Brown Boveri

Review

April 1974, Volume 61 Baden/Switzerland

filifg

BROWN BOVERI 163 742.C

 Brown Boveri
Review

April 1974, Volume 61 Baden/Switzerland p. 121-188

The Brown Boveri Review appears monthly Page

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without the express permission of the publisher
Published by BBC Brown, Boveri & Company, Limited,
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Obtainable direct from the publisher
Cover:
Assembling the quenching Chamber for an SF 6 circuit-
breaker type ECK rated 300 kV, 1600 A and with a break-
ing capacity of 31-5 kA for the Solhom plant in Norway
Contents
J. Urbanek:
Stresses in High-Voltage Circuit-Breakers
When Interrupting Currents 124
IV. Hermann, R. Horst, K. Ragaller and M. Sanders:
Interaction Between an Electric Arc and the
Flow of Gaseous Quenching Medium 130
N.Cuk, G.Köppl and H.Schubert:
DLF Airblast Circuit-Breakers,
Continued Development Yields Results 135

A. Krenicky, U. Schmitz and G. Sonderegger:

Arcing Faults in SF 6 Insulated Metalclad
H.V. Switchgear 143

G. Mauthe, W. Bischof berger,

K. D. Schmidt and A. Ueber:
Type ELK Circuit-Breakers for Metal-Enclosed
SF 6 Insulated Switchgear Installations 152

A. Eidinger and C. D. Flösse!:

SF 6 Compressed Gas Insulated Cables
for Extra High Power Transmission 167

P. Larsson and R. Wehrli:

Switching Capacitive Currents with
Minimum-Oil Circuit-Breakers 174

U. Burger:
Overvoltage Protection for Totally Enclosed
SF 6 Switchgear and CGI Cables 179

Brown Boveri Rev. 4 - 7 4 1

Stresses in High-Voltage Circuit-Breakers
When Interrupting Currents
J. Urbanek
It is proposed that the electrical circuits are described by
force, form and quality factors for calculating the inter-
ruption response of high-voltage circuit-breakers. These new
expressions have not been commonly used before in this
connection. A discussion along similar lines about a new
arc theory which describes the thermal and dielectric re-
striking by means of counter-forces and a further form
factor leads to the expression for a vectorial breaker stress.
This permits the breaking capacity for a short-circuit at the
terminals to be calculated on a general basis according to
IEC recommendations. The contribution concludes with a
review of the IEC test requirements, the initial curve of the
transient recovery voltage and breaker developments.
Introduction
]n general, only the rating is known of a breaker in an
electrical circuit. It is also known that the limiting data of
the breaker are higher, and the corresponding data of the
network lower, than the ratings. This is, of course, per-
fectly adequate for practical purposes.
However, in many cases it would be useful to know the
magnitude of the stresses involved. The question is, how
difficult is it for various breakers to interrupt the current
at various points in the network?
Methods of answering such questions are dealt with in
the following.
The Electrical N e t w o r k
Let us begin with a very important Statement. There are
no two points in the network which are truly identical.
There is therefore an enormous volume of information
available. As always, we can gain knowledge only by
reducing the volume of information, i.e. by compacting
124
the data. In special cases we are assisted in this by the
relevant Standard, e.g. publication 56 of IEC [6],
As the Standards must be applicable for any given network
they are necessarily idealized to a large extent. Conse-
quently, the Standards do not in fact correspond to a real
electrical network. If we need an electrical network for
investigation or calculation purposes we must attempt to
approximate the Standards, even if this means diverging
from real network configurations.
A second important point must be noted here. Special
attention must be paid to the fact that the individual
effects are considered according to their order of priority
so that the order of the approximation can be selected.
Forces
Let us consider the forces as those characteristic values of
the network which we believe will impede the switching
operation. The correctness of our choice is confirmed by
working back. First of all we must consider the rated
voltage of the network. However, as we cannot dehne an
electrical network with this alone let us take the rated
breaking current as the second determining factor. But no
proper physical breaking operation can take place in a
circuit of this nature; we require a further value, e.g. the
frequency of the restriking voltage. We have now deter-
mined the three dimensions, voltage, current and time,
in which the electrical phenomena take place. As is the
case in IEC recommendations we consider only the first
phase to clear of a three-phase system and instead of the
rated voltage we take the peak value of the transient re-
covery voltage « c as a reference value and instead of the
oscillating frequency we take a tangent from the neutral
point to the transient recovery voltage u' = Uc/t3. For the
sake of simplicity we will restrict ourselves to the two-
parameter method [6]. In order to become independent of
the asymmetry of the current we will refer to the gradient
of the current at zero transition /„'.
The forces are therefore: uc, «', /„' (1)
At the same time these dehne the scalar factors
/o «c Wc
= P-VL = Uc, fit = — = 13 (2)
u u
There is only one Standard circuit (Fig. I a) from which
all circuits clearly dehned by the forces (1) can be derived
by multiplication with the scalar factors (2). This circuit is
referred to as the circuit of the third order after the number
of its variables. All Standard numerical values are given
in line a of the Table.
The forces (1) can also be represented as the components
of a three-dimensional vector K. All imaginable circuits of
third order thus fill an octant of a sphere having a volume
of oo3. The position of any given electrical circuit is shown
by the defined polar vector K.
Brown Boveri Rev. 4-74
Fig. 1 - Switching arrangements for terminal short-circuits
a: Simplest arrangement
b and c: Theoretical arrangements for fulfilling the IEC requirements [6]
d: Equivalent circuit of test arrangement

Form Factors In the case of the form factors we cannot immediately

We have used the circuits of third order which are accu- determine whether these have a detrimental effect on the
rately defined by the three forces merely to illustrate the switching operation as we can with the forces. Conse-
train of thought. In point of fact the circuits have consider- quently it is best to keep the form factors constant over
ably more variables. We can standardize these additional the whole ränge provided that this is acceptable in prac-
variables with the scalar factors and refer to them as form tice.
factors. IEC also take into account the peak value of the IEC use k = 1-4 and d1 = 0-02/1-4 = 0-0143 (1-43 %)
power frequency recovery voltage and the time delay or ö 2 = 0-15/1-4 = 0-107 (10-7%) (5)
ta- We standardize these two values with the scalar factors
(2) and thus obtain two form factors: The larger value is permissible even if the short-line fault
is tested. The values apply for rated voltages above 100 kV
Peak factor1 k = — . fxu = — and (3) and the two-parameter method.
l/j «J IEC therefore require a circuit of the fifth order because
it introduces two form factors. Unfortunately a circuit of
Delay factor <5 = taj/xt ta/t3 = ta u'/uc (4)
the fifth order is not fully determined by these two form
factors alone. These values can be adjusted in various
1 ways, simply by a given ratio of parallel to series damping
Peak value of transient recovery voltage referred to the peak value of
the power frequency recovery voltage. or, by series damping with an additional capacitance (b

Electrical circuits for terminal faults

Order of ap- Components Internal circuit components Form factors Quality factors
proximation
N C R L Ci Ri k (5 Je o er

a 3 0-2625 0 0-5 0 oo 2 0-1382 2 oo

b 5 0-3803 0-8445 0-7143 0 20-44 1-4 0-0143 1-9 oo
c 5 0-4539 0-936 0-7143 •0121 oo 1-4 0-0143 2 5-57
d 6 0-2345 0-9885 0-7143 •0484 6-862 1-4 0-0595 1-7 2

The data for all terminal short-circuit loops having the From the scalar factors for current, voltage and time we
same form and quality factors can be calculated by multi- can calculate the multiplication factors for the Standard
plication with the scalar factors: [Xi = /'„' t3, fxu — Uc, values in the Table in the normal fashion: /uc = [Xil[xt![xu\
fit = t3, where /„' = rate of rise of inherent current on /MR = [Xu/VU [XL = [Xu [Xt/fXi.
zero transition.
iic, u c /t3 = peak value and rate of rise of recovery voltage
according to IEC [6] respectively.

Brown Boveri Rev. 4-74 15


10
1,7
1,5 1,6 1,8
Fig. 2 - Delay factor Ö (ta/t3 according to I E C [6]) in relation to the quality
factors k0 and for a peak factor k = I -4
and c in the Table and Fig. 1). The infinite variety of
possibilities with more than two additional components for
the elements in the circuits of third order must be eli-
minated because we are to restrict ourselves to a circuit
of the fifth order.
This is further complicated by the fact that any real
physical circuit is at least of the fourth order even without
the two necessary variables for adjusting the peak factor
and the delay factor. This is demonstrated by the fact that
by its very nature it has a damping effect and a finite
rate of rise of recovery voltage.
Consequently we must introduce a further two internal
form factors: The rate of rise factor
where the rate of rise of recovery voltage without addi-
tional capacitors is w0' and the internal peak factor
ko = — (7)
126
We can obtain the latter if we do not introduce any ex-
ternal damping and measure the peak value of the re-
covery voltage «co- In a theoretically ideal circuit we
would have a — oo and k0 = 2. In actual fact we will have
to reckon with values of a = 2 and k0 = 1-8 in direct
testing. Both factors can be considered as quality factors
in the plant concerned. With these quality factors the
circuit now has six variables because the delay factor is
a dependent characteristic value (of a and k0). This
circuit of the sixth order is the first useful approximation
for the terminal short circuit and all associated switching
conditions, i.e. those with a small power factor and no
line.
With a further two form factors we could include the
short-line fault but that would excede the scope of this
report.
As illustrated by the diagram of the delay factor (Fig. 2)
the value required by IECCTx= 1 -43 % can be theoretically
obtained with a high-quality test installation. However,
the high quality factor required will certainly not be
obtained with a direct test method. The delay factor a 2 =
10-7% (also permissible for testing short-line faults) can
always be attained.
Line d in the Table shows the values for the minimum
delay factor which may be attained by direct testing, i.e.
er = 6%. Figure 3 shows the unaffected transient recovery
voltage for this circuit.
It should also be noted that the scalar factors (2) permit
the value for any given circuit with the same form factors
to be projected from the given Standard values.
The Breaker
For the purposes of this report we can consider the breaker
as a two-terminal electrical network. We can disregard all
other physical phenomena, be they of thermodynamic,
1,9 2,0
200087.1
hydrodynamic, optical or magnetic nature. These play a
very significant role in breaker development.
We therefore require a method of calculation which will
enable us to calculate the current and voltage in relation
to time. This method shall describe all forms of restriking
with as few variables as possible. Mathematical expres-
sions for thermal restriking have been known for a long
time, be they as a result of a change in cross section of the
arc [1], due to a change in temperature of the arc [2] or
if they take the electrical field into account [3]. A later
method of calculation also contains dielectric restriking
in addition to all three previously known mechanisms [4],
And, as it also does all this with only four variables it is
eminently suitable for our purposes.
In differential form it is:
dg Po u \ 2
„ # d«
2
1 - — I u — /&
— 2 —
(8)
dt e
Md / Ha2 dt.
The funetion g is a measure of the temperature of the arc,
positive values also indicate the conductivity of the arc
(6)
while negative ones show that the conductivity is equal to
zero. The breaker constants e and P„ describe the arc
characteristic (e = minimum voltage, P0 = minimum arc
power).
The breaker constant iia indicates the breakdown voltage
of the cold arc Channel. Finally, the breaker constant is a
Brown Boveri Rev. 4 - 7 4
rieasure of the rapidity with which the conductivity of the 100

\
/ / — s
irc can decay.
%

The Counter-Forces
kVe can develop scalar factors for the breaker in exactly
he same manner as we did for standardizing the electrical
90

80
\
»1
;ircuits. Firstly, let us introduce the expression for the
;ounter-forces:
70
1
ud Po ua
(9)
60

.vhere we have selected the values for voltage, rate of rise /

}f voltage and rate of rise of current as we did in (1). 50

Ii
/
We can now derive scalar factors in similar fashion to (2).
40

Breaker Form Factor

'3
30
\ s we have given our breaker four variables we must now
ietermine a breaker form factor.
20

(10)

1
E =
U <j 10

100 150 200 250 300 %

Of course, we could have defined the counter-forces (9) by 200088.1

multiplying with any function of e. This would have
:hanged the form but not the content of the further
results.
We can also imagine that the breaker form factor remains
;onstant and a parameter in the same manner as the cir-
cuit form factors. We have good reason to believe that
this will prove to be of significant material value for the
quenching medium.
Stresses at t h e Breaker
We can standardize the forces in the circuit and the
:ounter-forces at the breaker. The ratio of the corres-
ponding scalar factors would then give us the transforma-
tion multiplication factors between the circuit and breaker
values.
We obtain the same factors also if we apply one of the
two scalar systems to the other system. The relationship
between the corresponding forces and counter-forces then
Dccurs in the new system. If the form factors are kept
konstant these relationships represent the three variables
of the coupled system. In the following we refer to the
ratio of the forces (1) and the counter-forces (9) as the
breaker stress:
Fig. 3 - Unaffected recovery voltage u of a terminal short-circuit (Fig. 1
with the data according to the Table, line d) in relation to time t. The
definition of l 3 , td, «c and u 1 is according to two-parameter test according
to I E C [6],
counter-forces (9), e.g. ua = 200 kV, ua/& = 200 kV/[j.s
P . e2
ua •&
500 A/s that we can calculate the stress
Su = 0-5, S u ' = 0 005, Si 4 • 104
Once we have solved the general problem of the terminal
short circuit on a numerical basis, as will be discussed in
the following, we can immediately see from Fig. 4 whether
this stress is permissible.
Introducing the expression for breaker stress considerably
improves the calculation of the breaking capacity. As we
have shown the general problem of the terminal short
circuit has a volume of oo 10 . With the aid of the breaker
stress concept we can reduce this volume to oo3 or oo4 if
the breaker form factor is to be analysed. The problem of
the terminal short circuit can be solved with a desk top
Computer in two weeks (Fig. 4) but without our concept for
breaker stress it would take 40000 years to solve with the
same information.

