resistor, RL
which limits the maximum current flowing through the device connected to the Collector
terminal. The Base voltage VB which is biased negative with respect to the Emitter and is
connected to the Base resistor RB, which again is used to limit the maximum Base current. To
cause the Base current to flow in a PNP transistor the Base needs to be more negative than the
Emitter (current must leave the base) by approximately 0.7 volts for a silicon device or 0.3
volts for a germanium device with the formulas used to calculate the Base resistor, Base
current or Collector current are the same as those used for an equivalent NPN transistor.
Generally, the PNP transistor can replace NPN transistors in most electronic circuits, the only
difference is the polarities of the voltages, and the directions of the current flow. PNP
transistors can also be used as switching devices and an example of a PNP transistor switch is
shown below.

2.8.2 A PNP Transistor Circuit

Figure2.7 PNP Transistor Circuit

The Output Characteristics Curves for a PNP transistor look very similar to those for an
equivalent NPN transistor except that they are rotated by 180o to take account of the reverse
polarity voltages and currents, (the currents flowing out of the Base and Collector in a PNP
transistor are negative). The same dynamic load line can be drawn onto the I-V curves to find
the PNP transistors operating points.

17
2.9 The NPN Transistor

In the previous tutorial we saw that the standard Bipolar Transistor or BJT, comes in two
basic forms. An NPN (Negative-Positive-Negative) type and a PNP (Positive-Negative-
Positive) type, with the most commonly used transistor type being the NPN Transistor. We
also learnt that the transistor junctions can be biased in one of three different ways - Common
Base, Common Emitter and Common Collector. In this tutorial we will look more closely
at the "Common Emitter" configuration using NPN Transistors with an example of the
construction of a NPN transistor along with the transistors current flow characteristics is given
below.

2.9.1 An NPN Transistor Configuration

NPN Transistor Configuration

fi

Figure 2.8 NPN transistor configuration

The construction and terminal voltages for an NPN transistor are shown above. The voltage
between the Base and Emitter ( V BE ), is positive at the Base and negative at the Emitter
because for an NPN transistor, the Base terminal is always positive with respect to the
Emitter. Also the Collector supply voltage is positive with respect to the Emitter ( V CE ). So
for an NPN transistor to conduct the Collector is always more positive with respect to both the
Base and the Emitter.
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 Figure 2.9 NPN Transistor Connections

Then the voltage sources are connected to an NPN transistor as shown. The Collector is
connected to the supply voltage V CC via the load resistor, RL which also acts to limit the
maximum current flowing through the device. The Base supply voltage V B is connected to the
Base resistor RB, which again is used to limit the maximum Base current.

We know that the transistor is a "current" operated device (Beta model) and that a large
current ( Ic ) flows freely through the device between the collector and the emitter terminals
when the transistor is switched "fully-ON". However, this only happens when a small biasing
current ( Ib ) is flowing into the base terminal of the transistor at the same time thus allowing
the Base to act as a sort of current control input.

The transistor current in an NPN transistor is the ratio of these two currents ( Ic/Ib ), called the
DC Current Gain of the device and is given the symbol of hfe or nowadays Beta, ( β ). The
value of β can be large up to 200 for standard transistors, and it is this large ratio between Ic
and Ib that makes the NPN transistor a useful amplifying device when used in its active region
as Ib provides the input and Ic provides the output. Note that Beta has no units as it is a ratio.
Also, the current gain of the transistor from the Collector terminal to the Emitter terminal,
Ic/Ie, is called Alpha, ( α ), and is a function of the transistor itself (electrons diffusing across
the junction). As the emitter current Ie is the product of a very small base current plus a very
large collector current, the value of alpha α, is very close to unity, and for a typical low-power
signal transistor this value ranges from about 0.950 to 0.999

19
The values of Beta vary from about 20 for high current power transistors to well over 1000 for
high frequency low power type bipolar transistors. The value of Beta for most standard NPN
transistors can be found in the manufactures datasheets but generally range between 50 - 200.

