Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

Ministry of Education
Majmaah University
College of Applied Medical Sciences (CAMS)
Medical Laboratory Sciences (MDL)

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

The Role of Autoantibodies in Autoimmune Diseases

A Comprehensive Literature Review

by

Zahra Alowa
421204089

Abstract:
Autoantibodies are antibodies that target the body's own tissues and play a
significant role in the development and progression of autoimmune diseases.
This research explores the mechanisms of action of autoantibodies and their
association with different autoimmune conditions. In rheumatoid arthritis (RA),
autoantibodies such as rheumatoid factor (RF) and antibodies against
citrullinated proteins (ACPA) are commonly detected. These autoantibodies
serve as diagnostic markers for RA and are associated with disease progression,
radiographic damage, and increased cardiovascular and thromboembolic risks.
In systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), autoantibodies targeting key
components involved in disease development have been identified.
Autoantibodies against dsDNA, C1q, chromatin, Sm, and ribosomal P are
potential biomarkers for lupus nephritis. The presence of autoantibodies,
particularly anti-dsDNA, has been linked to HLA-DR2 in SLE patients. They
can be utilized for accurate diagnosis, disease classification, and prediction of
disease course. Furthermore, autoantibodies are valuable tools for disease
monitoring. They aid in early detection, assessment of treatment response, and
prediction of disease relapse or remission in conditions such as prostate cancer,
Alzheimer's disease, rheumatic diseases, and primary membranous nephropathy.
In conclusion, autoantibodies play a pivotal role in autoimmune diseases,
contributing to their pathogenesis, serving as diagnostic and prognostic
biomarkers, and facilitating disease monitoring. Further research in this field

can provide insights into the underlying mechanisms of autoimmune diseases

and guide the development of targeted therapeutic interventions.

1. Introduction:
Autoantibodies have gained attention in biomedical research due to their roles
in disease. This research explores autoantibodies and their mechanisms, as well
as their associations with autoimmune diseases. Diagnostic, prognostic, and
monitoring potential will be highlighted.
Autoantibodies can activate or block receptors, neutralize antigens, and disrupt
protein interactions. They have implications in brain dysfunction and
neurological diseases. Autoantibodies play significant roles in rheumatoid
arthritis and serve as diagnostic markers. They are also associated with disease
progression and increased risk of cardiovascular events. Autoantibodies are
critical in systemic lupus erythematosus. They serve as biomarkers for detecting
lupus nephritis. The relationship between autoantibodies and neutrophil
extracellular traps remains uncertain. Autoantibodies are associated with
autoimmune thyroid diseases and serve as crucial diagnostic markers. They are
also observed in other autoimmune conditions. Autoantibodies have been
investigated as potential biomarkers in various diseases. They play a pivotal role
in accurate diagnosis and prediction of disease course. Autoantibodies offer
insights into disease monitoring in rheumatic diseases, and primary
membranous nephropathy. Monitoring allows for early detection and treatment
response assessment.
This research aims to provide an overview of autoantibodies in disease
processes, highlighting their mechanisms, associations, diagnostic implications,
and role in disease monitoring. Understanding autoantibodies can improve
patient care in various medical conditions. While it is imperative to
acknowledge that the mere presence of autoantibodies does not invariably
signify the onset of disease, their existence nevertheless presents an invaluable
opportunity to serve as invaluable markers for the purpose of both diagnosis and
prognosis [2]. In the grand tapestry of autoantibody genesis, two primary
mechanisms have been identified, namely cross-reactivity to external antigens
and the byproduct of chronic, systemic immune activation and inflammation
[3]. The consequences of these autoantibodies can manifest in the form of direct
injury to tissues and organs, culminating in organ dysfunction and extensive
damage [4]. and these autoantibodies can significantly contribute to the
establishment of personalized treatment plans [Markus, Wilhelmi. (2022)].

2. Autoantibodies and Mechanisms of Action:

Autoantibodies play a role in the development and regulation of various
pathogenic conditions and homeostasis [Kinya,other (2023)]. Their functions
include activating or blocking receptors, inducing receptor internalization,
neutralizing ligands or other soluble extracellular antigens, and disrupting
protein-protein interactions. Autoantibodies have been implicated in brain
dysfunction and are linked to neurological diseases. The detection of specific
autoantibodi targeting neuronal or glial targets has improved our understanding
of central nervous system autoimmunity. Monoclonal autoantibodies obtained
from patients can be utilized to investigate immunobiology and the
pathogenicity of autoantibodies[Xinhua,other 2023]. In multiple sclerosis,
autoantibodies that target myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein can accumulate
in myeloid cells and promote the reactivation of T cells, resulting in an
exacerbated inflammatory response[Harald, Prüss. (2021)].