W c u e
e _ c ' _ ' <J c - _ '»' "d '
(11)
&
Ju — > — Oi — — An Example
ud ua P0
We can consider the breaker stress as a polar vector with The complete terminal short-circuit problem is shown
the components voltage stress Su, stress due to rate of rise graphically in Fig. 4 (see also line d in the Table and
5 U ' and current stress Si'. The stress condition is fully Fig. 1 d and 3). The breaking capacity is represented by
defined by quoting these three stress components and the an area in the region of the breaker stresses according to
constant form factors. (11). Stresses within this area are permissible; outside
Describing a circuit by the forces (1), e.g. uc = 100 kV, this area they lead to breaker failure. Approximately 1000
u' = 1 kV/jjis, i' = 20/(xs gives no indication of the stress points were calculated for Fig. 4. Each point was the
imposed on the breaker by the circuit. ft is not until we result of an alternating series of quenching and restriking,
know that this circuit is confronted by a breaker with the of either thermal or dielectric nature, where the faults

Brown Boveri Rev. 4 - 7 4 1


were smaller than ±2%. For aesthetic reasons, instead of
using Su and Si their logarithms were entered with a
suitable displacement of the neutral point. Figure 4 shows
three types of stress which characteristically limit the
breaking capacity. These ranges are referred to as:
the voltage limit,
the maximum rate of rise, and
the current limit.
The Voltage Limit
If the voltage limit Su is greater than 0-99 it restricts the
breaking capacity. As the voltage stress increases the
permissible current stress SV reduces extremely rapidly.
Where Su = 1 we have SV = 0. This can be immediately
understood if we refer back to the definition of Su (11).
Where Su = 1, i.e. « c = «d, this means that the peak
value of the inherent transient recovery voltage uc is
sufficient to break across the arc Channel which has cooled
down in the mean time and which has a dielectric strength
of Wd- If the current Si is greater than zero, the arc Channel
would still be warm at the instant the peak value uc
occurs. Because of the low density the Channel would
break down at a lower voltage than wa-
However, the Channel has more time to cool if the stress
due to the rate of voltage rise Ou ' is smaller. It is therefore
understandable that the permissible current stress rises
rapidly as soon as the voltage stress drops only slightly
below 1.
The Maximum Rate of Rise
In the medium ränge where 01 < Su < 0-95 the voltage
stress plays a very subordinate role. The permissible cur-
rent stress Si' is inversely proportional to the stress due
to the rate of rise IJU '. Our tests were generally carried out
in this ränge. We should not be too surprised that, in this
ränge, the total stress increases as the voltage stress drops,
128
Fig. 4 - Breaking capacity under terminal
short-circuit conditions in relation to the three
stresses Sa, SV, Si
F o r m factors according to IEC [6] or the Table,
line d.
Breaker form factor e = 0-01.
the morc rapidly the smaller the stress due to the rate of
rise. This merely indicates that the frequency of the re-
covery voltage has a stronger influence than its amplitude;
the rate of rise of voltage is proportional to both.
The Current Limit
In the lower ränge where 5 U < 0-1 the voltage stress re-
gains its importance. We cannot identify any influence by
the stress due to the rate of rise 5 U '. In this ränge the dura-
tion of the stress, which is proportional to Su/S u IS SO
short that the arc integrates over it. Consequently the
stress becomes proportional to the integral over the re-
covery voltage, i.e. approximately proportional to Su2/Su'.
The permissible current stress would therefore exceed all
limits with reducing voltage stress. However, nozzle
blockage then occurs. This is not considered in our arc
theory. We can take it into account by intersecting the
limiting surface at a given critical value for current stress
[5],
Figure 4 shows clearly how the maximum rate of rise
overlaps the current limit. This is of great significance in
practice. The curve of the initial transient recovery voltage
is characterized by its particularly high rate of rise but low
peak value. Figure 4 also gives us a clear value for the
voltage below which we can ignore such phenomena
(S u >0-1).
Deciphering t h e Stress
Using the stress has made it possible for us to calculate
the whole problem in concrete figures. However, what is
the Situation for the individual case? We must differentiate
between two questions. First we have a concrete circuit
given by the forces (1). In addition to this Fig. 4 shows
the multiplicity of all breakers which just manage to
qualify for these requirements.
Brown Boveri Rev. 4-74
The second question is far the more common. We have a
breaker and wish to know its breaking capacity. We can
find this from Fig. 4 in relation to the forces (1). However,
as IEC calculate with only one rate of rise, i.e. 1 kV/jxs, for
all rated voltages above 100 kV, the complete ränge of
application of the breaker is shown by one of the curves
in Fig. 4 or an interpolated curve. The counter-forces
which characterize the breaker act merely as scalar factors
for the axes of the diagram [4].
How can we determine the counter-forces for a given
breaker? The answer can be dealt with only in general
terms here.
There are three alternative methods:
- detailed physical analysis
- post-arc current measurement
- known values of the breaking capacity.
Regarding unit testing we need merely multiply the
counter-forces u<\ and ua/& of an element by the number
of elements involved and, if necessary, divide by a factor
which takes the voltage distribution into account. This
reduces the voltage stress and the stress due to rate of
rise of voltage in proportion to the number of quenching
Chambers. The current stress remains unaltered. Figure 4
shows the breaking capacity of each ränge of models built
up from elements provided that we know the numerical
values of the three counter-forces which characterize the
element.
We now have a reliable process to hand which permits
progressive development of a ränge of breakers according
to a given plan and on an economical basis.
We can obtain initial approximate values for the four
breaker characteristics, i.e. three counter-forces and a
form factor, from physical investigations and from ex-
perience gained from earlier developments. Figure 4
enables a comparison to be made between the breaking
capacity of our draft design and our set objectives.
Values for a second approximation can be gained from
the initial experimental arrangement of the breaker. Here
again we can use Fig. 4 to check for agreement with our
set objective and make the necessary adjustments. Finally,
Fig. 4 also shows which stresses will be critical for our
ränge of breakers. We can check these points by breaking
capacity tests on a prototype. Again we can improve the
prototype accordingly. Thus, each time we improve the
accuracy with which we identify the counter-forces. We
repeat this process until we achieve a maximum of four
stress conditions where the necessary breaking capacity
is attained with the necessary margin of safety. We can
then produce a reliable and inexpensive circuit-breaker.
However, attention must be drawn to the fact that in
order to interrupt currents the breaker must satisfy many
other conditions which are beyond the scope of this
report.
One theory of thermal and dielectric restriking [4] permits
the breaker to be described with the aid of the concept
of counter-forces and form factors.
The breaker stress resulting from forces and counter-
forces enables the breaking capacity to be calculated on an
economical basis for any given circuits and breakers.
The general terminal short-circuit problem solved nu-
merically shows three clearly defined stress ranges. Of
particular importance from the practical point of view is
the fact that at low peak values of the recovery voltage,
even high rates of rise of voltage do not reduce the per-
missible current. This presents a clear criterion for when
the initial transient recovery voltage can be disregarded.
The concept presented here is a further contribution to
rationalization in breaker development.
Bibliography
[1] A.M. Cassie: Are rupture and circuit severity, a new
theory. CIGRE Report 1939, No. 102.
[2] O. Mayr: Beiträge zur Theorie des statischen und
dynamischen Lichtbogens. Arch. Elektrotech. 37 (1943)
588-608.
[3] W. Rieder, J. Urbanek: New aspects of current zero
research on circuit-breaker reignition. A theory of thermal
non-equilibrium arc conditions. CIGRE Report 1966,
No. 107.
[4] J. Urbanek: Zur Berechnung des Schaltverhaltens von
Leistungsschaltern, eine erweiterte Mayr-Gleichung.
Elektrotech. Z. - A 93 1972 (7) 381-385.
[5] J. Pratl: Zum Problem der Grenzstromstärke des
Düsenschalters. Thesis, Vienna University of Technology
1968.
[6] High-voltage alternating-current circuit-breakers.
Part 2. Rating. Part 4. Type tests and routine tests. IEC
central office, Geneva, publication No. 56, 1971.

Conclusions

Electrical circuits can be described to advantage with the

aid of the concept of the force, form and quality factors.
It is shown, however, that real circuits are not fully de-
termined by the IEC recommendations [6]. At the same
time these Standards cannot be complied with in all points
by direct test circuits, e.g. in relation to time delay.