The equation above for Beta can also be re-arranged to make Ic as the subject, and with a zero
base current ( Ib = 0 ) the resultant collector current Ic will also be zero, ( β x 0 ). Also when
the base current is high the corresponding collector current will also be high resulting in the
base current controlling the collector current. One of the most important properties of the
Bipolar Junction Transistor is that a small base current can control a much larger collector
current.
Consider the following example.

2.10 General Description of LM 1875 IC

The LM1875 is a monolithic power amplifier offering very low distortion and high quality
performance for consumer audio applications The LM1875 delivers 25 watts into a 4Ω or 8Ω
load on ±25V supplies. Using an 8Ω load and ±30V supplies, over 30 watts of power may be
delivered. The amplifier is designed to operate with a minimum of external components.
Device overload protection consists of both internal current limit and thermal shutdown. The
LM1875 design takes advantage of advanced circuit techniques and processing to achieve
extremely low distortion levels even at high output power levels. Other outstanding features
include high gain, fast slew rate and a wide power bandwidth, large output voltage swing,
high current capability, and a very wide supply range. The amplifier is internally compensated
and stable for gains of 10 or greater.

2.10.1 Features

 Up to 30 watts output power

 AVO typically 90 dB

 Low distortion: 0.015%, 1 kHz, 25 W

20
 Wide power bandwidth: 70 kHz

 Protection for AC and DC short circuits to ground

 Thermal protection with parole circuit

 High current capability: 4A

 Wide supply range 16V-60V

 Internal output protection diodes

 94 dB ripple rejection

 Plastic power package TO-220

2.10.2 Applications

 High performance audio systems

 Bridge amplifiers

 Stereo phonographs

 Servo amplifiers

 Instrument systems

2.10.3 Absolute Maximum Ratings (Note 1)

Supply Voltage 50V

Input Voltage −VEE to VCC

Storage Temperature −65°C to + 150°C

Junction Temperature 150°C

Lead Temperature

(Soldering, 10 seconds)
260°C θJC 3°C θJA 73°C

21
2.10.4 Thermal Protection

The LM1875 has a sophisticated thermal protection scheme to prevent long-term thermal
stress to the device. When the temperature on the die reaches 170°C, the LM1875 shuts down.
It starts operating again when the die temperature drops to about 145°C, but if the temperature
again begins to rise, shutdown will occur at only 150°C. Therefore, the device is allowed to
heat up to a relatively high temperature if the fault condition is temporary, but a sustained
fault will limit the maximum die temperature to a lower value. This greatly reduces the
stresses imposed on the IC by thermal cycling, which in turn improves its reliability under
sustained fault conditions. Since the die temperature is directly dependent upon the heat sink,
the heat sink should be chosen for thermal resistance low enough that thermal shutdown will
not be reached during normal operation. Using the best heat sink possible within the cost and
space constraints of the system will improve the long-term reliability of any power
semiconductor device.

2.10.5 Power Dissipation and Heat Sinking

The LM1875 must always be operated with a heat sink, even when it is not required to drive a
load. The maximum idling current of the device is 100 mA, so that on a 60V power supply an
unloaded LM1875 must dissipate 6W of power.
The 54°C/W junction-to-ambient thermal resistance of a TO-220 package would cause the die
temperature to rise 324°C above ambient, so the thermal protection circuitry will shut the
amplifier down if operation without a heat sink is attempted. In order to determine the
appropriate heat sink for a given application, the power dissipation of the LM1875 in that
application must be known. When the load is resistive, the maximum average power that the
IC will be required to dissipate is approximately:

+PQ

22
where VS is the total power supply voltage across the LM1875, RL is the load resistance, and
PQ is the quiescent power dissipation of the amplifier. The above equation is only an
approximation which assumes an “ideal” class B LM1875 output stage and constant power
dissipation in all other parts of the circuit. The curves of “Power Dissipation vs Power
Output” give a better representation of the behavior of the LM1875 with various power supply
voltages and resistive loads. As an example, if the LM1875 is operated on a 50V power
supply with a resistive load of 8Ω, it can develop up to 19W of internal power dissipation. If
the die temperature is to remain below 150°C for ambient temperatures up to 70°C, the total
junction-to ambient thermal resistance must be less than Using θJC=2°C/W, the sum of the
case-to-heat-sink interface thermal resistance and the heat-sink-to-ambient thermal resistance
must be less than 2.2°C/W. The case-to-heat-sink thermal resistance of the TO-220 package
varies with the mounting method used. A metal-to-metal interface will be about 1°C/W if
lubricated, and about 1.2°C/W if dry. If a mica insulator is used, the thermal resistance will be
about 1.6°C/W lubricated and 3.4°C/W dry. For this example, we assume a lubricated mica
insulator between the LM1875 and the heat sink. The heat sink thermal resistance must then
be less than 4.2°C/W−2°C/W−1.6°C/W=0.6°C/W. This is a rather large heat sink and may not
be practical in some applications. If a smaller heat sink is required for reasons of size or cost,
there are two alternatives. The maximum ambient operating temperature can be reduced to
50°C (122°F), resulting in a 1.6°C/W heat sink, or the heat sink can be isolated from the
chassis so the mica washer is not needed. This will change the required heat sink to a 1.2°C/W
unit if the case to-heat-sink interface is lubricated. Note: When using a single supply,
maximum transfer of heat away from the LM1875 can be achieved by mounting the device
directly to the heat sink (tab is at ground potential); this avoids the use of a mica or other type
insulator.
The thermal requirements can become more difficult when an amplifier is driving a reactive
load. For a given magnitude of load impedance, a higher degree of reactance will cause a
higher level of power dissipation within the amplifier. As a general rule, the power dissipation
of an amplifier driving a 60° reactive load (usually considered to be a worst-case loudspeaker
load) will be roughly that of the same amplifier driving the resistive part of that load. For
example, a loudspeaker may at some frequency have an impedance with a magnitude of 8Ω

23
and a phase angle of 60°. The real part of this load will then be 4Ω, and the amplifier power
dissipation will roughly follow the curve of power dissipation with a 4Ω load.

2.11 Power Supply

Power supply is a reference to a source of electrical power. A device or system that supplies
electrical or other types of energy to an output load or group of loads is called a power supply
unit or PSU. The term is most commonly applied to electrical energy supplies, less often to
mechanical ones, and rarely to others. Here in our application we need a 5v DC power supply
for all electronics involved in the project. This requires step down transformer, rectifier,
voltage regulator, and filter circuit for generation of 5v DC power. A brief description of all the
components is given as follows:
2.11.1 Step Down Transformer

Usually, DC voltages are required to operate various electronic equipment and these voltages
are 5V, 9V or 12V, but these voltages cannot be obtained directly. Thus the a.c input available
at the mains supply i.e., 230V is to be brought down to the required voltage level. This is done
by a transformer. Thus, a step down transformer is employed to reduce the voltage to the
required level.

Figure 2.10 Transformer

2.11.2 Rectifier

The output from the transformer is fed to the rectifier which converts A.C. into D.C. The
rectifier may be a half wave or a full wave rectifier. In this project, a bridge rectifier is used
because of its merits like good stability and full wave rectification. The ac input voltage is
24
applied to the diagonally opposite ends of the bridge. The load resistance is connected between
the other two ends of the bridge. For the positive half cycle of the input ac voltage, diodes D1
and D3 conduct, whereas diodes D2 and D4 remain in the OFF state. The conducting diodes
will be in series with the load resistance RL and hence the load current flows through RL. For
the negative half cycle of the input ac voltage, diodes D2 and D4 conduct whereas, D1 and D3
remain OFF. The conducting diodes D2 and D4 will be in series with the load resistance RL
and hence the current flows through RL in the same direction as in the previous half cycle.
Thus a bidirectional wave is converted into a unidirectional wave.