3. Association of Autoantibodies with Autoimmune Diseases:

3.1 Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA):

Autoantibodies play a significant role in the pathogenesis and clinical
manifestations of rheumatoid arthritis (RA). In individuals with RA,
autoantibodies such as rheumatoid factor (RF) and antibodies against
citrullinated proteins (ACPA) are commonly identified [Matola.,(2023)]. These
autoantibodies are associated with various aspects of the disease. For instance,
RF and ACPA serve as diagnostic markers for RA and can be detected years
before the onset of the disease [Helga,other(2022)]. Moreover, RA patients who
are positive for ACPA exhibit a more unfavorable clinical course and more
pronounced radiographic progression [Helga,other (2022)]. Additionally, the
presence of ACPA and RF has been linked to an elevated risk of cardiovascular
events and venous thromboembolic events (VTE) in RA patients [Maria, V.,
Sokolova (2021)]. Specifically, IgG anti-CCP2 and IgM RF have shown an
association with an increased risk of VTE. These findings suggest that
autoantibodies are not solely diagnostic markers, but they also contribute to the
pathogenesis and clinical manifestations of RA [Gregory,other (2022)].
3.2 Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE):
Autoantibodies play a critical role in the pathogenesis of systemic lupus
erythematosus (SLE) by facilitating tissue damage and providing valuable
insights into disease susceptibility, clinical progression, outcomes, and
underlying mechanisms [Ellen,other (2023)] [M., K., Volkov. (2022)]. Recent
investigations have revealed the presence of functional autoantibodies that
specifically target key components implicated in the development of SLE,
including DNase1L3, cytokines, extracellular immunoregulatory receptors,
endogenous retroelements, and interferon-induced proteins [- Eduardo,other
(2022)] [González,other (2023)]. Furthermore, autoantibodies directed against
dsDNA, C1q, chromatin, Sm, and ribosomal P have been identified as potential
biomarkers for the detection of proliferative lupus nephritis
[Sumaiya,other(2023) ]. Notably, the presence of autoantibodies, particularly
anti-dsDNA, has been linked to HLA-DR2 in SLE patients. However, the
relationship between autoantibodies and the formation of plasma-induced
neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) remains uncertain. These findings
emphasize the potential utility of autoantibodies as biomarkers for gaining
insights into the pathogenic mechanisms underlying SLE and for stratifying
patients for targeted therapeutic interventions
3.3 Autoimmune Thyroid Diseases:
Autoantibodies are linked with autoimmune thyroid disorders. Thyroid
antibodies, encompassing antibodies to thyroglobulin (TgAb), thyroid
peroxidase (TPO), and bispecific autoantibodies to thyroglobulin and thyroid
peroxidase, play a crucial role in the diagnosis of autoimmune thyroid ailment
[19] [T.V., Sorokman.,2021]. These antibodies are not only detected in
autoimmune disorders of the thyroid gland but also in other autoimmune
conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis, type 1 diabetes mellitus, and celiac
disease [Gulnara,other(2022) ]. In individuals with systemic autoimmune
rheumatic disorders, the frequency of thyroid autoantibodies is higher in
systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and systemic sclerosis (SSc) patients as
compared to rheumatoid arthritis (RA) patients [Safaa,other (2020) ].
Furthermore, zinc transporter 8 autoantibodies (ZnT8Abs), in conjunction with
other diabetes-related autoantibodies, have been observed in children and
adolescents affected by autoimmune thyroid disorders, such as Graves' disease
(GD) and Hashimoto's thyroiditis (HT).
3.4 Autoantibodies as Diagnostic and Prognostic Biomarkers:
Autoantibodies have been extensively investigated as crucial biomarkers for
diagnosis and prognosis in a diverse range of diseases, encompassing not only
autoimmune disorders but also breast cancer and ovarian cancer. The utilization
of autoantibody testing in autoimmune diseases such as systemic lupus
erythematosus and rheumatoid arthritis plays a pivotal role in accurately
diagnosing these complex conditions and predicting their course [S., Savino.,
Bizzaro, (2023)]. With regards to breast cancer, the identification of