Brown Boveri Rev. 4 - 7 4 1

Interaction Between an Electric Arc
and the Flow of Gaseous Quenching Medium
W. Hermann, R. Horst, K. Ragaller and M. Sanders
This contribution discusses the physical processes which
determine the interaction between the arc and the intense
axial flow of a gaseous quenching medium. Applying this
basic knowledge we can construct a theoretical model for
calculating the arc cross section and the field of flow of the interrelationship between the arc and the gas flow is
quenching medium in the nozzle zone, related to the arc
current, absolute pressure, differential pressure, nozzle puffer type breakers because here the movements of the
geometry and gas properties. These interrelated factors
supply important information for the design of the nozzle flow in the arc region are particularly closely related.
zone configuration, the inflow geometry and the drive of a Calculating the interrelationship between gas flow and
puffer type breaker or the gas reservoir of a two-pressure arc is therefore an important aid in designing the drive
breaker.
Introduction
The continued steady increase in the demands made of
high-voltage circuit-breakers has made it necessary to
employ any available aids in the development of new
arrangements and also in improving existing configura-
tions. This means that ever-increasing use is made of
basic physical knowledge about arc plasma to derive
theoretical statements about the behaviour of an arc in a
specific switching arrangement. The interrelationship
thus gained between the arc behaviour and various design
measures is of considerable assistance in designing an
Optimum breaker configuration. As an example for the
application of physical fundamentals, it is shown in this
contribution how the interaction between the arc and the
flow of quenching medium in gas circuit-breakers can be
derived theoretically and how the statements thus gained
can be applied in breaker development.
In the case of both airblast and SF 6 breakers the arc is
blasted by an intense longitudinal flow of gaseous quench-
ing medium. The object of this is twofold; it must prevent
damage to the break by the arc in the high-current phase
and reduce the conductive plasma column sufficiently
rapidly in the region of zero transition to prevent restriking
of the arc when the voltage recovers.
The shape and diameter of the arc are determined largely
by the gas flow. However, the arc greatly influences the
flow of quenching medium, i.e. in the case of nozzle
blockage it can virtually prevent gas flow entirely. There
is therefore a strong interaction between the arc and gas
flow and this can be the determining factor for the break-
ing capacity.
130
If the interrelationship between the arc behaviour and the
electrical values such as arc voltage and arc current are
known, we can treat the arc as a component of the elec-
trical circuit and, in similar fashion, the arc zone can be
dealt with as a part of the flow system in the breaker if the
known. This is of particular importance in the case of
drive, the pressure build-up and the quenching medium
and the flow geometry. This knowledge is also of con-
siderable assistance in laying out the gas reservoir and the
flow cross section of a two-pressure breaker.
The Arc in an Axial F l o w
of Quenching M e d i u m
In any breaker which opens under load an arc develops
between the separating contacts and this can cause de-
struction in the break zone. For this reason the arc is
cooled and stabilized by an intense gas flow along the arc.
Regardless of whether or not it is a double or Single nozzle
breaker or a metal or insulated nozzle breaker, the arc
burns along the axis of one or more nozzles (Fig. 1).
Through these nozzles the gas expands from a high-pres-
sure volume into an exhaust volume and attention is paid
that the pressure ratio is, if possible, supercritical so that
the quenching medium flow reaches supersonic speed
after the minimum nozzle diameter. The arc burning
along the nozzle axis between the contacts and also the
path of the gas flow in the contact zone is shown dia-
grammatically in Fig. 1 using a puffer type breaker
as an example. Without an arc the quenching gas is
accelerated corresponding to the applied pressure differ-
ence and also to the convergent/divergent shape of the
nozzle. If an arc is burning in the gas path the gas is also
accelerated within the arc. This gas enters the arc from
the surrounding quenching medium flow and is heated to
plasma temperature. As the gas density in the hot arc is
very small there is little flowing mass compared with the
mass flow outside the arc and this retains its original low
Fig. 1 - Diagram of a puffer type breaker
( V////7777777777T? u
I
200033.1 \ ^ —
Brown Boveri Rev. 4 - 7 4
temperature even in the nozzle. Consequently, the arc acts
as a solid obstacle which restricts the flow to the cross
section outside the arc. The quenching medium flow redu-
ces with increasing arc radius. If the arc cross section
reaches the diameter of the nozzle the gas flow is virtually
completely stopped and this is referred to as nozzle
blockage.
In the same manner as the arc strongly influences the gas
flow, the flow of quenching medium determines the cross
section of the arc. The pressure distribution in the cold
gas flow determines the acceleration of the gas within the
arc and thus also the quantity of gas entering the arc from
the cold gas flow. The temperature and radius of the arc
adjust themselves such that only that amount of energy
flows out across the arc periphery which is required to
raise the temperature of the gas which enters the arc.
Here the forms of energy transport from the arc core
towards the outside play an important part, be they
thermal conduction, radiation or, in certain nozzle zones,
turbulent mixing. These processes depend greatly on the
gas properties and gas pressure. Consequently, the tem-
perature and cross section of the arc for a given arc current
are determined by the gas properties, the absolute pressure
and the pressure drop in the quenching medium flow.
The interrelationships described here can be expressed in
the form of mathematical formulae. If these are suitably
transformed we can derive an expression for the relation-
ship between the arc diameter and arc current, the pressure
drop across a given distance, the gas pressure and also
of the gas properties such as electrical conductivity,
radiation, density and enthalpy. Examples are shown in
the following of how the relationships described here can
be used in the design of the contact zone, in laying out the
pressure reservoir and the drive of a puffer type breaker.
Application in Designing t h e C o n t a c t Zone
If the nozzle geometry is known for a given position of
the moving contacts and if the arc diameter is also known
one can determine the flow field of the cold gas region.
This is determined mainly by the existing pressure differ-
ence and by the Variation of the cross section areas be-
tween the nozzle wall and the arc. The flow field is de-
scribed by the curves of individual lines of flow. Important
information is also obtained by representing isobar areas,
i.e. the surfaces or lines of constant pressure, to which
the flow lines are perpendicular. By way of an example
Fig. 2 shows the flow field of a special type of nozzle. One
can see the insulating nozzle and the contours of the fixed
and moving contacts. An arc is burning along the axis
of the configuration and its diameter corresponds to a
given arc current. The lines of flow represent the path of
individual selected gas elements. The quenching gas flows
from top right in the nozzle zone. The pressure Variation
Brown Boveri Rev. 4-74
Fig. 2 - Quenching medium flow field in the nozzle region
A = Nozzle
B = Moving contact
C = Arc
D = Fixed contact
along the flow is derived from the Variation of the flow
cross sections. The isobar contours shown individually
are identified by numbers and the corresponding pressure
values can be calculated direct from them. In addition to
this we can derive the flow rates and time of travel cor-
responding to each isobar of an imaginary particle from
isobar 1 to the isobar under consideration. Theflow field
shown and the corresponding curves of temperature and
velocity alter with the arc diameter and with the position
of the moving contact.
From the flow pattern shown and the corresponding
numerical values a whole series of information can be
gained which can be used in designing an optimum nozzle
zone.
After the contacts have separated the arc generally burns
initially on one side between the contacts. From here it
must be brought rapidly into the axis by the gas flow. The
duration of this draw-in process depends greatly on the
speed distribution of the gas in the region of the root of
the arc. Those points at which the arc roots were located
after contact Separation were particularly highly stressed
during this process and are consequently polluted with
burnt material. This pollution must be removed by con-
centrated gas blast at the jeopardized zone. Part of the
burnt residue is dissipated to the surrounding gas and
part to the inlet Channel. With the aid of the operating
time it can be estimated how long it takes for these pollu-
tion particles to be carried from the various areas into
the particularly jeopardized zones.
The absolute pressure at the Stagnation point and the
pressure drop between the Stagnation point and nozzle
inlet, which can be read off from the flow pattern, deter-
mine the arc cross section corresponding to a specific arc
1
 X the moving contact coincide with the values used in the
l-J—-
•2
X 1 / \
h model. We can now use the theoretical curves for deriving
JLJx X/
X \
h
2 4 6 8 10 12 14
200035.1 , / m s
Fig. 3 - Variation of arc radius r with respect to time for various r.m.s.
current values / j and / 2
Comparison between experiment (crosses) and theory.
current. This permits the narrowest possible nozzle cross
section to be determined for a given maximum current.
The absolute pressure and pressure drop also determine
the velocity at which the conductive arc column can be
reduced in the region of zero transition, i.e. they influence
the response with respect to thermal restriking. The length
of the arc in the high-pressure section is an important
factor for dielectric response. This length also, across
which the pressure has not dropped appreciably from the
Stagnation point value, can be derived from the flow
pattern.
The instantaneousflow field determines the instantaneous
arc cross section. However, the arc diameter and its
Variation with the arc current and geometry have a strong
influence on the flow of quenching medium. In order to
clear up many questions it is important to know the
Variation of the arc cross section with respect to time for a
given curve of the arc current and the contact movement.
Figure 3 shows a comparison between a curve of arc cross
section with respect to time derived theoretically from the
interaction between arc and quenching medium flow and
values measured on a type ELK breaker. 1 The curve
along the time scale shows the arc radius for two different
r.m.s. current values. The Variation of arc radius with
respect to time is distorted from the sinusoidal current
curve because the radius depends on the nozzle zone
geometry which alters with the contact travel. The crosses
in the diagram represent values measured for the arc
cross section of an ELK breaker. The measurements were
carried out for a test case where the phase angle and
amplitude of the current curve and also the velocity of
1
G. Mauthe, W. Bischofbcrger, K.D. Schmidt, A. Ueber: Type ELK
circuit-breakers for metal-enclosed S F e insulated switchgear installations.
Brown Boveri Rev. 61 1974 (4) 152-166.
132
calculation. As can be seen, the theoretical curves coincide
well with the measured values for arc diameter. This
conhrms the quality and applicability of the theoretical
\
further information and apply them to other geometries or
\
Problems. The combination of measurement techniques
and theoretical models, as discussed here, has proved
itself in solving many problems in breaker development.
The theory or the discrepancy between truth and the
theoretically described ideal case is tested by measure-
16 18 ment. Consequently, the theory can be applied in investi-
gating many problems and questions which could other-
wise not be cleared up or, if so, only at great expense by a
series of tests.
Application in Designing
t h e I n f l o w G e o m e t r y at t h e Drive
The pressure drop in the reservoir of a two-pressure
breaker and also the pressure rise in the compression
volume of a puffer type breaker depend largely on the
mass of quenching medium which flows through the
nozzle geometry. This gas flow is necessary for cooling
the arc, restricting its diameter and quenching it rapidly
after zero transition.
The mass flux density in the arc is negligibly small com-
pared with the cold gas region. Consequently, only the
cross section of the cold gas flow is effective for the mass
flux. The arc therefore very strongly influences the mass
loss through the nozzle because its diameter, which varies
with the arc current, reduces the flow cross section of the
nozzle to a greater or lesser degree. The nozzle cross sec-
tion is normally designed so large that the arc is well
blasted even at maximum possible current. At these high
currents the mass flux through the nozzles is reduced to
very small values. At small currents, however, there is a
large cross section available for the gas flow and large
quantities of quenching gas are lost. These relationships
are illustrated in Fig. 4 which shows the mass flux through
the nozzle system corresponding to Fig. 2 for a given
pressure in the high-pressure volume in relation to the
arc current. As current increases, the arc reduces the nozzle
cross section and the mass flux reduces accordingly. The
knee in the curve corresponds to that current value at
which the arc just fills the nozzle cross section. The mass
flux at even higher currents is represented by the gas
flow through the hot arc. This is very small compared
with the mass flux through the nozzle without an arc. In
the case of the sinusoidal Variation of the arc current the
curve runs from left to right up to the maximum current
and back to the ordinate within a half wave. The total
quenching medium loss is derived by adding the instan-
taneous value of mass flux.
Brown Boveri Rev. 4 - 7 4
The significance of the knowledge of these interrelation-
ships for designing the pressure supply is shown in the
following using a puffer type breaker as an example.
The principle of this type of breaker is shown in Fig. 1.
The drive system sets the piston in motion and this re-
duces the volume on the high-pressure side, thus com-
pressing the quenching gas, in this case SF 6 . This com-
pression begins before the contacts separate so that at
the instant of contact Separation there is a necessary
pressure dilference between the two sides of the nozzle
zone. When the nozzle is opened by the moving contact
the pressure dilference results in the inception of an intense
gasflow from the compression volume through the nozzles
and blows the arc axially, thus cooling and stabilizing it.
Gas is lost from the compression volume due to this
quenching medium flow so that the pressure build up is
retarded for constant compression. Increase in pressure in
the compression volume therefore results from the balance
between the reduction in volume due to the piston on the
one side and due to the mass loss resulting from quenching —//'o
medium flow on the other side. The latter is, however, very
Fig. 4 - Quenching medium flow M through the nozzle system in relation
strongly influenced by the arc, as can be seen in Fig. 4. to the arc current I
Thus the arc cross section and its Variation affect the
pressure build up in the compression volume in that it
controls the gas flow by altering the free flow cross sec-
tion in the nozzle. On the other hand the arc cross section
is dependent not only on the arc current but also largely
on the absolute pressure and the pressure drop in the Fig. 5 - Curve of pressure with respect to time (p/t) in the compression
nozzle inlet region and therefore also depends on the volume of a puffer type breaker for various r.m.s. values of arc current
pressure in the compression volume. If the pressure in the I = Current
stroke volume is very high in comparison to the exhaust
pressure the arc diameter is relatively small and a great
deal of gas can flow out. However, if the pressure in the
stroke volume is relatively low the result is a larger arc
cross section and the mass outflow is further reduced.
Therefore the arc controls the pressure drop through the
mass outflow and the pressure generated affects the arc
through the flow of quenching medium. There is a further
relationship in that the acceleration of the piston and
therefore its velocity is determined by the counter-pressure
built up in the stroke.
The result is a strong connection between the effectiveness
of the drive and the behaviour of the arc in the nozzle
zone. For this reason the piston drive can be designed to
an optimum only if the relationships mentioned above
are known and can be calculated. The whole interrela-
tionship of the individual processes can be formulated
mathematically and calculated for specific configurations
if the relationship between quenching medium flow and
arc is known in a suitable form, e.g. as shown in Fig. 4.
One result of the pressure build up, taking into account
the interaction discussed above, is shown in Fig. 5. This
shows the pressure in the compression volume in relation
to time for various r.m.s. values of the arc current. After
the contacts separate the pressure rise is slower the smaller

Brown Boveri Rev. 4 - 7 4 1

the r.m.s. value of the current. The waviness of the pressure
curve which corresponds to the curve of current with
respect to time is obvious. Corresponding curves are the
starting point for optimizing the piston drive.

Conclusion

The interrelationships described and their applicability

to actual breaker problems represent a specific example
for the use of physical methods in breaker development.
Accordingly, similar and, in certain cases, more compre-
hensive problems can be tackled by deriving further
fundamentals which supply important information for
designing the breaker geometry and selecting the various
Parameters, and which also assist in finding the causes of
typical faulty behaviour. One example of this is calculating
the decay of the arc column in the region of zero transition
where we commence with the various effective physical
processes in order to determine the quenching or restriking
behaviour of the arc in relation to the gas properties, the
geometry and the pressure as well as the load values such
as r.m.s. current value and rate of rise of recovery voltage.
It is important for the Optimum application of such theo-
retical methods that they are repeatedly supplemented by
experimental Observation of the arc behaviour with the
aid of highly qualified measurement techniques. This
confirms the basis for the theoretical calculations or can
show up any deviation from the idealized model so that,
if necessary, the model can be modified accordingly.
The methods described were applied in the latest breaker
developments at Brown Boveri, especially in the develop-
ment of the SF e puffer system breaker type ELK. As a
result of the success attained these methods will be applied
as a matter of routine in the future.

134 Brown Boveri Rev. 4 - 7 4

DLF Airblast Circuit-Breakers,
Continued Development Yields Results
N. Cuk, G. Köppl and H. Schubert
Breakers of the DLF ränge have been in service in large
numbers for several years. Continued development has led
to higher ratings, a wider ränge of application and simpli-
fications in control, erection and commissioning.
Introduction
Brown Boveri airblast circuit-breakers, and particularly
the DLF ränge, have for years been a byword in their
special field. By the end of 1974, the total number of DLF
breaker groups delivered for voltage ratings from 72-5 to
765 kV will be more than 1800. These will include the first
of the DLFK constant-pressure breakers. This success is
the result of carefully planned, continued development of
DLFB DLF
20 kA 40kA 50 . . . 6 3 k A
'///'V''/',
Brown Boveri Rev. 4 - 7 4
the DLF concept. The need for higher breaking capacities
as supply networks continue their rapid expansion is only
one of many factors which have influenced this evolution.
Other features not covered by the current specifications,
such as resistance to earthquakes, or aspects which cannot
be standardized, such as erection time and maintenance,
have contributed greatly to the success of the DLF series.
These developments are reviewed in the present article.
The Series DLFB - DLF - DLFK
Description
The modular system of construction used for the series
DLFB - DLF - DLFK is based on three main compo-
nents:
- double interrupting Chamber with integral operating
mechanism,
- load-bearing insulator column with control rod,
- base assembly with control unit.
The Standard base assembly can take the form of an air
receiver which, when arranged vertically, does away with
the supporting steelwork required otherwise.
The breaker can, however, also be built with a connecting
housing. With this configuration it is possible to dispense
with the air tank when the breaking capacity is modest
(DLFB), add on a flange-mounted receiver when the
breaker is uprated (DLF), and then for very high breaking
capacities fit an assembly which keeps the pressure in the
interrupting Chamber constant during the opening process
(DLFK), Fig. 1 a, b and c.
Every model, whether DLFB, DLF or DLFK, for voltage
ratings from 72-5 to 1100 kV and breaking capacities
from 20 to 63 kA, is based on these components. All parts
of the breakers are interchangeable.
Fig. 1 - Airblast circuit-breaker type D L F 420
nc 4, mounted on connection housing
a: Breaker without tank, for low breaking
capacities
b: With flange-mounted tank, for medium
breaking capacities
c: Constant-pressure breaker, for very high
breaking capacities
DLFK
15
 The breaking capacity can be uprated either in the con-
ventional manner, or by Converting the breaker for con-
stant-pressure operation [1, 2],
Of the conventional possibilities:
- raising the operating pressure
- adding extra interrupting Chambers,
the latter deserves special attention. On the one hand, by
using a 4-chamber arrangement it has been possible for
the first time to build a 420 kV breaker with only one
insulator column per pole (Fig. 1). On the other hand,
Converting a 2 or 6-chamber breaker to one with 4 or 8
Chambers is simple: the extra space required is small and,
if properly planned, the conversion can be carried out
without altering the supporting structure (Fig. 2).
The interrupting Chambers of a pole are arranged in line
with the conductors on either side, giving a maximum width
per pole of only 1180 mm. This, together with a length of
only 4430 mm for a 420 kV breaker, for example, means
that installations can be extremely compact.