Figure 2.11 bridge rectifier and rectifier waveforms

2.11. 3 Filter

Capacitive filter is used in this project. It removes the ripples from the output of rectifier and
smoothens the D.C. Output received from this filter is constant until the mains voltage and load
is maintained constant. However if either of the two is varied, D.C. voltage received at this
point changes. Therefore a regulator is applied at the output stage.

Figure 2.12 electrolytic capacitor

2.12 Voltage Regulator

25
As the name implies, it regulates the input voltage applied to it. A voltage regulator is an
electrical regulator designed to automatically maintain a constant voltage level. In this project,
power supply of 5V and 12V are required. In order to obtain these voltage levels, 7805 and
7812 voltage regulators are used. The first number 78 represents positive supply and the
numbers 05, 12 represent the required output voltage levels Transformer + Rectifier +
Smoothing + Regulator

Figure 2.13 Voltage Regulators

26
 CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

This section discusses the analysis, design and implementation of the 25W amplifier. Factors
such as availability and accessibility of materials, durability, robustness and functionality of
the design such that the desired result is obtained at any time the system is energised. The
steps that were taken to design this project includes: (i) Selection of components (ii) Analysis
of the amplifier (iii) Simulation of audio amplifier circuit (iv) Design of the printed circuit
board (PCB) (v) Circuit construction and testing.

3.1.1 System Block Diagram

Figure 3.1 System block diagram

3.2 Selection of Components for Audio Amplifier Circuit The components for the 325W
audio amplifier were chosen based on the requirements of the amplifier; the first step is to
design a power supply unit for the amplifier circuit. A 25W amplifier would require about
±30V power supply on the rails. This is achieved by coiling a transformer for that purpose
using the well-known transformer equation that relates number of turns to voltage.

27
 3.3 Description of the sections
3.3.1 Power Supply

The schematic below shows how the +25V DC and -25V DC are obtained. In order to provide
power supply for 2 stereo amplifiers, a power transformer rating of 80VA with 240V/36V
centre tapped secondary winding is used. The secondary output of the transformer is rectified
by using four 1N5401 diodes together with 4 electrolytic capacitors to smoothen the ripple
voltage. A fuse and a varistor are connected at the primary input to protect the circuit against
power surge.

Figure 3.2 25 Volt Power Supply Circuit Diagram

28
3.3.2 Audio Amplifier Module

The +25V and -25V DC power supply are connected to the audio amplifier module through a
2A fuse with the peripheral devices shown in the schematic below. The audio input signal to
be amplified is coupled to pin 1 of LM1875 through the resistor R1 and electrolytic capacitor
E5. The output signal at pin 4 of LM1875 can be used to directly drive a 8 ohm loudspeaker.
Resistor R6 and capacitor C5 prevent the capacitance developed at the long speaker leads
from driving the amplifier into Very High Frequency Oscillation.

Figure 3.3 25 Watt Audio Amplifier Circuit Diagram

A heat sink with a thermal resistance rating of 1.4 Celsius/Watt or better must be used or else
the amplifier module will be cut-off from operation due to the heat that will build up during
the operation of the amplifier. Take note that the heat sink tab on the IC module is internally
connected to the -25V power supply hence it must be isolated from the heat sink by the use of
an insulating washer. If this is not done, the negative rail will be shorted to ground.
29
3.4 Assemble Amplifier on Breadboard

The schematic for an LM1875 based amplifier . We will first construct this amplifier using
0ur plastic solder less breadboard and bench power supply. Our debug the circuit and
demonstrate that it works properly, you will “hard-wire” it onto a vector board and power it
from a 25 volt dc Supply. The idea of bread boarding the circuit first is not to create more
work! It is good practice in general, since it allows our design more easily, allows to
experiment with component values, and more importantly will help preserve our battery!
□ First study the schematic carefully, and locate all the necessary parts in our kit. Find the
LM1875 chip and compare it with Figure 4.3 and the schematic in Figure 4.2 to correlate pin
numbers with the circuit connections.
□ Configure our breadboard with connections to the power supply and appropriate wiring to
the power busses, then add the LM1785 IC and make the power (pin 5) and ground (pin 3)
connections as shown in the schematic. Add the 0.1μF/50volt and 2200μF/63volt bias/bypass
capacitors.