autoantibodies within the peripheral blood offers a non-invasive and cost-
effective means of screening and classifying the disease's prognosis [Ruozhu,
Yang.,other 2022]. Similarly, in the case of ovarian cancer, the presence of
serum p53 autoantibodies has been shown to possess prognostic value,
contributing to improved overall survival rates [25] [Jörg, Klewer. (2023)].
Furthermore, in the context of lung cancer, numerous autoantibodies including
p53, CAGE, GBU4-5, NY-ESO-1, Annexin 1, and SOX2 have been extensively
investigated as potential diagnostic biomarkers, aiming to facilitate early
detection of this lethal malignancy [25]. Collectively, the realm of diagnostics
and prognostics greatly benefits from the promising potential of autoantibody
testing in a diverse array of diseases.
3.5 Autoantibodies and Disease Monitoring:
Autoantibodies play an extremely significant and pivotal role in the monitoring
of diseases. Their utility extends to early diagnosis, classification, and prognosis
of autoimmune diseases [Sanogo, Ousmane. (2023).]. For the particular case of
prostate cancer, autoantibodies that specifically target tumor-associated antigens
present a highly beneficial and non-invasive approach to monitor the disease
and assess the response to treatment [29]. In the context of Alzheimer's disease,
a panel consisting of multiple autoantibodies has been scientifically
demonstrated to effectively detect the disease during its earliest stages,
encompassing preclinical and prodromal AD [Cassandra,other (2022) ]. In
relation to rheumatic diseases, serological tests that focus on autoantibodies
provide essential assistance in the tailoring of treatment regimens, the prediction
of disease relapse or remission, and the optimization of desired outcomes [31].
Similarly, in the domain of primary membranous nephropathy, the levels of
anti-podocyte antibodies found in serum samples serve as a valuable tool for
non-invasive diagnosis, the differentiation between primary and secondary MN,
the prediction of renal outcomes, and the customization of treatment plans
[Vladimir,other(2021) ]. Considering the overall panorama, it becomes evident
that autoantibodies offer a plethora of valuable insights into the monitoring of
diseases, consequently playing a pivotal role in guiding treatment decisions
across various medical conditions. Autoantibodies can also be detected in the
context of cancer-related autoimmune diseases. In some cases
4. Discussion and Future Directions:
The role of autoantibodies in autoimmune diseases is well-established and has
been extensively studied. Autoantibodies are antibodies that target the body's
own tissues and antigens, leading to tissue damage and inflammation. In this
discussion, we focused on the association of autoantibodies with three specific
autoimmune diseases: rheumatoid arthritis (RA), systemic lupus erythematosus
(SLE), and autoimmune thyroid diseases.
In rheumatoid arthritis, autoantibodies such as rheumatoid factor (RF) and
antibodies against citrullinated proteins (ACPA) are commonly detected. These
autoantibodies serve as diagnostic markers for RA and can be detected before
the onset of the disease. Moreover, their presence is associated with a more
unfavorable clinical course and increased risk of cardiovascular events and
venous thromboembolic events in RA patients. This highlights the role of
autoantibodies not only as diagnostic markers but also as contributors to the
pathogenesis and clinical manifestations of RA.
In systemic lupus erythematosus, autoantibodies play a critical role in the
pathogenesis of the disease. They facilitate tissue damage and provide valuable
insights into disease susceptibility, clinical progression, outcomes, and
underlying mechanisms. Autoantibodies targeting key components implicated in
SLE, such as DNase1L3 and cytokines, have been identified. Additionally,
certain autoantibodies have been identified as potential biomarkers for the
detection of proliferative lupus nephritis. The presence of autoantibodies,
particularly anti-dsDNA, has also been linked to HLA-DR2 in SLE patients.
These findings demonstrate the utility of autoantibodies as biomarkers for
understanding the pathogenic mechanisms of SLE and guiding targeted
therapeutic interventions.