200017.1

Fig. 2 - Uprating by increasing the number of interrupting Chambers
from 2 to 4 or from 6 to 8
Inereased Interrupting-Chamber Capacity
In the early 'fifties, the breaking capacity of the inter-
rupting Chamber of an airblast circuit-breaker was 500
MVA. Today, the breaking capacity of a DLFK Chamber
is 4500 MVA (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3 - The rise in breaking capacity P of the interrupting Chambers of
Brown Boveri o u t d o o r airblast breakers since 1950
Principal Applications
Because of their breaking capacity, short opening time
and permissible number of switching cycles, airblast
circuit-breakers of the DLF ränge have for many years
been used particularly in stations at load centres and cri-
tical points in networks. An advantage of the airblast
breaker in such cases is that it can perform a large number
of Operations at short intervals and without derating,
as required in the event of consecutive faults, for example.
With the aid of suitable compressor plant, the DLF
breaker can also be employed economically in smaller
switching stations so that here, too, the merits of this kind
of breaker can be used to advantage. Airblast breakers
of this ränge prove their Performance every day in many
installations operating under widely varied conditions.

Special Applications

Traction System Breakers for 16 2 / 3 Hz

Breakers of type DLF 123 nc 2 have been supplied to a
110 kV traction system network with a rated frequency of
16V 3 Hz.
The required breaking capacity of 31-8 kA at 110 kV was
verified with both symmetrical and asymmetric currents,
using a synthetic test circuit. Even with a current half-
wave approximately three times longer than usual (at
50 Hz), six breaking Operations on the füll current of
31-8 kA were carried out faultlessly without changing the
contacts.

Reactor Breakers
r i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i
1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 Experience shows that trials in the test bay are not repre-
sentative of conditions in Service because the magnitude

136 Brown Boveri Rev. 4-74

of the overvoltages depends on many parameters which F
i g - 4 - Short-time current test on a
polc type D L F 123 nc 2
differ from one test circuit to another. The same is true of
circumstances in switching stations. All the common
circuit-breaking techniques employed today tend to inter-
rupt the current before its natural zero. If this, in conjunc-
tion with the circuit parameters, results in high over-
voltages, the best way of limiting them is to use a lightning
arrester.

Use in Testing Stations

In one test facility in Europe the magnitude of the short-
circuit current is regulated by reactors on the 220 kV h.v.
side. The recovery voltage following disconnection of
these reactors has a frequency of 16 kHz. Trials carried
out in this testing Station using a DLF breaker, which in
this case serves as a safety switch, were completed with-
out a hitch.

Bypass Switch for HVDC Systems

Because of their low contact wear and rapid commutation,
DLF breakers are used as bypass switches in HVDC
systems. In tests carried out at 2500 A d.c. the maximum
commutation time was 7 ms.

Test Results

Electrica1 Switching Tests

As mentioned earlier, a single interrupting Chamber of the
DLFK series can handle switching capacities of up to
4500 MVA. This is far greater than the direct test power
available in most high-power testing stations. One there-
fore had to turn to synthetic circuits even for testing the
switching capacity of a single component. As described in
an earlier article [3], test circuits of this kind in various
forms are used on a routine basis in the Baden testing
Station. To ensure the widest possible ränge of application
for DLF breakers, the most important international and
national specifications concerning ratification of breaking
capacity, such as IEC and ANSI 1 , have been taken into
account during the course of development.
Interesting tests with various types of the current DLF
ränge are discussed briefly below.

Tests with High Short-Circuit Current

Figure 4 shows the oscillogram of a short-time test with an
r.m.s. current of 63 kA (peak impulse current 160 kA) and
a duration of 3 seconds, performed on a two-chamber
pole. Owing to the ample contact force (spring and air-
operated) a test of this kind presents no problem for the
DLF breaker, either dynamically or thermally.
The result of a terminal short circuit with a CO cycle is g
illustrated in Fig. 5. This was carried out on a double §
interrupting Chamber DLFK 245 ne 4 with a breaking
current of 63 kA, using the superposed current method.
This current was interrupted six times with the same
double interrupting Chamber without replacing the con-
tacts.

1
IEC = International Electrotechnical Commission
ANSI = American National Standards Institute

Brown Boveri Rev. 4-74

a
200021.1
Tests with Elevated Breaking Capacity per Chamber
The breaker DLFK 362 pc 4 also has four interrupting
Chambers per pole on a Single column (Fig. 6). With a
rated breaking current of 56 kA this gives a capacity per
Chamber of roughly 4500 MVA, equivalent to a three-
phase rating of 35 GVA. Oscillograms of a corresponding
test have been shown in an earlier article ([1], Fig. 10).
Tests with Elevated Voltage per Chamber
With two interrupting Chambers per pole, the 245 kV
breaker is heavily stressed as regards the specific voltage
per Chamber.
Oscillograms of a DLF 245 nc 2 (150 kV per Chamber)
opening under phase Opposition conditions have been
published elsewhere ([4], Fig. 5).
As an example of testing this breaker under short-line
fault conditions, Fig. 7 shows an oscillogram on opening
138
Fig. 5 - Terminal short-circuit test, cycle CO. Synthetic test with super-
posed voltage on a double interrupting Chamber of a breaker type D L F K
245 nc 4
a: Magnetic-type oscillogram
«T = Voltage in high-current circuit
/'s = Current across breaker
b: CR oscillogram of recovery voltage
with 75 % of the rated breaking current, referred to 15 GVA
at 245 kV.
All airblast breakers of the DLF ränge are ideally suited
for switching capacitive currents. On the one hand, switch-
ing in sections of capacitor banks, for example, with high
transient currents is quite straightforward, while on the
other, disconnecting similarly presents no difficulties since
the flow of quenching medium is independent of current
and ensures a rapid rise in the dielectric strength of the
contact gap, without the need for any assistance. For a
breaker of this kind which can handle phase Opposition,
interrupting capacitive currents in general presents no
problem because the recovery voltage in the former case
attains at least the same value, but in a much shorter
time.
Interruption of a capacitive current of 400 A with one
Chamber of the DLFK 362 pc 4 is illustrated in Fig. 8.
Brown Boveri Rev. 4-74
The use of low-loss transformer sheet has eliminated the
possible danger of disconnecting open-circuited trans-
formers. Modern transformers have no-load currents of
less than 0-5 % of their rated continuous current. Even if
such currents are interrupted under the least favourable
conditions, the resulting overvoltages are still insignificant.

Mechanical Tests
The question of reliability has always received the closest
attention. Design, development, manufacture and quality
control are especially aimed towards this objective.
Of the mechanical tests, particular mention should be
made of the long-term tests carried out to date. Since the
development programme began, nine breaker poles have
each undergone between 10000 and 15000 CO Operations.
These tests have included two and four-chamber assem-
blies, together with their control cubicles; the compo-
nents used are partly picked out at random from the
production line. The pressure for the tests is varied in
steps between 20 and 35 bar. Two of the nine breaker
poles under long-term test are constant-pressure breakers.
These tests are part of the programme of development and
improvement, and at the same time provide a means of
continuous quality control.
Earthquake tests occupy a special place as regards the
stresses applied to a circuit-breaker. While it is true that
at present there is no test procedure which is accepted
generally and internationally, test methods nevertheless
do exist that are equivalent to, or more severe than,
exposure to an earthquake. The most exacting test of
this kind is the shaking table method, whereby the test
object on the table slowly passes through the frequency
ränge close to its natural frequency.
A problem with the shaking table method is to find a test
facility able to accommodate a test specimen as tall as an
outdoor circuit-breaker. One such facility is the Istituto BROWN BOVERI 161259.1

Sperimentale Modelli e Strutture (ISMES) in Bergamo. Fig. 6 - Pole of a D L F K airblast breaker for 362 kV, / a = 56 kA,
Here, using all the height available, a DLF breaker for /„ = 3150 A

362 kV was successfully tested within the resonance ränge

from 0 to 10 Hz with an acceleration of 0-3 g. The natural
frequency of the breaker is 2-5 Hz, while the amplitude of
the table movements was 1-2 cm. The breaker was fitted
with earthquake isolators. It is noteworthy that the breaker
withstood several tests at these conditions without being
damaged. To the best of our knowledge, no other outdoor
circuit-breaker for this voltage rating has successfully
undergone such severe testing. The test will be described
in detail at a later date.
Dielectric Tests
The values for impulse voltage, switching voltage and
power-frequency withstand voltage specified by IEC and
ANSI for 50 and 60 Hz have been proved experimentally
for the entire DLF ränge. One test which goes beyond
these requirement is the biased voltage test.
This test can be illustrated by the results for a DLF
breaker with six interrupting Chambers (rated voltage
550 kV). The power-frequency voltage applied to one side
of the breaker pole was 450 kV (peak), thus corresponding
550 kV n/_
to a service voltage of — — X |/2 = 450 kV.
At the instant of the peak of the power-frequency voltage,
a switching voltage (150/2500 jxs) with a peak value of
1250 kV and opposite polarity was fed to the other side.
In this manner the breaker pole withstood 20 positive
and 20 negative impulses in the dry condition, and 20

Brown Boveri Rev. 4 - 7 4 1

 Fig. 7 - Short-line fault test. Synthetic test with
superposed current on an interrupting Chamber
of a breaker type D L F K 245 nc 2
a : Magnetic-type oscillogram
«T = Voltage in high-current circuit
I'T Current in high-current circuit
Ii = Current in high-voltage circuit
is Current across breaker
b: C R oscillogram
(Voltage and current uninfluenced by
breaker, measured with reduced current
injection)
u Prospective recovery voltage across
breaker (50 V/square)
i lnjected current (540 mA/square)
Time scale: 10 [is/square

: which is an electromechanical/pneumatic system has been

r r replaced in the new version by a single electropneumatic
valve connected to an auxiliary switch (Fig. 9 b). Simul-
jjjjj jjjjj jjjH m m m n taneous operation of the poles is now monitored by elec-
ü • (
trical means, eliminating the compressed air piping needed
jj^ previously. Major improvements have also been made to
the control cubicle. Mounting the control cubicle direct
fijj V / on a pole of the breaker does away with the lines between
MI am k m HRhs., • HM
• one pole and the cubicle (Fig. 10).
•Kl - jlHÜ This control system has been under trial for a year on
I g ,

m
•••• • •• •
several breakers, and so far has fully come up to expecta-
tions. The total effect is to reduce the number of com-

• ponents, increase reliability, make erection easier and

positive impulses when wet (IEC Standard rain, i.e. 1-5
mm/min) without flashing over. (Negative polarity in the
wet condition is, of course, no problem with arrangements
of this kind.) It should be noted that the same value of
1250 kV across the open pole is required for the switching-
voltage test alone.
R e f i n e m e n t s in Design
General advances in technology and scientific research
can also lead to improvements and simplifications in the
field of circuit-breaker design. Raising the breaking
capacity per Chamber (Fig. 3) is a clear example of this.
But apart from these obvious advances, the designer must
continually be on the look-out for improvements in less
spectacular areas. Control systems, operating mechan-
isms, connections, auxiliary switches, etc. are after all the
parts of a circuit-breaker which determine its reliability.
The aim of design refinements is thus principally to find
a simpler answer to an existing problem, which is then
reflected in greater dependability and/or reduced expen-
diture for manufacture, erection, commissioning or oper-
ation.
One such simpler answer was found for the control gear
of the DLF breaker. The former control unit (Fig. 9a),
quicker, and simplify maintenance. The previous control
system and the new system are, of course, interchangeable.
The new control system is used both for breakers with a
structural air tank or with no tank, for constant-pressure
breakers and also for those with the tank flange-mounted
on the side.
The control-rod locking system described in an earlier
article [5], has been made even simpler. The purpose of
locking the control rod is to be able to operate the breaker
control system, including auxiliary switches, position
indicators, and so on, without having to open the main
breaker contacts. This is useful when commissioning the
breaker in order to check the control gear and particularly
for setting up the network protection equipment, which
often requires a large number of switching Operations.
The advantages are no unnecessary wear, no consumption
of air, no waiting, and no operation noise. For breakers
of the form shown in Fig. 2 it is now no longer necessary
to vent the compressed air from the breaker in order to fit
the rod locking system. With the breaker in the closed
position, a screw plug is removed and a sealing peg is
inserted into a hole. The control-rod operating mechanism
is thus rendered inoperative and test tripping of the pro-
tection system can then be carried out with simulated
operation of the breaker, while the main contacts remain
closed.
From experience gained over a period of five years we are
now able to introduce flexible piping for the compressed
air, instead of copper tube. Flexible piping for 26 bar has
been in fault-free service in switchgear installations since
1969. Unlike copper pipes, flexible piping needs no cable
duct; the piping can be buried direct in a gravel bed.

