Map Projections and

Coordinate Systems
About Coordinate
Systems
 Coordinate
Systems
750$

Fence$

500$
Building+A$

Building+B$

250$
175,$200$

0,0$ 250$ 500$ 750$

An arbitrary coordinate system used for surveying a site."

 Types of
Coordinate Systems
• Unprojected!
• Based on
spherical globe
coordinates"
• Degrees of
latitude and
longitude
 Types of
Coordinate Systems
• Projected!
• Converts spherical
coordinates to
planar"
• Set of mathematical
equations"
• Projects 3D
coordinates to 2D
map
 Geographic
Coordinate Systems
Approximation of
the Earth

• The simplest
model is a
sphere.

Sphere&
 Approximation of
the Earth
• However, the earth
rotate’s and is not at
rest."
!

• Equatorial bulge
graphic link
~http://www.cleonis.nl/physics/phys256/equatorial_bulge.php
Approximation of
the Earth
• Therefore, Earth is not
a perfect sphere: the
Earth is wider along the
equator than between the
poles (~13.25 miles
wider on each side or
~26.5 total)."
• Therefore a better
approximation to the
shape of the Earth is a Spheroid)Ellipsoid-
spheroid, also called
ellipsoid.
 Approximation of
the Earth
• The ellipsoid is
defined using a
major and minor
axis representing
the longer and
shorter radii of
the ellipsoid.
http://www.icsm.gov.au/mapping/web_images/speroid.jpg
 Approximation of
the Earth

• Common Ellipsoids"
• Clark 1866"
• GRS80"
• WGS84
http://www.icsm.gov.au/mapping/web_images/speroid.jpg
The  Geoid
-­‐  The  earth  is  not  a  perfect  ellipsoid  
either.      
-­‐  It  has  a  topographic  surface  de6ined  as  
the  change  in  elevation  from  the  geoid.  
-­‐  The  geoid  is  a  theoretical  surface  
de6ined  by  gravity  measurements.      
-­‐  It  is  described  as  “the  mean  ocean  
surface  of  the  Earth,  if  the  oceans  were  
in  equilibrium,  at  rest,  and  extended  
through  the  continents”   .      
(wikipedia)

-­‐  It  is  too  complex  and  irregular  to  use  to  
map  points  on,  so  the  ellipsoid  is  used.
 Best  6it  for  North  
The  Datum
America
-­‐  To  minimize  the  discrepancy  
between  the  geoid  and  ellipsoid,  a  
datum  is  de6ined,  which  is  a  
mathematical  model  of  the  Earth.  
-­‐  A  datum  shifts  the  ellipsoid  relative  
to  the  geoid  to  achieve  a  best  6it  
between  the  two.  
-­‐  A  local  datum  optimizes  the  shift  
for  the  best  6it  at  a  particular  
location.    It  may  also  use  a  surveyed  
network  of  points  to  make  further  
adjustments.  
Worse  6it  for   -­‐  A  geocentric  or  world-­‐centered  
South  America datum  optimizes  the  6it  for  the  
entire  earth.
 GCS  Summary
-­‐  A  GCS  has  a  datum  de6ined  
by  the  ellipsoid  and  
translation  used  to  achieve  
the  best  possible  6it  
between  the  earth  geoid  
and  the  mapping  ellipsoid.

Sphere Spheroid

Common  Datums  
-­‐North  American  1983  (uses  
GRS80  spheroid)  
-­‐North  American  1927  
(Clarke1866  spheroid)
Geoid Datum
 Parallels  and  Meridians
Parallels-­‐Latitude Meridians-­‐Longitude

-­‐  North—South  distances   -­‐  East—West  distances  

-­‐  Range  is  0°  at  equator  to  90°  at  poles   -­‐  Range  is  0°  (prime  meridian)  to  180°    
-­‐N,  S  used  to  indicate  hemispheres -­‐  E,  W  used  to  distinguish  East  or  West
Geographic  Coordinates
Two  ways  to  write  latitude  and  
longitude  values:  
!
1. degrees  (°),  minutes  (‘),  and  
seconds  (“),  where  there  are  60  
minutes  in  a  degree  and  60  
seconds  in  a  minute.  
!
  44°56’18”N,  123°01’47”W  
  +44°56’18”,  -­‐123°01’47”  
!
2. decimal  degrees  
!
  44.9381°N      123.0297°  
  +44.9381°      -­‐123.0297°

Decimal  degrees  =  dd+mm/60+ss/3600  

!
dd=number  of  whole  degrees  
mm=number  of  minutes  
ss=number  of  seconds
Projected  Coordinate  Systems
 What  is  a  Projection?