Autoantibodies are also associated with autoimmune thyroid diseases. Thyroid

antibodies, including antibodies to thyroglobulin (TgAb) and thyroid peroxidase
(TPO), play a crucial role in the diagnosis of these disorders. Moreover, thyroid
autoantibodies are not only detected in autoimmune thyroid diseases but also in
other autoimmune conditions. The frequency of thyroid autoantibodies is higher
in systemic lupus erythematosus and systemic sclerosis patients compared to
rheumatoid arthritis patients. Zinc transporter 8 autoantibodies (ZnT8Abs) have
been observed in children and adolescents affected by autoimmune thyroid
disorders. These findings emphasize the link between autoantibodies and
autoimmune diseases and the potential for using autoantibodies as diagnostic
markers in various autoimmune conditions.
4.1 Future Directions:
1. Identification of novel autoantibodies: Further research is needed to identify
and characterize novel autoantibodies associated with autoimmune diseases.
This will help improve diagnostic accuracy, understand disease mechanisms,
and identify potential therapeutic targets.
2. Mechanistic studies: Elucidating the mechanisms by which autoantibodies
contribute to tissue damage and inflammation will provide a better
understanding of autoimmune disease pathogenesis. This knowledge can guide
the development of targeted therapies aimed at modulating autoantibody
production or blocking their pathological effects.
3. Therapeutic interventions: Investigating the use of autoantibodies as
therapeutic agents, such as monoclonal antibodies targeting specific
autoantibodies or antigens, holds promise. Developing novel therapies that
modulate autoantibody production or neutralize their pathogenic effects could
significantly impact the management of autoimmune diseases.
4. Large-scale studies and data integration: Conducting large-scale studies and
integrating multi-omics data, including genomics, transcriptomics, and
proteomics, will provide a comprehensive understanding of the autoantibody
landscape in autoimmune diseases. This integrated approach can identify
disease-specific autoantibody signatures and uncover novel disease
mechanisms.
5. Conclusion:
In conclusion, autoantibodies play a crucial role in the development, diagnosis,
prognosis, and monitoring of autoimmune diseases. The presence of specific
autoantibodies has been strongly associated with various autoimmune
conditions, including rheumatoid arthritis (RA), systemic lupus erythematosus
(SLE), and autoimmune thyroid diseases.
In the case of RA, autoantibodies such as rheumatoid factor (RF) and antibodies
against citrullinated proteins (ACPA) serve as diagnostic markers and can be
detected years before the onset of the disease. Additionally, these autoantibodies
are associated with a more unfavorable clinical course and increased risk of
cardiovascular events and venous thromboembolic events in RA patients.
Similarly, in SLE, autoantibodies play a critical role in the pathogenesis of the
disease and provide valuable insights into disease susceptibility, clinical
progression, and outcomes.
Moreover, autoantibodies have been extensively investigated as diagnostic and
prognostic biomarkers in various diseases, including autoimmune disorders,
breast cancer, ovarian cancer, and lung cancer. Autoantibody testing plays a
pivotal role in accurately diagnosing complex conditions and predicting their
course, leading to improved overall survival rates and facilitating early
detection.
Furthermore, autoantibodies have proven to be valuable tools in disease
monitoring. They can be utilized for early diagnosis, classification, and
prognosis of diseases such as prostate cancer, Alzheimer's disease, rheumatic
diseases, and primary membranous nephropathy. Autoantibodies provide
essential assistance in tailoring treatment regimens, predicting disease relapse or
remission, and optimizing desired outcomes. Finally autoantibodies play a
crucial role in the pathogenesis, diagnosis, prognosis, and monitoring of
autoimmune diseases. Further research is needed to identify novel
autoantibodies, elucidate underlying mechanisms, and translate this knowledge
into personalized medicine and targeted therapeutic interventions.. The
identification and understanding of specific autoantibodies have revolutionized
the field of autoimmune disease research and have the potential to significantly
impact patient care and treatment outcomes in the future.

References :
1- 2023 An Approach for Detecting Missed Tissue Proteins in Autoimmune
Diseases. doi: 10.1109/lt58159.2023.10092296
2- (2022)The evaluation and treatment of autoimmune diseases. 863-886. doi:
10.1016/b978-
3- Ze, Xiu, Xiao., Joseph, S., Miller., Song, Guo, Zheng. (2021). An updated
advance of autoantibodies in autoimmune diseases.. Autoimmunity Reviews,
20(2):102743-. doi: 10.1016/J.AUTREV.2020.102743
4- Markus, Wilhelmi. (2022). The Pivotal Role of Liver Autoimmune Serology
in the Diagnosis of Autoimmune Liver Disease.. The journal of applied
laboratory medicine, doi: 10.1093/jalm/jfac014

5- Ben, Mulhearn., Sarah, L, Tansley., Neil, McHugh. (2020). Autoantibodies in

connective tissue disease.. Best Practice & Research: Clinical Rheumatology,
34(1):101462-. doi: 10.1016/J.BERH.2019.101462

6- Kinya, Matsuo., Yukio, Takeshita. (2023). [Mechanism of Synthesis and

Effect of Autoantibodies: Implications for Therapy].. Brain and nerve, doi:
10.11477/mf.1416202403

7- Xinhua, Yu., Jacqueline, K., Wax., Gabriela, Riemekasten., J., Petersen.