140 Brown Boveri Rev. 4 7 4

Fig. 8 - Interruption of a capacitive current with
one Chamber of a breaker type D L F K 362 pc 4
a : Magnetic-type oscillogram
uN = Voltage on supply side
i„ Current across breaker
b: CR oscillogram
uc = Voltage of capacitor bank
i/s = Voltage across breaker
HN Voltage on supply side

a 200024.

1 I Ii M M ii ii ii y y i ii i i i i i i II II
M
lms

"s

" H Ü
VA*

Moreover, laying and Atting is much simpler and faster
than with copper pipes. Flexible piping suitable for pri-
mary pressures from 150 to 200 bar is now obtainable.
Longer M a i n t e n a n c e Intervals
It is a tradition of Brown Boveri airblast breakers that
the amount of maintenance required is extremely small.
DCF breakers which had been in trouble-free service for
10 to 15 years without being overhauled, for instance, still
showed no defects or excessive wear when they were
eventually inspected. The experience gained with earlier
breaker types regarding maintenance has been applied to
the DLF ränge. This, together with successfully withstood
severe long-term tests, has allowed us to set the interval
between inspections at 10 years or 5000 normal Operations.
Maintenance has been made considerably simpler by the
fact that when the time for an overhaul arrives, initially
the condition of only one interrupting Chamber and one
control unit is checked [6]. In most cases the result of this
inspection, which takes only a short time, is that work on

Fig. 9 - Control units, former (a) and new (b) models, for D'LF airblast
circuit-breakers shown with cover removed

a b

BROWN BOVERI BROWN BOVERI 161052.1

Brown Boveri Rev. 4-74 1

 the breaker can be deferred and the maintenance interval
is further extended.
Easy access to the breaker contacts and to the components
of the operating mechanism and control system of the
DLF breaker also help to cut down the time needed for
inspection.

Conclusion

Well over 1000 DLF breaker groups are in Service in 37

countries on every continent. The steady growth of orders
received (Fig. 11) reflects both the sound technical concept
underlying the DLF ränge and also their excellent Per-
formance in service.

Bibliography

[1] H. Schubert, N. Cuk: The DLF ränge of highly

adaptable airblast circuit-breakers, for voltages up to
1100 kV and low, medium and very high powers. Brown
Boveri Rev. 60 1973 (4) 164-172.
[2] A. Eidinger, M. Sanders; Increasing the breaking ca-
pacity of type DLF airblast breakers by maintaining
constant pressure during extinction. Brown Boveri Rev.
60 1973 (4) 173-177.
[3] A. Braun, H. Huber: Testing circuit-breakers by syn-
thetic methods. Brown Boveri Rev. 60 1973 (4) 185-190.
[4] A. Leibold, L. Keinert: Outdoor airblast circuit-
breakers type DLF for 245 kV with two extinction Cham-
bers. Brown Boveri Rev. 57 1970 (12) 516-522.
[5] B. Boehle, G. Köppl, K. Holzinger: Trends in the
161051
application and further development of type DLF out-
BROWN BOVERI
door airblast circuit-breakers. Brown Boveri Rev. 59 1972
Fig. 10 - Base assembly of D L F K breaker
(4) 132-141.
Control cubicle mounted direct on breaker base
assembly.
[6] L. Searle: The development of diagnostic techniques
for maintenance of circuit-breakers. Symposium: Main-
tenance of Heavy Current Plant, September 1973, Parkville,
Melbourne, Australia.
Fig. 11 - Cumulative curve of orders received

200026.1

142 Brown Boveri Rev. 4-74

Arcing Faults in SF 6 Insulated Metalclad
H.V. Switchgear
A. Krenicky, U. Schmitz and G. Sonderegger
The various factors which determine arc faults in metalclad,
SFs insulated switchgear, including current, arc voltage,
fault duration, enclosure volume and enclosure material are
discussed. The arc protection concept for Brown Boveri
SFn switchgear is described. Many test results are used to
indicate the advantages of the arrangement used.
Introduction
It is a well known fact that the probability of an arcing
fault occurring in an SF 6 insulated installation is very
remote. The insulating capacity of these installations is
unafifected by climatic conditions. SF 6 switchgear operates
on the basis of a gas pressure which is above atmospheric
pressure. The gas density is normally monitored by a
density relay. As the dielectric strength is proportional to
the gas density, constant dielectric strength is ensured
over the whole monitoring ränge under all temperature
conditions. In normal operation the actual dielectric
strength is always above the guaranteed insulating level.
If it drops below the insulating level the fact is indicated
Fig. 1 - Expected pressure rise in an enclosed
volume
u = Arc voltage
i = Short-circuit current
P = Arc power
t = Arc duration
W = Work done by arc
V = Volume of equipment
p — Pressure rise in the enclosure
H-IMWs]—
Brown Boveri Rev. 4 - 7 4
by the density monitor. The effects of pollution, moisture
and other factors which can effect the dielectric strength
have been described in [1]. The original insulating level
was found to exist even after 10 000 mechanical switching
Operations.
In spite of the extremely remote possibility of an arcing
fault occurring we must nevertheless consider the physical
fundamentals and their effects. We must aim at designs
where the effect of an arcing fault is restricted as much as
possible.
This requirement was taken into account at the design
stage of our metalclad SF 6 switchgear. The resistance to
arc faults in the individual units has been confirmed and
improved by many investigations carried out during
development.
It will be shown here how the problem of arc fault security
was overcome in SF 6 switchgear of type ELK. The major
results from many investigations carried out in this field
by Brown Boveri are also discussed.
Pressure Rise in t h e Enclosure
It is useful to first investigate theoretically the effects of an
internal arc with respect to the expected pressure rise in
the enclosure. The expected pressure rise calculated by
simplified means is shown in Fig. 1.
It can be seen from Fig. 1 that the smaller volumes must
be primarily designed with adequate wall thicknesses, for
mechanical reasons, to prevent bursting of the correspond-
ing plant component due to the very high pressure rise to
be expected. With larger volumes the wall thicknesses
must be designed from the aspect that the plant compo-
"-/[kA] 200059.1
1

BROWN BOVERI
nents affected do not weld together in the event of a fault,
as will be shown later.
These considerations have been investigated by testing.
Here we had at our disposal experience gained from ear-
lier investigations [2]. Using the relationships described in
Fig. 1 investigations were carried out on smaller volumes.
The pressure rises for various short-circuit currents in
relation to the arc duration were measured in a single-
phase connecting busbar with a volume of 250 litres
(Fig. 2) and an isolator with a volume of 60 litres (Fig. 3).
The initial pressure in the objects under test was 4-2 bar.
This corresponds to the maximum insulation pressure of
ELK switchgear. The arc was always instigated with a
triggering wire.
The test results (Fig. 4) agree very well with the pre-
calculated values (Fig. 1). In the single-phase connecting
bar the pressure rise for a short-circuit current of 10 kA
and a relatively long arc duration is only about 4 bar and
it was not until several hundred milliseconds had elapsed
that pressures were reached that exceeded the test pressure
of the enclosure but did not lead to bursting of the en-
closure because this lies considerably higher. The pressure
in the isolator which has a volume of only about 60 litres
rose higher and faster. The result of these tests determined
the dimensioning of the plant components.
144
Fig. 2 - Single-phase busbar
1 = Terminal
2 = Insulator
3 Busbar
4 = Enclosure
5 = Triggering wire
6 Insulating discs
163998.
M e l t - T h r o u g h Behaviour
of Various Enclosure M a t e r i a l s
Further series of tests were carried out to determine after
what time the enclosures can be melted through by the
arc. The same equipment was used in these tests as for
investigating the pressure rise in the enclosure (Fig. 2, 3).
Difficulties were encountered at first in the investigations
with the single-phase connecting bar with regard to stabi-
lizing the arc in the enclosure. The arc root moved along
the surface of the enclosure in the direction of the bulk-
head insulator and this did not lead to the shortest melt-
through times. In order to determine the theoretically
shortest melt-through times it was necessary to stabilize
the arc with the aid of two insulating discs (6 in Fig. 2).
The melt-through investigations on the single-phase con-
necting bus were carried out on 4 mm thick carbon steel
plate, 4 mm thick stainless steel and on 4 mm and 8 mm
thick aluminium sheet, while the isolator housing was of
cast aluminium with a minimum wall thickness of 9 mm.
The results of the through-melt tests (examples are shown
in Fig. 5) show that the melt-through time depends on
the magnitude of the short-circuit current and on the
thickness of the sheet. As was to be expected the tested
materials showed varying through-melt times (Fig. 6). The
Brown Boveri Rev. 4-74
holes burnt through the metal enclosure during the melt-
through tests have approximately the same cross sections
regardless of material for the same short-circuit current.
This is illustrated in Fig. 7 which shows the holes burned
through the enclosure of 4 mm thick stainless steel sheet.
Figure 7b shows the insulating discs for stabilizing the arc
in the enclosure.
There was found to be no melt-through within the time
span on which the protection concept is based for the
cast aluminium isolating switch housing.

Protection Concept in Relation

t o Arc Phenomena

Demands must be made of SF 6 switchgear installations

with respect to restricting the effects of an internal arc
fault; firstly for the safety of the staff and secondly for BROWN BOVERI

operational reasons. Adequate staff protection is obvi-

ously of primary importance. This fact is foremost in
deciding the functional design arrangement. The essential
criteria are discussed and critically analysed in [3, 4].
Because of the drawbacks of an external pressure relief
system Brown Boveri have chosen an arrangement where
there are no external effects. This design arrangement is
described in the following. It is based on internal pressure
relief. If a given pressure is achieved within a gas Chamber Fig. 3 - Experimental isolator arrangement
a bulkhead insulator bursts and provides a larger gas 1 = Terminal
volume which permits a longer fault duration without any 2 = Busbars
effects to the outside. 3 = Expansion tank (volume = 125 1)
4 = Standard insulator
Certain design stipulations must be made of this protection 5 = Isolator housing (volume = 60 I)
concept in order that it can operate to the füllest satis- 6 = Reinforced insulator
faction in service. The compressive strength of the bulkhead
insulators must be coordinated with the bursting pressure
of the enclosure. For certain applications the direction of
bursting must be selected such that after bursting takes
place there is no further restriction on operation. This is
achieved by arranging the partition insulators such that Fig. 4 - Pressure increase in the enclosure
the direction of bursting can be predetermined. a = Aluminium
The following alternative insulators with varying bursting b = Stainless steel
c = C a r b o n steel
strength values are available:
p = Pressure rise in the enclosure
1 = Arc duration
Normal insulator
- stressed on the inside at about 15 to 20 bar
- stressed on the outside at about 30 to 35 bar
Reinforced insulator
- stressed on the inside at about 30 to 35 bar
- stressed on the outside at about 60 bar

These mechanical properties of the insulators enable the

project planning engineer to find an optimum Solution for
any plant arrangement.
The intended rupture points within a metalclad switchgear
installation are selected according to the following con-
siderations: 200062.1

Brown Boveri Rev. 4-74 15

 Fig. 5 - Examples of mclt-through tests with
enclosure of stainless steel
a : i = 10-5 kA
b:i = 40-6 kA
u = Are voltage
i = Short-circuit current
p = Pressure curve
t0 = Instant of melt-through
z = Photoresistance

10 ms

200064.1
b

- Consequential damage due to the fault expanding can Other plant components which are not affected must be
occur only in those sections of the plant which must be kept in service as far as possible.
interrupted in any case as a result of the fault. - The switchgear and plant components damaged by an
- If an arc fault occurs in switchgear with a double busbar arc fault must be rapidly and easily exchangeable.
system at least one busbar must always remain under
voltage. The chosen concept ensures that an arc fault is restricted
- In the event of an arc fault in a plant with a single busbar to the first protection stage ( < 100 ms) of the affected
system the busbar repair time must be kept to a minimum. compartment volume for all plant components. Should
the first stage of the short circuit protection system fail
under high short-circuit currents an internal pressure relief
takes place. It is thus impossible for the enclosure to burst.
Fig. 6 - Measured melt-through times (with stabilized arc root) Generally, the first pressure relief provides such a large
a 4 m m thick stainless steel volume that, even with very high short-circuit currents,
b = 8 m m thick aluminium fault durations of up to several seconds are permissible
c - 4 mm thick carbon steel
i = Short-circuit current without the enclosure bursting.
t Melt-through time External effects (danger to personnel, damage to adjacent
40
plant, cables, pressure piping, control leads and auxiliary
equipment as well as buildings) are eliminated.
Melt-through must not take place before the end of the
i [kA)
second protection stage ( > 500 ms). As illustrated in
• 30
Fig. 6 fulfilling this requirement on a general basis
becomes expensive because very thick walls have to be
employed. Our investigations showed, however, that it
20
is difficult to stabilize the arc with cast aluminium and
that without stabilization the electro-magnetic forces
always direct the arc towards the insulator. The root of the
arc in the enclosure is at the solid flange (or directly
adjacent to it) resulting in longer melt-through times.
Provided that these facts are borne in mind, economical
Ol arrangements can be found while complying with the
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 above requirements.
—/[ms]