-­‐A  map  projection  is  a  way  to  

represent  the  curved  surface  of  the  
Earth  on  the  6lat  surface  of  a  map.    
!
-­‐A  globe  provides  the  most  
accurate  representation  of  the  
Earth,  but  a  globe  isn't  practical  for  
many  of  the  functions  for  which  
we  require  maps.  
 What  is  a  Projection?
-­‐Map  projections  allow  us  to  represent  some  
or  all  of  the  Earth's  surface,  at  a  wide  variety  
of  scales,  on  a  6lat,  easily  transportable  
surface,  such  as  a  sheet  of  paper  or  a  6ile  
viewed  onscreen.    
!
-­‐There  are  hundreds  of  different  map  
projections…  just  a  few  are  currently  in  
widespread  use.  
!
-­‐The  process  of  transferring  information  from  
the  Earth  to  a  map  causes  every  projection  to  
distort  at  least  one  aspect  of  the  real  world  –  
either  shape,  area,  distance,  or  direction.
 Types  of  Projections

Cylindrical Conic Planar-­‐Azimuthal

 Cylindrical  Projections

Cylindrical Mercator Transverse  Mercator

Transverse  
cylindrical
Cylindrical  Equal  Area Equirectangular
 Conic  Projections

Lambert  Conformal  Conic Equidistant  Conic

Albers  Equal  Area   Polyconic

Conic
 Azimuthal  Projections

Polar  
Azimuthal  Equidistant
Gnomic

Oblique
Lambert  Azimuthal     Polar  Stereographic
Equal-­‐Area
Projection  Parameters:  Central  Meridian

-­‐The  longitude  
which  serves  as  
the  x=0  origin  of  
the  map.  
0°
-­‐X  values  to  the  
right  of  the  
central  meridian  
are  positive.  
-­‐X  values  to  the  
left  of  the  central  
-­‐100° meridian  are  
negative.
Projection  Parameters:  Reference  Latitude

-­‐Latitude  which  serves  as  the      y  

=  0  origin  for  the  map.  
-­‐Y  values  above  the  reference  
latitude  are  positive.  
-­‐X  values  below  the  reference  
latitude  are  negative.  
-­‐Often  the  equator  is  used.

Reference  latitude
 Tangent  vs  Secant  Projections

Standard  
parallels

-­‐Cylinder/cone  is  tangent  to  the   -­‐Cylinder/cone  is  secant  to  the  globe.  
globe.  
-­‐Has  two  standard  parallels.  
-­‐Has  a  single  standard  parallel.  
-­‐No  distortion  along  parallels,  
-­‐No  distortion  along  parallel,   increases  with  distance  from  them.
increases  with  distance  from  it.
 False  Easting  and  Northing

False  easting

Reference  
latitude 0,0 False  
northing

Arbitrary  values  added  to  x  and  y  values.  

Usually  used  to  ensure  that  all    x-­‐y  coordinates  
Central  meridian are  positive.
 Coordinate  Units
• Projecting  changes  the  x-­‐y  values  from  degrees  to  meters  or  
feet.

-­‐103.567,44.628   2445678,654321  
-­‐103.678,44.653   2445021,650001  
-­‐103.765,44.732   2444823,649200  
… …
Units  in  decimal  degrees Units  in  meters
Common  Projection  Systems
UTM  Coordinate  System
 UTM  Coordinate  System
• Based  on  Transverse  Mercator  (cylindrical)  
projection  
• World  divided  into  60  zones  6  degrees  wide  
• Distortion  is  minimal  within  each  zone  
• Maps  of  different  areas  use  best  zone  
• Best  for  maps  covering  small  area  in  one  zone

Zone  16
State  Plane  Coordinate  System
 Avoiding  GCS  in  Minal  maps

A  map  using  a  Geographic  Coordinate  

system  (GCS)  appears  distorted.

Always  use  a  projected  coordinate  system  for  

mapping  or  analysis.
 Distortion
• All  map  projections  introduce  distortion  
• Type  and  degree  of  distortion  varies  with  map  projection  
• When  using  a  projection,  one  must  take  care  to  choose  one  with  
suitable  properties

Area Shape

Distance Direc3on
 Projections  for  Large  Scale  Maps
• Local,  city,  county  maps,  smaller  states  
– Projection  systems  virtually  eliminate  distortion  
– Choose  appropriate  UTM  or  State  Plane  zone  
– For  best  results,  map  should  lie  in  a  single  zone
 Projections  for  Small  Scales
• Continents  and  countries  
!
• Distortion  is  inevitable,  so  purpose  drives  the  choice  
!
– Equidistant  maps  when  distances  are  important  
!
– Equal  area  maps  when  area  is  important  
!
– Conformal  or  compromise  projections  for  general  
purpose  maps