□ With reference to the schematic, add in the resistor and capacitor elements as shown.

1. 2(0.1μF/50volt) and 2(2200μF/63volt) capacitor: DC blocking, AC couples the input signal

2. 1k resistor and 0.1μF/50volt capacitor Audio input signal pin no 1 and ground to 1M and
22k resistor.
3. Pin 2 and 4 short by 20k resistor .

4. Pin 4 output signal and sound to speaker.

5. Pin 3 negative voltage and ground to 0.1μF/50volt and 2200μF/63volt capacitor .

□ Add in the back-to-back diodes at the input terminal of the device. These diodes clamp the
input voltage on pin 5 at +25 V, to insure that excessive voltage is never applied to this pin,
which could damage the circuit.
□ Add the speaker. Our need to first solder wire jumper leads to the speaker terminals.

□ First connect i power section and calculate our dc voltage .Then 25volt(+) connected to pin
5. And 25volt(-) connected to pin 3. Power supply common section connection to amplifier
common. To our amplifier along with the +25V bias. If all goes well, you should hear a tone.

30
3.5 Hardwire the Amplifier
Now we are ready to put everything together, and add the stereo jacks and battery supply.
Before we go further, let’s consider the standard 3.5mm audio connectors.

Figure 3.4 Standard 3.5mm Stereo Audio Plug

The stereo “plug” (sometimes called “male” instead of “plug”) has three separate cylindrical
connectors, each separated by a thin plastic insulator. The largest of these is the ground
connection. The other two carry the left and right channels of the stereo signal. The 3.5mm
designation refers to the diameter of the cylindrical conductors. There are other diameters on
the market, but 3.5mm is the standard for audio.

Figure 3.5 3.5mm Stereo Audio Jack Used

31
In your kit, you should have been provided a stereo “jack” (or “female”) similar to that shown
in figure 4.5. There are a large variety of different jack configurations, depending mostly on
how they will be mounted (i.e. surface mount, PC board, panel mounted, etc.). Some jacks
also have more than three pins which are connected in a way that gives an open or short
connection when a plug has been inserted or removed from the jack. The one we will use is
just a simple 3-terminal PCB stereo jack. On the backside you will see each pin marked by a
number, corresponding to the diagram above.

 Transfer the amplifier design to the vector board and “hardwire” everything into place. Use
the IC socket provided in the parts kit so that if anything goes wrong with the LM1875, you
can replace it without having to resolvers the circuit.
 Add the 9V battery leads supplied in your kits. If you were given a battery holder, install
that as well.
 Attach the stereo jack to the edge of the vector board. Connect pins 2 and 5 to the summing
network, and connect pin 1 to ground.
 Attach the remaining “aux” input on the summing network to a flea clip.

 Lastly, attach the speaker to the vector board. If the speakers have a mounting bracket, you
will be given some screws/nuts to attach the speaker to pre-drilled mounting holes, otherwise
you will be given some double-sided tape to secure the speaker.

Test your circuit using the bench power supply. When it is working, add the battery and test
again under battery operation. Answer all the remaining questions in the lab record.
 Using the patch-cord in your kits, you can now test your amplifier by hooking it up to the
headphone jack on a portable CD player, MP3 player, or computer.

3.6 Audio Speakers

Audio speakers convert electrical signals into mechanical motion. The most common speakers
for high-quality audio are constructed as shown in Figure 1-3 . The electric signal is passed
through a coil of wire (the “voice” coil), which is suspended a strong magnetic field provided
by a permanent magnet. A time-varying current in the coil leads to a mechanical deflection
relative to the magnet. The coil is attached to a lightweight conical membrane (usually made

32
from a heavy-grade paper) that couples the mechanical motion of the coil to the surrounding
air molecules.