(2023). Functional autoantibodies: Definition, mechanisms, origin and
contributions to autoimmune and non-autoimmune disorders.. Autoimmunity
Reviews, doi: 10.1016/j.autrev.2023.103386

8- Harald, Prüss. (2021). Autoantibodies in neurological disease. Nature

Reviews Immunology, doi: 10.1038/S41577-021-00543-W
9- A., T., Matola., Angéla, Fülöp., Bernadette, Rojkovich., György, Nagy.,
Gabriella, Sármay., Mihály, Józsi., Barbara, Uzonyi. (2023). Autoantibodies
against complement factor B in rheumatoid arthritis. Frontiers in Immunology,
doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1113015

10- Helga, Westerlind., Alf, Kastbom., Johan, Rönnelid., Mona, Hansson., Lars,
Alfredsson., Linda, Mathsson-Alm., Guy, Serre., Martin, Cornillet., Rikard,
Holmdahl., Karl, Skriner., Holger, Bang., Lars, Klareskog., Saedis,
Saevarsdottir., B., Lundberg., Caroline, Grönwall., Johan, Askling. (2022). The
association between autoantibodies and risk for venous thromboembolic events
among patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Rheumatology, doi:
10.1093/rheumatology/keac601

11- Helga, Westerlind., Alf, Kastbom., Johan, Rönnelid., Monika, Hansson.,

Lars, Alfredsson., Linda, Mathsson-Alm., Guy, Serre., Martin, Cornillet.,
Rikard, Holmdahl., P.-J., Jakobsson., Karl, Skriner., Holger, Bang., Lars,
Klareskog., Saedis, Saevarsdottir., B., Lundberg., Caroline, Grönwall., Johan,
Askling. (2022). Pos0515 the association between autoantibodies and risk for
venous thromboembolic events among patients with rheumatoid arthritis.
Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases, doi: 10.1136/annrheumdis-2022-eular.983

12-Maria, V., Sokolova., Georg, Schett., Ulrike, Steffen. (2021). Autoantibodies

in Rheumatoid Arthritis: Historical Background and Novel Findings.. Clinical
Reviews in Allergy & Immunology, doi: 10.1007/S12016-021-08890-1

13- Gregory, McDermott., Ritu, R., Gill., Staci, M., Gagne., Suzanne, C.,
Byrne., Weixing, Huang., Xiaosong, Wang., Lauren, C., Prisco., Alessandra,
Zaccardelli., Lily, W, Martin., Lucy, Masto., Vanessa, L., Kronzer., Nancy, A.,
Shadick., Paul, F., Dellaripa., Tracy, J., Doyle., Jeffrey, A., Sparks. (2022).
Demographic, Lifestyle, and Serologic Risk Factors for Rheumatoid Arthritis
(RA)–associated Bronchiectasis: Role of RA-related Autoantibodies. The
Journal of Rheumatology, doi: 10.3899/jrheum.211242

14- Ellen, D., Kaan., T, Brunekreef., Julia, Drylewicz., L., van, den, Hoogen.,
Helen, L., Leavis., Jacob, M, van, Laar., Michiel, van, der, Vlist., Hubert,
Otten., Marteen, Limper. (2023). Ab0117 association of autoantibodies with the
ifn signature and netosis in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Annals
of the Rheumatic Diseases, doi: 10.1136/annrheumdis-2023-eular.2799

15- M., K., Volkov. (2022). An update on autoantibodies in systemic lupus

erythematosus. Current Opinion in Rheumatology, doi:
10.1097/bor.0000000000000922