146 Brown Boveri Rev. 4-74

Fig. 7 - Single-phase busbar after the melt-through test (material: 4 m m
thick stainless steel)
a: i 10-5 kA
b: i = 40-6 kA
 First Arrangement: Double Busbar (Fig. 8).
Reinforced insulators (7) are arranged between the iso-
lators and the intermediate 'T' piece. Normal insulators
(6) are used for the partition of the busbars and circuit-
breaker.
- As a result of an arc fault at critical fault current or
duration in one of the two isolator housings the gas
volume is increased several times in the direction of the
busbar when the first protection stage fails.
Advantage:
Continuous operation of the undisturbed busbar is ensured
under any conditions. The damage caused at the busbar
3 5 2 4 1 involved can be quickly and easily repaired thanks to the
Fig. 9 - Plant component with three-phase enclosed Single busbar system favourable design arrangement.
1 = Circuit-breaker
2 = Isolator - In the case of an arc of critical fault current or duration
3 = Busbar at the intermediate 'T' piece the Standard isolator will
4 = N o r m a l insulator
5 = Reinforced insulator
burst towards the circuit-breaker when the first protection
stage fails.
Advantage:
After the fault has been cleared and the affected 'T' piece
isolated, both busbars can remain in operation. In order
to repair the feeder (exchanging the insulators 7) each
busbar must be shut down for a brief period.

Principle of t h e B r o w n Boveri Protection

Concept i n T y p i c a l Circuit A r r a n g e m e n t s
The sequence of an arc fault and its results are described
in the following using certain examples for the represent-
ative components:
Second Arrangement: Single Busbar (Fig. 9)
A reinforced insulator (5) is located between the isolator
and busbar. The gas volume is increased by the rupture
of the weaker insulator (4) in the direction of the circuit-
breaker pole.

Fig. 1 0 - Plant component with several small

volumes
1 = Circuit-breaker
2 = Current transformer
3 = Isolator
4 = T-piece
5 = Voltage transformer
6 Pothead
7 = N o r m a l insulator
8 = Post insulator

148 Brown Boveri Rev. 4-74

Fig. 11 - Isolator with post insulator
BROWN BOVERI
Advantage:
The busbar does not have to be overhauled. After the
insulator has been replaced the busbar section can be
rapidly put back into service.
Third Arrangement: Several Small Volumes (Fig. 10)
This illustration shows a plant section comprising a series
of components having small gas volumes. For operational
reasons it is not generally necessary to provide gas-tight
partitions between the individual components. Post-
insulators are used for these and similar applications.
These are similar to normal insulators but have large
cross-section holes (Fig. 11). Installing such insulators pro-
vides considerably larger volumes where the pressure
increase remains below the bursting pressure of the en-
closure up to the second protection stage (<500 ms).
If, for operational reasons, it is necessary to provide
partitions for a component the internal pressure relief
comes into operation as described above.
Advantage:
The possibility of installing post insulators provides arc-
proof arrangements without involving large, uneconomical
enclosures.
Testing t h e Protection Concept
The principle and function of the Brown Boveri protection
concept described above has been checked and confirmed
by testing.
Brown Boveri Rev. 4-74
163950.1
One of the investigations involved testing the function of
the post insulators (Fig. 11).
In the event of an internal fault in a small gas volume the
pressure compensation through the hole in the post in-
sulator must be so rapid that no dangerously high pressure
can build up in any of the volumes. In this test (test rig
shown in Fig. 3) an arc was created in the isolator by
means of a triggering wire. As the oscillogram in Fig. 12
shows the pressure rise in the various volumes which are
not compartmented from each other increases to an ap-
proximately equal degree.
The example of a test to prove the direction of rupture
(test rig Fig. 3, oscillogram Fig. 13) shows that the direc-
tion in which the fault in the case of a flashover is per-
mitted to expand can be determined.
An arc is Struck within the isolator casing and the pressure
rises to 19-6 bar. The weaker insulator bursts at this
pressure and this increases the volume of the compart-
ment. This prevents the pressure reaching dangerous pro-
portions and the enclosure is not jeopardized.
Tn addition to the basic voltage and current curves Fig. 13
also shows the pressure curves. These pressure curves
show the increase in pressure p r in the isolator housing,
the rupturing of the normal insulator and the increase in
pressure in the adjacent compartment. There is no
increase in pressure ps of the compartment separated from
the isolator housing by the reinforced insulator.
The insulator has clearly ruptured due to the pressure
stress only and not due to the thermal effects of the arc
because the arc is arranged to travel towards the rein-
forced insulator.
1

The investigations confirmed the theoretical considera-
tions discussed under the section dealing with the prin-
ciples of the Brown Boveri protection concept in typical
field applications.
Fault Location
The following means are available for fault location:
1. The displays of the individual components of the nor-
mal protection system are used for roughly determining
the location of the fault, in similar fashion to conventional
installations. In most cases this rough fault location enables
150
Fig. 12 - Investigation into the function of the
post insulator
u = Are voltage
i = Short-circuit current
px = Pressure in isolator housing
Pz = Pressure in compensating housing
Fig. 13 - Investigation into strength coordination
u Arc voltage
i = Short-circuit current
p i = Pressure in isolator housing
p2 = Pressure in compensating housing with
normal insulator
p3 = Pressure in compensating housing with
reinforced insulator
immediate measures to be taken to enable operation to
be continued.
2. There are several methods available for accurate fault
location where this is necessary. Two of the more im-
portant are:
- Measuring the gas decomposition: This takes advantage
of the fact that the arc decomposes a part of the gas in
the affected section. The gas decomposition can be de-
termined by smell or by means of a simple measurement.
- Pressure rise due to the arc is indicated by a pressure
gauge of the trailing pointer or contact type.
Temperature-sensitive colours and other methods can also
provide information about the location of the fault.
Brown Boveri Rev. 4-74
Conclusion

The probability of an arc fault occurring is extremely

remote. In spite of this fact the problem was investigated
both theoretically and practically at Brown Boveri. Pri-
ority was given to protection of personnel and the environ-
ment in choosing between several alternative arrange-
ments even if damage is caused at several points within
the enclosure in the extreme case. The concept of internal
pressure relief is applied throughout the whole ränge of
this type of switchgear (145 to 765 kV).
The application of internal pressure relief considerably
reduces the time taken to bring non-damaged components
back into operation as there are no emissions.

Bibliography

[1] P. Högg, IV. Schmidt, H. Strasser: Dimensioning of

SF„ metalclad switchgear to ensure high reliability.
CIGRE 1972, Report 23-10.

[2] W. Schmitz, H. Strasser: Design, reliability and oper-

ation of SF 6 metalclad switchgear. IEEE Summer Meeting
Pwr Eng & Sys 1972. Paper No. C 72 535-3.
[3] H. Strasser, K.D. Schmidt, P. Högg: Effects of arcs
in enclosures filled with SF 6 and steps taken to restrict
them in SF 6 switchgear. IEEE Winter Meeting Pwr Eng
& Sys 1974.
[4] G. Mauthe, P. Högg, W. Horisberger: SF 6 switchgear
type ELK for 145 to 525 kV. Brown Boveri Rev. 60 1973
(4) 140-152.

Brown Boveri Rev. 4 - 7 4

Type ELK Circuit-Breakers for Metal-Enclosed
SF 6 Insulated Switchgear Installations
G.Maut he, W. Bischof berger, K.D.Schmidt and A.LI eher
A new circuit-breaker for medium breaking capacities has
been developed as an extension to the ränge of type ELK
SFe insulated, metal-enclosed switchgear. The new breaker
operates on the single-pressure pujfer principle and has an
oil-hydraulic drive. Modular principles permit breakers to
be built for up to 765 kV using only afew components. Apply-
ing all experience gained in airblast and l.o.v. circuit-breaker
engineering, and also the 15 years of experience in the field
Introduction
Work has been going on in the development of SF 6
insulated metal-enclosed switchgear at Brown Boveri since
1958 [1], The types developed since then, i.e. EBK for low
capacities and ECK for high capacities are represented
by 382 units in the voltage ränge between 72 kV and
525 kV in operation or at present under construction
[2, 3, 4, 5]. These first generation SF 6 breakers generally
operate on the differential pressure principle because
breakers based on this form of engineering taken from
the airblast breakers were able, after a short development
period, to cope with single-phase breaking capacities of
5000 MVA per quenching Chamber (up to 7500 MVA
at present).
Work was started on type ELK switchgear in 1969 in
order to further develop and complete the ECK ränge.
This was the first step towards introducing the second
generation of SF 6 switchgear which is featured by eco-
nomy, adaptability to the plant circuitry and available
space, and also by a consistent system structure over the
whole ränge.
There were two steps to this further development. The
first stage was to revise all plant components with the
exception of the circuit-breakers [6], Thefirst plants of this
type have been in operation since the beginning of 1974.
42 switchgear installations for 145, 170, 245 and 300 kV
are at present under construction.
The second stage involved putting the type ELK ränge of
circuit-breakers into production, as a result of 4 years of
systematic development (Fig. 1). These breakers are used
for medium breaking capacities over the whole voltage
ränge while the type ECK breakers [7] are used for high
capacities. The new breaker is designed on the single-
pressure puffer principle. In the power ränge aimed at
here, this system results in a less expensive and simpler
design of the high-voltage section.
152
of SF6 engineering, resulted in a reliable and economical
type of breaker. The most up-to-date measuring methods
developed in our laboratories, and Computer programmes
used in the field of plasma physics, applied to this breaker
gave deeper insight into the quenching phenomena and the
effect of the design parameters which determine the breakin
capacity.
Breaker Features at a Glance
Comprehensive ränge of application:
- operating voltages 72 kV to 765 kV
- rated currents up to 5000 A
- maximum breaking currents of over 50 kA
Built up from a few Standard modules:
- enclosure in 4 sizes
- single type of Standard quenching Chamber
- one type of oil-hydraulic drive of well-tried components
for the whole ränge
Puffer type breaking Chamber with insulating nozzle
- high breaking capacity for low drive energy
- current-dependent breaking pressure generation in the
ränge of high breaking currents
Auxiliary compression:
- high rate of compression to contact Separation
- short breaking times
- high efficiency due to storing the kinetic energy of the
closing motion and using it for breaking
Low gas pressure:
- no heating required for breaker even at very low ambient
temperatures
- no gas supply system required
- no internal seals
Minimum maintenance'.
- no gas make-up over a period of several years
- permanent lubrication for moving parts
- minimum contact burn-off
Brown Boveri Rev. 4-74
 3100

2500

2100

(123) 1 4 5 . . . 170kV 170 . . . 3 6 2 k V 300 . . . 4 2 0 ( 5 2 5 ) k V

2500

4 2 0 . . . 525 kV 525...765kV
Fig. 2 - Range of type E L K S F 8 circuit-breakers for rated voltages of d: Four quenching Chambers per breaker pole
145 to 765 kV e: Six quenching Chambers per breaker pole
a: One quenching Chamber per breaker pole b Width
b: Two quenching Chambers per breaker pole t = Depth
c: Three quenching Chambers per breaker pole

Range With regard to the dielectric dimensioning further division

The various breakers in the ränge can be fitted with from
1 to 6 quenching Chambers per pole, depending on the
rated voltage and the breaking capacities (Fig. 2). The
ränge can be broken down into two main groups:
- breakers with 1 to 3 quenching Chambers per pole as
basic models,
- breakers with 4 and 6 Chambers per pole derived from
the basic models and comprising two breakers coupled
together with two or three quenching Chambers. The
enclosure dimensions are matched to the higher voltages.
was made in the ränge of breakers into four sizes with
Standard surge withstand voltages of 750, 1050, 1550 and
1800 kV. The main differences between these are the dia-
meters of the enclosures and the connection flanges to the
switching installation.
There are two versions of quenching Chamber:
- Standard model for medium, and
- simpler model for reduced breaking capacity require-
ments.
Making resistors can be installed in the breakers with
two to six quenching Chambers.