Figure 3.6 Audio Speaker

(a) (b)

Figure 3.7 (a) Cross Section and (b) Impedance Curve for a Typical 8Ω Dynamic Speaker

If you look through catalogs of audio-speakers, you will find many different sizes and price
ranges. High-quality audio speakers can be quite expensive, and are designed for a flat,
33
omnidirectional frequency response in the specified operating range. Small inexpensive
speakers, such as the ones used in this lab, have poor low-frequency response and limited
power-handling capacity.

Speakers are commonly specified by their frequency response, impedance level, and
powerhandling capacity. Typical speaker impedances are “8Ω” or “4Ω” or “16Ω”. This is
often a source of confusion because it suggests the speaker is modeled by a constant resistance
of this value. In reality there is a significant reactive component of impedance and hence a
strong variation of impedance with frequency, as shown in the figure above. The impedance
can also depend strongly on the surroundings. For example, a speaker measured in isolation
(the “freeair” response) will have a different impedance than one mounted in a wooden
enclosure.

The AC impedance often displays at least one resonance, relating to the size and stiffness

(“compliance”) of the cone. Electrically this mechanical resonance can be modeled by a

parallel RLC circuit. The operating frequency range for the speaker begins at or above this
resonance, and in this range the speaker impedance is well modeled by just a resistance in
series with an inductance. The inductance comes from the voice coil itself. The resistance term
is largely the DC resistance of the voice coil, with a small additional contribution which
represents energy conversion to mechanical motion. The combination of the two resistances is
usually close to the specified impedance of the speaker (e.g. 8Ω) in the middle of the operating
range.
A pretty good equivalent circuit model for any speaker is shown in Figure 4.7 can be created by
measuring or finding the following parameters:

DC Resistance of the voice coil, Rc

■ Free-air resonant frequency, fs

■ Input resistance Rt at f=fs (the impedance is purely resistive at resonance)

■ Bandwidth Δf of the resonance (between the points where | Zt | /2ttZR=). The Q-factor is then
Qms= fs /Δf

34
 ■ Inductance Lc of the voice coil (measure at a high frequency, f>>fs)

3.7 The tools/equipment used for this project are as follows:

1. Breadboard
The breadboard is a plastic solder less circuit board and electronic connections inside that is
used for constructing circuits on, mainly for testing the circuits. It is a small rectangular
platform with wire insertion holes arranged line by line. Holes on same line are connected
electrically together in series, and are electrically parallel with holes on the other lines.

Figure 3.7 bread board

2. Veroboard
The veroboard is the circuit board used for construction of this project. A Veroboard is expertly
constructed using strips of copper clad on a top quality board featuring a grid pattern of holes
spaced 0.1" (or 2.54mm) apart. This design allows you to solder almost any non-surface mount
ICs, resistors, capacitors onto the Veroboard. The components are placed in the holes of the
board and electrically joined to each other using soldering and lead or connecting wires.

35
 Figure 3.8 Veroboard

3. Soldering Tools
The soldering iron is a tool that provides heat for melting. It is mostly used for melting
soldering lead to join components together, or to remove already soldered components with the
aid of the lead sucker.

The soldering lead is a metallic lead alloy that can easily be melted and used for electrical
connections.

The lead sucker is a tool for sucking out lead from circuit constructions. The lead first had to be
heated to liquid form before sucking.

Figure 3.9: Soldering Tools

4. Connecting Wires
The connecting wires are just pieces of conducting wires for joining the components together.
the wire used for this project are of the same thickness with the terminals of the components to
ensure proper flow of current.

36
Figure 3.10 Connecting Wires

37
 Digital Multimeter
The digital multimeter is an electronic device that can measure the magnitude of current,
voltage and resistance in a circuit/component and also test the continuity between two points. It
consists of two metallic probes for contacting the object to be measured, a regulator to select
which quantity and magnitude it should measure, and a digital display which displays results in
numerical values.