16- Eduardo, Gómez-Bañuelos., Andrea, Fava., Felipe, Andrade. (2022). An

update on autoantibodies in systemic lupus erythematosus. Current Opinion in
Rheumatology, doi: 10.1097/BOR.0000000000000922
17- González, Ms., Ashwathy, Narayanan., Chengappa, Kavadichanda., Molly,
Mary, Thabah., S., Sarkar., Prakash, Babu, Narasimhan. (2023). Ab0658
prevalence and association of autoantibodies with latent tuberculosis in first-
degree relatives of patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Annals of the
Rheumatic Diseases, doi: 10.1136/annrheumdis-2023-eular.5936

18- Sumaiya, Khatun., Humayun, Sattar., Shafinaz, Khan., Fatima, Tuj, Johora.
(2023). HLA-DR Association of Anti-dsDNA and Anti-Sm Autoantibodies in
Bangladeshi Patients with Systemic Lupus Erythematosus. Bangladesh Medical
Research Council Bulletin, doi: 10.3329/bmrcb.v48i2.62300

19- (2023) The Usefulness of Thyroid Antibodies in the Diagnostic Approach to

Autoimmune Thyroid Disease. doi: 10.20944/preprints202306.1623.v1

20- T.V., Sorokman., M.G., Gingulyak., O.V., Makarova. (2021). Antithyroid

autoantibodies in extrathyroid autoimmune diseases. doi: 10.22141/2224-
0721.17.3.2021.232653

21- Gulnara, Dashdamirova., R.A., Rahimova., Samira, Baghirova., Ulviya,

Azizova. (2022). Pathogenic Mechanisms of Autoimmune Thyroid Disease.
International journal of medical science and health research, doi:
10.51505/ijmshr.2022.6203

22- Safaa, A., Hussein., Howaida, E., Mansour., Mohammed, Salah, Hussein.,
Ayat, Sami, Mohamed, Abdel, Aziz., Nermeen, Noshy, Aziz. (2020). Thyroid
Autoantibodies in Egyptian Patients with Autoimmune Rheumatic Diseases:
Relation to Disease Activity and Functional Impairment. The Egyptian Journal
of Hospital Medicine, doi: 10.21608/EJHM.2020.103659

23- S., Savino., Bizzaro, Nicola., Meroni, Pier, Luigi., Mo, Borghi., Claudia,
Grossi., David, Tornai., Mária, Papp., Yehuda, Shoenfeld., Daniele, Ielo.,
Marvin, J., Fritzler. (2023). Autoantibodies testing in autoimmunity: Diagnostic,
prognostic and classification value.. Autoimmunity Reviews, doi:
10.1016/j.autrev.2023.103356
24- Ruozhu, Yang., Yi, Han., Wenjun, Yi., Qian, Long. (2022). Autoantibodies
as biomarkers for breast cancer diagnosis and prognosis. Frontiers in
Immunology, doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.1035402

25- (2023) Data from p53 Autoantibodies as Potential Detection and Prognostic
Biomarkers in Serous Ovarian Cancer. doi: 10.1158/1055-9965.c.6514834.v1

26- Jörg, Klewer. (2023). Data from p53 Autoantibodies as Potential Detection
and Prognostic Biomarkers in Serous Ovarian Cancer. doi: 10.1158/1055-
9965.c.6514834

27- (2022) Autoantibodies as Diagnostic Biomarkers for Lung Cancer. Pak-

Euro journal of medical and life sciences, doi: 10.31580/pjmls.v5i3.2738

28- Sanogo, Ousmane. (2023). Autoantibody profiling in autoimmune

rheumatic diseases: How research may translate into clinical practice. doi:
10.1016/b978-0-323-85831-1.00008-5

29- (2023). Prostate cancer autoantibodies - applications in diagnosis,

prognosis, monitoring disease progression and immunotherapy..

30- Cassandra, DeMarshall., Jeffrey, Viviano., Sheina, Emrani., George, A.,

Godsey., Abhirup, Sarkar., Benjamin, A., Belinka., David, J., Libon., Robert,
G., Nagele. (2022). Preclinical Detection and Monitoring of Alzheimer’s
Disease Using a Multi‐Disease Diagnostic Platform Employing Autoantibodies
as Blood‐based Biomarkers. doi: 10.1002/alz.066955
31- (2022). Autoantibodies in autoimmune rheumatic disease. Medicine, doi:
10.1016/j.mpmed.2021.10.002

32- Vladimir, Tesar., Zdenka, Hruskova. (2021). Autoantibodies in the

Diagnosis, Monitoring, and Treatment of Membranous Nephropathy.. Frontiers
in Immunology, doi: 10.3389/FIMMU.2021.593288