154 Brown Boveri Rev. 4-74

Table 1: Technical data of type ELK circuit-breakers
Size III IV

Rated voltage kV 145 170 245 300 362 362 420 525 525 765

Impulse withstand voltage 1 -2/50 kV 750 1050 1550 Corresponding to future

Power frequency withstand kV 325 460 680 IEC recommendations
voltage 50/60 Hz 1 min
Free from partial discharges
Intermittent voltage kV 120 250 365 Coordinated with IEC
recommendations
Power frequency withstand
voltage at /j a bs = 1 bar
short-time (1 min) kV 180 260 380
continuous kV 155 220 325

Rated current A 2000/3150/4000/5000 2000/3150/4000/5000 2000/3150/4000/5000 2000/3150/4000/5000

Rated impulse current kA 130 130 130 130

Rated short-time current 2 s kA 50 50 50 50

3 s kA 40/50 40/50 40/50 40/50

Mechanical interrupt time 20/28

Total interrupt time
at 50 Hz ms 40/50
at 60 Hz ms 38/47

Mechanical closing time ms 70

Autoreclosing time s 0,3

Cycles Standard Version O - 0,3 s - CO - 3 min - CO

with additional reservoir CO - 0,3 s - CO - 1 5 s - CO - 1 5 s - CO - 1 5 s - CO

Rated pressure (absolute) bar

4/6
Maximum operating pressure
of drive bar
320
50 -

40
1
Opening and EL {\ u|
closing current kA 31,5--

Rated voltage kV 145 170 245 300 36-2 362 420 525 525 MB
mm
765

Size III IV
BROWN BOVERI

The breakers can be installed vertically or horizontally to Design A r r a n g e m e n t

suit the plant layout requirements. Under normal cir-
cumstances the connecting flanges to the plant are arrang-
ed at one end of the enclosure. However, they can be fitted
at the opposite end which is particularly advantageous
for one-and-a-half breaker arrangements and ring mains
(Fig. 3).
The design concept and construction as well as the ma-
terials used permit outdoor installation.
Technical Data
The technical data for each type of breaker is summarized
in Table I.
General Arrangement
A section through the breaker with one or three quenching
Chambers per pole is shown in Fig. 4a and 4 b. The three
breaker enclosures with the quenching units for a breaker
group are mounted on a common breaker frame. The
frame contains the drive and a separate plug-in unit
comprising the power supply for the drive and also the
monitoring system.
In the case of single-chamber breakers the quenching
Chambers operated by a single drive of the three-phase
breaker group are through a linkage system. Breakers
with two and three Chambers per pole have a separate
drive for each pole.

Brown Boveri Rev. 4-74 155

 i
Fig. 3 - Examples of plant Iayouts with type E L K circuit-breakers
a : Arrangement for one-and-a-half circuit-breaker method
b: Plant with three-phase enclosed double busbar
The arrangement of the breakers with four and six quench-
ing Chambers per phase can be seen in Fig. 2. A breaker
pole comprises two breakers with two or three quenching
Chambers connected in series and an enclosure according
to the voltage. These are arranged side by side on a com-
mon frame. Each breaker pole has its own drive, i.e. two
drives operate in parallel for each phase, and these are
arranged such that they operate simultaneously.
The breaker position indicator and the auxiliary switch
are rigidly connected with the breaker drive linkage. These,
and also the tripping coils, are arranged in the breaker
frame with easy access.
Quenching Unit
The quenching unit, fixed to the front end of the enclosure
by a cylindrical post insulator, comprises one or more
quenching Chambers, intermediate housings and end
156
Covers. The contacts are operated by fibre reinforced in-
sulating rods. In the case of a breaker with a Single quench-
ing Chamber these are arranged centrally. For breakers
with two and three quenching Chambers per pole these
insulating rods are arranged next to the quenching Cham-
bers and the driving force is transmitted through arms in
the intermediate housings to the driven contacts. A sealed
shaft transmits the driving force into the gas Chamber.
Control capacitors connected in parallel with the quench-
ing Chambers ensure even voltage distribution.
As can be seen from Fig. 4c the quenching units of all
breakers in the ränge can be assembled from a few basic
components.
The quenching Chamber operates on the puffer principle
of a compression system. The arc is quenched by blasting
in a nozzle made of insulating material, supported by a
metallic auxiliary nozzle opposite it. An adequately di-
Brown Boveri Rev. 4 - 7 4
 Fig. 4 - Section through a type ELK.
S F 6 circuit-breaker
a : Breaker with one quenching Cham-
ber per pole
b: Breaker with three quenching
Chambers per pole
c: C o m p o n e n t s of quenching unit
for breakers with one to six
quenching Chambers
1 =
End cover
2 =
Current terminal
3 =
Quenching Chamber unit
4 =
lntermediate housing
5 =
Support insulator
6 =
C o n t r o l capacitor
7 —
Additional housing for multi-
chamber breakers
8 = Drive rod

Quenching unit
Live components
Earthed c o m p o n e n t s
Insulators
SF f i

mensioned continuous current path in parallel with the Drive

main contacts permits maximum rated currents.
An auxiliary piston controlled by the main piston through
a linkage accelerates the build up of gas pressure to the
instant of contact Separation (Fig. 5). The effort for this
auxiliary compression is supplied by a spring which is
tensioned by braking the moving mass at the end of the
closing operation. In addition to making better use of the
drive energy this arrangement permits the breaking time
to be considerably shortened and, in conjunction with the
quenching system used, also permits high breaking capa-
cities to be attained in difficult switching conditions.
The major difference between the quenching Chamber for
reduced breaking capacities and the Standard Version is
its lack of auxiliary piston. However, it is built up to
form a quenching unit with the same components as the
Standard model.
The drive system is oil-hydraulic with differential piston
(Fig. 6). This comprises components which have proved
themselves in outdoor circuit-breakers [8] and form two
groups:
1. Drive unit with cylinder, control valve, high and low
pressure reservoirs.
2. An energy supply system for each breaker group with
high-pressure pump, hand pump if required, monitoring
equipment andfilter. This unit is a separate plug-in module
installed in the breaker frame and connected by a high-
pressure and a low-pressure lead with the drive units of
the breaker group.
This arrangement permits rapid exchange of a drive unit
or supply unit.

Brown Boveri Rev. 4-74 157

 by the differential system. Should the hydraulic pressure
drop, the contacts are held in their current position by a
pressure-dependent mechanical interlock.

Principle

The breakers are opened or closed according to the

sequence given below. The positions of the control valve
in the open position are shown in the hydraulic diagram
(Fig. 6a). The closing arrangement is shown in Fig. 6 b.
A close-open sequence (CO) is shown in the oscillogram
in Fig. 7.

Fig. 5 - Operation of auxiliary piston
Compressed volume AK in relation to the contact travel J
A = Main piston
B Auxiliary piston
a Without auxiliary piston
b - With auxiliary piston
s x = Contact Separation
The drive is designed for operating two or three quenching
Chambers, i.e. only a single type of drive is used through-
out the whole breaker ränge, with appropriate settings.
In order to ensure reliability of the drive the oil pressure
for Controlling the high-pressure pump and breaker lock-
out is monitored, as well as the gas volume in the hydraulic
reservoir.
Under normal circumstances the breaker contacts are
held with füll drive pressure in the open or closed position
Closing
- command 'close' arrives at tripping coil of solenoid valve
- solenoid valve 'close' operates
- pressure build up at control piston amplifier valve
- amplifier valve changes over
- pressure drop at control piston of main valve
- main valve connects drive cylinder with high-pressure
reservoir
- pressure applied to large surface area of drive piston
- drive piston moves contacts in closing direction
- vacuum blast of pre-ignition arc in quenching Chamber
- arcing contacts close, pre-ignition arc quenched
- spring for driving auxiliary piston is loaded
- continuous current contacts close
- breaker is now closed.
Opening
- command 'open' arrives at tripping coil of solenoid valve
- solenoid valve 'open' operates
- pressure drop at control piston of amplifier valve
- amplifier valve changes over
- pressure drop at control piston of main valve
- main valve connects operating cylinder with low-
pressure reservoir
- pressure reduced at large surface area of drive piston
- drive piston moves towards open position
- start of compression in quenching Chamber by means of
auxiliary piston
- continuous current contacts separate
- arcing contacts separate
- auxiliary piston reaches final position

Table II: Densities and pressures of breaker gas content and response levels (*) of density monitor

Signal from Breakers for low switching Breakers for high switching
density monitor capacities capacities
contacts
Density Pressure (abs) Density Pressure (abs)
g/1 bar at 20 °C g/1 bar at 20 °C

Content 29-2 4-7 44-8 7-0

Make-up signal * 25-7 4-2 39-3 6-2
Tripping blocked * 24-6 4-0 37-9 6-0
Dielectric design values 21-5 3-5 21-5 3-5
*
Release signal 18-9 31 18-9 3-1

158 Brown Boveri Rev. 4-74

 Fig. 6 - Basic circuit diagram of hydraulic drive
a : Breaker open
b: Breaker closed
1 Drive piston
2 = Main valve
3 = Auxiliary valve
4 Solenoid valve 'close'
5 = Solenoid valve 'open'
6 = Solenoid valve 'open'
7 Drive cylinder
8 « = High-pressure reservoir
9 Low-pressure reservoir
10 Auxiliary gas bottle
11 Pressure gauge
12 = Pressure switch for oil p u m p
13 Pressure switch for locking the breaker
14 = Filter
15 Excess pressure valve
16 m Manual valve
17 — Non-return valve
18 = Oil-pump with m o t o r
19 = Manual p u m p
20 = Orifice

- strong blast at arc The slight gas decomposition due to switching high short-
- arc is quenched at a maximum of 20 ms after contacts circuit currents and also the residual moisture due to
separate assembly and overhaul are adsorbed in a static filter in the
- breaker open, end of blast. cover of the service aperture on the side of the unit.

Quenching and Insulating M e d i u m
As type ELK breakers operate on the puffer principle and,
consequently, the quenching gas need not be stored under
high pressure, the cost of gas supply and monitoring is
correspondingly low. The dielectric strength is based on a
minimum gas density of 21-5 g/1 (corresponds to p a bs =
3-5 bar at 20°C). In operation the breaker is filled with
gas at a higher pressure and a density monitor with tem-
perature compensation monitors the gas content [9]. The
various density and pressure values are compiled in Table 11
together with the tripping levels of the density monitor.
Special attention was given to the choice of sealing system
for the compartments. The arrangement chosen, together
with careful density tests on the breaker before it is
delivered, ensure that leakage losses are not more than
1 % of the gas content per annum.
Installation and M a i n t e n a n c e
The circuit-breaker comprises three units which require
assembly:
- the breaker pole comprising breaker enclosure and
quenching unit
- the breaker frame, and
- the drive assembly comprising the drive and power
supply.
These three units are assembled in the factory to form a
triple-pole breaker group and adjusted and tested. Where
transport facilities permit, the complete breaker group is
transported as a unit to the plant. The breaker is con-
nected to the other components by means of flanges and
plug-in contacts.
The following engineering was applied to the circuit-
breakers to keep the cost of maintenance to a minimum:

Brown Boveri Rev. 4-74 15

- permanent lubrication of moving parts
- settings cannot vary in operation and require no adjust-
ment
- well-proved sealing system for compartment and drive
components.
The breaker requires servicing only after 2000 switching
Operations at rated current, or 10 Operations at maximum
breaking current, and is largely restricted to the quenching
unit. The drive system requires no maintenance during the
life of the breaker.
The quenching unit is withdrawn through the aperture at
the front of the enclosure for servicing.
Once outside the enclosure the contacts are easily acces-
sible and can be exchanged without altering the settings.
BROWN BOVERI
Because air has entered it is necessary to clean the iso-
lators at the terminals and this can easily be carried out
through the Service apertures at the front and at the side.
Where space is restricted above the breaker the complete
breaker pole can be removed for servicing without a
great deal of trouble. This is of advantage if a spare
breaker pole is available.
Tests
Mechanical Tests
The new puffer-type breaker type ELK. contains com-
ponents in both the quenching Chamber and in the drive
which have proved themselves in many years of Service in
Fig. 8 - Test rig with optieal measuring equip-
ment for investigating the arc
163996.1
Brown Boveri Rev. 4-74
Fig. 9 - 1 7 0 kV S F 6 puffer type circuit-breaker
type E L K undergoing breaking capacity tests
in the high-power testing facility
the SF 6 circuit-breakers type EBK and ECK, in airblast
and also in l.o.v. breakers. This equipment includes for
example, maintenance-free bearing materials, wear and
arc resistant contact materials, levers and pivots capable
of withstanding mechanical stresses, and also the me-
chanically and electrically stressed insulating materials for
the quenching Chambers and drive shafts [7]. As far as the
drive is concerned all control elements were carried over
from the l.o.v. breakers and only the drive cylinder is a
new development [8], The mechanical tests are therefore
mainly concerned with the interaction of the individual
components in the overall breaker system and it was not
necessary to carry out investigations on the individual
components.
In designing the drive it was necessary to take into account
the fact that the arc exerts certain reactive forces on the
drive. Depending on the magnitude and phase displace-
ment of the short-circuit current at the instant of contact
Separation, certain reactive forces are exerted on the drive
due to the pressure increase resulting from the arc. These
phenomena were simulated in Computer programmes [10].
The necessary data for this was supplied by a series of
tests carried out with special test equipment (Fig. 8).
Investigations have confirmed that a single model of
drive unit can cover all requirements for the complete
ränge of ELK breakers. The necessary setting data for the
drives for breakers with two and three quenching Cham-
bers per pole and for the three-pole drive for breakers
with a single quenching Chamber were derived from tests.
An interruption time of two cycles is obtained in both
cases.
Both breakers and drives fulfil the set requirements with
respect to mechanical reliability with a large margin of
safety. Even after 10 000 switching cycles, with one breaker
carrying out 2000 short-circuit interruptions, the mech-
anical components were found to be functioning perfectly
and the settings and travel characteristics had not altered.
An oscillogram of a close/open cycle is shown in Fig. 7.
Brown Boveri Rev. 4 - 7 4
Tests carried out under simulated environment at high
and low temperatures, combined with continuous switch-
ing, further proved that the permissible gas loss set by
Brown Boveri can be guaranteed at less than i % of the
gas content per annum.
Testing the Current-Carrying Capacity
The current-carrying capacity is examined as a type test
on a complete breaker pole and is a three-part test:
- peak withstand current test
- short-time current test
- temperature rise test at rated current.
The tests were carried out and evaluated according to
the recommendations of IEC Technical Committee 17C.
All data given in Table I for ELK breakers are guaranteed.
Tests carried out up to the limit of current-carrying capa-
city showed that the design has adequate margins of
safety.
Proving the Switching Capacity
As always, h.v. circuit-breakers must be subjected to
extremely comprehensive development tests, right up to
type tests which confirm the required switching capacity.
Any method which reduces the complexity of development
tests is very welcome. Those methods which are suitable
for this purpose are given in Table III.
Until now, during the development of a new breaker, we
have relied mainly on basic investigations, known test
methods [11] and experience gained in previous develop-
ments. Today the circuit-breaker designer has new methods
at his disposal, primarily new calculation methods and
optical investigation equipment, which were employed
throughout the development of the ELK breakers to
support the methods usually applied.
1
 • * —1ms