Figure 3.11 Digital Multimeter

3.8 Casing and Packaging

Casing is another aspect of amplifier construction. It involves the whole component circuits,
which has been constructed. It beautifies the work and makes it look fine. Casing also makes the
operation of the amplifier easy since it is on it that the variable resistors that control the volume,
microphone and tone circuits are tightened to the casing. It is also with the help of casing that the
external connection from the a.c supply is made. Connection are also made through input socket and
output socket, signals enters and leaves the circuit through the casing. The material used in this project
was metal.
Back Connection
The back has the input socket, output socket and entry point for ac supply. The back is
connected in such a way that the output from the radio or sound source is fed into the input of the
amplifier and the signal goes out to the loudspeaker through the output socket. Air holes are also
made at the back to make way for air to cool the transformer.

38
 5cm

15c
m

15c
m 8 cm

8 cm

Figure 3.12: Construction of casing

3.9 Assembling of Sections

Having provided the casing and having finished the construction of the sections of this system,
the assembling into the casing followed as shown below.

The sections were properly laid out and assembled into the casing where the general
coupling and linkages into the peripheral devices took place.

39
 CHAPTER FOUR

CONSTRUCTION, TESTING AND DISCUSIONS

4.1 Construction Procedure and Testing Analysis

The procedures taken to construct the car battery charger are as follows;
1. First, I created a working circuit diagram and then simulated it graphically using the
proteus software on the computer system. With this, I was sure that the operation of my
circuit to be constructed will be functional. Now knowing which circuit diagram to use, I
purchased the components required for the circuit and prepared the tools to be used for the
construction.
2. I then constructed the circuit on a breadboard for testing as shown below.

Figure 4.1 Audio power amplifier breadboard connection

3. The resistors, transformer, capacitors, bridge rectifier and voltage regulators were soldered
in their respective positions in the circuit. The jumper connection which is marked by a
dashed line on the component side, was soldered onto the board.
4. I then carried out a test using my multimeter to ensure that the circuit is receiving ground
(zero potential) in places where ground is needed. I also ensured that the components are
well connected.

5. Finally, I then tested the output using speaker. After which I then cased the project.

40
41
4.2 Problems encountered and Solution

In the construction of any electrical device, issues and problems are often encountered of which
most of them are being solved and recorded. The challenges encountered during the
construction of this project are:

 Appropriate and Working Circuit Diagram: From the beginning of this project, I had
difficult times sourcing for the right circuit diagram for the construction of this device.

 Short Circuits: As a result of improper soldering of the components, I experienced a lot

of short circuits during construction.

Leakage of Current During Construction: I experienced the highest difficulty during the final stage of
my construction because the ‘bond substance’ that I used to hold the cables onto the veroboard (apart
from soldering) in order to avoid ‘pulling out of wires’ in the circuit turned out to serve as a sort of
‘current discharging agent’ when the device is turned on.

Table 4.1 Bill of Engineering Measurement

Components Code/Value Quantity Unit Price Estimated

Cost

Transformer 220V, 24V 1Pc 3,500 3,500

Voltage LM 7805 & 1+1Pc 200 200

Regulator LM7812

Capacitor (1000uF,22pf) 1+5=6pcs 5x5+15=35 1,200

Resistor (220Ω,1kΩ,10kΩ) 10pcs 10x10=100 100

Connecting wire 10Ft 1000 1,000

LED (red) & 4Pc 20x4=80 80

42
(green)

Bread Board 1pc 950x1=950 950

PCB(Vera board) 2pc 500x2=1000 1,000

Heat sink 1pc 800 800

IC LM1875 1pc 700 700

Speaker 8ohms 1pc 1,200 1,200

Plug Male & female 1pc 400 400

Diode 1N40007 10pc 20x5=100 100

Switch Push button 1pc 300 300

Power cord 1pc 400 400

Case Plastic 1pc 2500 2500

Miscellanies 5,000 5,000

TOTAL 19,930

43
 CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Conclusion
The DC-coupled audio power amplifier system was designed, constructed and tested. Both
transistor type and IC type components were used in this system. Each part of the overall
typical audio power amplifier was simulated and constructed. After constructing the overall
system, the output power of 25W was achieved from the experimental results. From the design
calculations, the speaker power of 25W was achieved. This was proved by using digital sound
level meter. From the calculation, simulation and testing results, the overall voltage gain of
about 30dB was obtained.

5.2 Recommendation
This system was high efficiency and can be workable successfully. Sound quality performance
was acceptable by using this system. This audio power amplifier can drive 8Ω speakers. It is
suitable not only for lecture room but also for other ceremonies or meetings. Audio power
amplifier of this design can be extended two or four channel per amplifier unit, usually for
stereo or surround sound system. The protection against DC faults can be extended. A
DCcoupled amplifier requires an output relay for dependable speaker protection. It can be used
with other amplifier modules and commercial stereo amplifiers and protects the loudspeakers in
the event of a catastrophic amplifier failure. The module also mutes the loudspeakers at switch-
on and switch-off to prevent those scary thumps.

5.3 Experience Gained

Some of the major experiences which was gained in the course of the project work are as
follows;
Ability to draw circuit diagram with the help of the proteus software. It also aided my
understanding on the working principle of simple basic circuit and component unit.
The project also created an avenue for demonstrating class room theory work in practical form
and created a proper acquaintance with various component types as well as the use of basic
equipment such as multimeter for measurement.
44
 REFERENCES

B. Cordell, Designing Audio Power A mplifiers, Chicago: McGraw Hill, 2011.

Ben, R. (2000). Final project Report of Stereo Audio Amplifier. A project submitted to the
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, George Washington University.

Cordell, B. (2011). Designing Audio power amplifiers, New York Chicago: McGraw Hill.
ISBN: 185467342. 354-369. 1972.

D. Self, Audio Power Amplifier Design Handbook, 3rd ed., Oxford: Newnes, 2002.
Discussion of practical design features that can provoke or lessen slew-rate limiting and
transient inter modulation in audio amplifiers can also be found for example in chap. 9.

G. Kamucha, "FEE 302: Analogue Electronics B," Dept. Elect. Eng. University of Nairobi,
Nairobi, 2014.
Gupta, S. (2018) 25 watt Audio Amplifier Circuit Using TDA2040.
http://CyrusAudio.com/product-archive/amps/1-integrated-amplifier-all versions Cyrus

http://nobelprize.org/educational_games/physics/transistor/history/The Transistor in a
Century of Electronics
http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_is_the_functions_of_ceramic_capacitor#ixzz1iP0dGbDE

http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/transistor/tran_2.html

http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/transistor/tran_3.html

L. N. Robert Boylestad, Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, 11th ed., Boston: Pearson,
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Mehta, V. (2008). Principles of Electronic, New Delhi: S. Chand. ISBN: 1 84339 0582. 226-
271.

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Nieminen, Kari, Journal of Audio Engineering Society, Vol. 28 # 5, May 1980.

Oliveira, D.S., Bissochi C.A., Vincenzi, R.S.F., Vieira J.B., Farias, V.J. & de Freitas, L.C.
(2000). Proposal of a new audio amplifier.CIEP.
Oti, S.E. & Ahanonu, C.S. (2015).Design and construction of a 300 wattAudio
Amplifier.International Journal of Engineering and Management Research; Vol.5 (6) 9-
14.
R. Elliott, "Power Amplifier Design Guidelines," 27 December 2006.

Rahman, M. L. & Razzak, M.A. (2012).Design and implementation of a 25-watt Audio Power
Amplifier. A project submitted to the Department of Electronics and Communication
Engineering, Northern University Bangladesh.
S. G. Randy, High-Power Audio Amplifier Construction Manual, New York: McGraw-Hill,
1999.
W. Stanley, Operational Amplifiers with Linear Integrated Circuits, 4th ed., Pearson Education,
2001.

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