302 kV • \

\V/ ^•
L
216kV
;' ... : -
MIHI
Fig. 10 - Oscillograms of an autoreclosure in a synthetic test circuit with Recommended Measured
voltage injection. Test on the complete pole of a 170 kV S F 6 puffer type (IEC)
circuit-breaker type E L K with one quenching Chamber per pole for a
Breaking current 40 kA 40-2 kA
breaking current of 40 kA
170 kV
a: Magnetic oscillogram Voltage ( r . m . s . ) — — x 1-5 147 kV 153 kV
b,c Cathode ray oscillograms of transient recovery voltage after
Voltage (peak) « c
yj 290 kV 302 kV
the second Interruption
Voltage in the heavy current circuit Time coordinate ?•> 290 [is 268 (xs
Short-circuit current
to ! C o m m a n d s for test circuit-breaker and auxiliary circuit-
breakers
Instant of contact Separation in the test circuit-breaker
Transient recovery voltage across the breaker

Fig. 11 - Contact zone of test circuit-breaker shown in Fig. 9 after

10 interruption tests at 40 kA
a : Insulating nozzle and contact ring of continuous current path
b: Fixed contact

a b

BROWN BOVERI BROWN BOVER! 163997.1

162 Brown Boveri Rev. 4-74

Table III: Conditions and possibilities for systematic development of circuit-breakers

Basic research Indicative for

- materials
- durability
- reliability
- insulation design
Experience Application of results from
Models - earlier developments
Analogue results - similar quenching methods
Methods of calculation Calculation and evaluation of
- mechanical, pneumatic and hydraulic phenomena
- flow of quenching medium
- arc
breaking capacity

Methods of measurement Electrical measurement

- current zero transition measurement
- pressure measurement
- measuring the arc energy
Optical measurement
- streak photographs of the arc
- spectroscopic investigations of the plasma
- Schlieren diagrams of gas flow
- differential interferometry of density and temperature
gradients at arc boundary
- interferometry of density and temperature distribution
in the region of the arc

Calculation processes
- which describe the switching behaviour of circuit-
breakers [12, 13] permit the switching capacity to be
derived mathematically and hint at possible means of
improvement,
- which permit the gas flow in the contact zone to be
determined [10] do away with unnecessary testing because
geometrical arrangements which are obviously out of the
question can be eliminated.
Optical means of measuring
- are the most suitable for the present level of engineering
for providing complete knowledge of the phenomena
occurring in the contact zones of circuit-breakers,
- can be applied to any type of breaker,
- provide comprehensive information about the arc and
the flow of quenching medium in the quenching Chamber
of a circuit-breaker without affecting the quenching pro-
cess,
- permit Computer programmes and Computer processes
to be checked and supply new data for calculation.
It is now possible to calculate and measure both the
arc and the flow of quenching medium. This progress in
the field of breaker physics does not permit a purely
mathematical development of a circuit-breaker but con-
siderably reduces the development period.
The methods described here were used for deriving ex-
perimentally the parameters which determine the breaking
capacity, such as nozzle cross section, nozzle shape, blast
pressure and blast flow rate, contact velocity, etc.
Part of these investigations were carried out on a model
of the puffer type breaker (Fig. 8). The contact and di-
mensions of this model correspond to the natural size of
a 170 kV puffer type breaker with one quenching Cham-
ber.
From the outset of development the relevant international
specifications such as IEC and ANSI were applied through-
out. The result of these efforts is the new puffer-type
breaker type ELK.
Of this ränge of breaker the following are subjected to the
greatest stress:
- 170 kV breakers with one quenching Chamber per pole
for interrupting 40 kA (this breaker is shown being
tested in Fig. 9),
- 245 kV breakers with two quenching Chambers per
pole for interrupting 50 kA,
- 420 kV breakers with three quenching Chambers per
pole for interrupting 50 kA.
Type testing these breakers has proved the guaranteed
breaking capacity for the whole ränge. This applies not
only for terminal faults, but generally for all other switch-
ing conditions according to IEC. Voltage distribution
over the series-connected quenching Chambers of a pole
is also taken into account.

Brown Boveri Rev. 4-74 1


A A
\ J R \ \ J R\
/ 37,2kA\
f
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0
•V V u
Certain selected type tests are described in the following.
Proving the breaking capacity under terminal fault con-
ditions involves a large number of tests because the re-
quirements also stipulate tests at 10, 30 and 60% of the
rated breaking current. Because of the exceptionally high
breaking capacity per quenching Chamber, these tests have
to be carried out almost exclusively in synthetic test cir-
cuits [14]. The oscillograms of an autoreclosure cycle are
shown in Fig. 10 and the contacts after ten interruptions
at 40 kA are shown in Fig. 11. Short-circuit currents of
over 50 kA were applied in the tests to determine the
absolute limit of the breaker.
Coping with short-line faults is a particular problem for
every breaker and requires particular attention during
development. It is generally known today that a short-
line fault at 90 % of the rated breaking current represents
a critical stress for SF 6 breakers. This point was investi-
gated particularly thoroughly. The tests were carried out
with a simulated line for synthetic short-line fault tests
[14]. The oscillograms of a representative test are shown
in Fig. 12.
164
Fig. 12 - Oscillograms of an interruption test
29,0 kV with a short-line fault at 90 % of the rated break-
ing current in a synthetic test circuit with current
f\ A / L injection. Tests on a complete pole of a 170 kV
S F 6 puffer type circuit-breaker type E L K with
one quenching Chamber per pole designed for
40 kA breaking current.
a: Magnetic oscillogram
b, c, d : Cathode ray oscillograms of the tran-
5,2 kA sient recovery voltage and breaking
current
1 to 7 = C o m m a n d s for test circuit-breaker and
j. auxiliary circuit-breakers
= Current in heavy current circuit
= Current in high-voltage circuit
= Breaking current
Instant of contact Separation in test
breaker
u Voltage in heavy current circuit
Hs - Transient recovery voltage across the
breaker
ML = Voltage drop across the line
Recommended Measured
(IEC)
Surge impedance Z 450 Q
Breaking current 0-9 X 40 kA 36 kA 37-2 kA
t / L * (Ist peak) 23-2 kV 29-8 kV
S* Rate of rise of recovery voltage «s 7-5 kV/[xs 8-1 kV/[xs
* including supply component
Out-of-phase switching imposes the greatest voltage stress
on the 170 kV breaker with only one quenching Chamber
per pole. It was proved in various test series that one
quenching Chamber can safely cope with 450 kV (peak)
and can thus easily cover the switching conditions.
Capacitive currents can be interrupted with the ELK
breaker without restriking or reignition. This has been
proved by appropriate tests with currents up to 400 A.
An overvoltage factor of 2 was not exceeded during inter-
rupting magnetizing currents in transformers running
under no load.
The short-circuit making capacity with füll preignition,
i.e. with virtually symmetrical short-circuit current is
tested by the triggering wire method [7]. The making tests
with fully asymmetrical short-circuit current are carried
out and proved with the CO and O-CO switching cycles.
Figure 13 illuminates the progress made in breaker devel-
opment with the example of a dififerential pressure breaker
type ECK and the new puffer system breaker type ELK.
The breaking capacity of a quenching Chamber has been
almost doubled in the last three years [6, 7], It is shown
that today it is easily possible to interrupt 7500 MVA,
Brown Boveri Rev. 4 - 7 4
corresponding to a three-phase interrupting capacity of 8000

17000 MVA. It is not yet possible to foresee the limits of /•[MVA]

/
this development. At present it is feasible that a Single SF 6 t /

quenching Chamber could have a single-phase breaking 6000

V
capacity of 9000 to 10000 MVA.

4000 y
Insulation, Design and Voltage Tests
There are various factors which can affect the dielectric
2000
strength of SF e breakers in operation:
- surface roughness of electrodes due to deposits
- pollution of insulators as a result of switching Operations
1962 1964 1966 1968 1970 1972 1974
- moisture
Fig. 13 - Development of breaking capacity P of a quenching Chamber.
These problems were investigated in a long series of tests Rate of rise of recovery voltage > 1000 V/[i.s
and results are compiled in a report [15], The solutions to a Differential pressure breaker type E C K
b = Puffer type breaker type ELK
these problems are now known. This applies for example
to the insulating materials developed by Brown Boveri
specially for application in metal-enclosed switchgear and
which have proved themselves over many years of Opera-
tion under extreme test conditions. Mention should also
be made of the fact that the füll dielectric strength could
be proved at a breaker after 10 interruptions with a short-
circuit current of 40 kA without any chemical Alters being
used in these tests.
The main objective in developing the ELK breaker was to Type tests have confirmed that the design of the new
find the most economical arrangement for various sizes breaker satisfies even the latest requirements in respect of
of breaker, i.e. the smallest dimensions with respect to insulation coordination. Figure 14 shows a test rig for
insulation distance and enclosure diameter, taking into determining the data for designing the dielectric of type
account the required insulation coordination between ELK circuit-breakers with three quenching Chambers per
break and earth. pole.

Fig. 14 - Test rig for determining the data for

designing the dielectric of type E L K circuit-
breakers with three quenching Chambers per
pole

BROWN BOVERI 163801

Brown Boveri Rev. 4 - 7 4 15

Conclusion
The new type ELK circuit-breaker completes the ränge
of the second generation of SF 6 insulated switchgear
produced by Brown Boveri so that now all requirements
of the plant engineer can be fulfilled to an even better
degree. The high reliability and economics of this equip-
ment, and also the fact that it is conducive to protecting
the environment will make its use more widespread in
the future.
Bibliography
[12] J. Urbanek: Zur Berechnung des Schaltverhaltens
von Leistungsschaltern, eine erweiterte Mayr-Gleichung.
Elektrotech. Z.-K 93 1972 (7) 381-385.
[13] J. Urbanek: Stresses in high-voltage circuit-breakers
when interrupting currents. Brown Boveri Rev. 61 1974
(4) 124-129.
[14] A. Braun, H. Huber: Testing circuit-breakers by
synthetic methods. Brown Boveri Rev. 60 1973 (4) 185—
190.
[15] P. Högg, W.Schmidt, H. Strasser: Dimensioning
of SF6-metalclad switchgear to ensure high reliability.
C1GRE 1972, Report 23-10.

[1] H.P. Szente-Varga, N. Krafft: Metalclad high-voltage

switchgear with SF 6 insulation. Brown Boveri Rev. 54
1967 (12) 169-114.
[2] H. P. Szente-Varga: 170 kV Metalclad switchgear for
Sempersteig substation. Brown Boveri Rev. 57 1970 (12)
572-577.
[3] K. Ide, K. Sakata: Toshiba compact substations in
marked progress. Toshiba Rev. 26 1971 (5) 5-12.
[4] R. Garbari, U. Niessen, H. Vierfuss, R. Weinkötz:
Ober- und unterirdische, SF6-isolierte Hochspannungs-
schaltanlagen in Stadtzentren. Elektrizitätswirtschaft 72
1973 (9) 256-262.
[5] E. Spendal, K. V. Menon: Germany's first 245 kV
metalclad SF 6 switchgear installation. Brown Boveri Rev.
60 1973 (2/3) 108-116.
[6] G. Maut he, P. Högg, W. Horisberger: SF 6 switchgear
type ELK for 145 to 525 kV. Brown Boveri Rev. 60 1973
(4) 140-152.
[7] G. Maut he, R. Ottischnig, K. D. Schmidt: Metalclad
SF 6 circuit-breaker type ECK. Brown Boveri Rev. 57
1970 (12) 562-571.
[8] H. Widmer, W. Lata/: Type F outdoor minimum-oil
circuit-breakers. Brown Boveri Rev. 57 1970 (12) 527-
538.
[9] A. Maier, R. Ottischnig, W. Stolarz: High-voltage
SF 6 insulated switchgear - gas monitoring, maintenance
and servicing. Brown Boveri Rev. 59 1972 (4) 163-168.
[10] W. Hermann, R. Horst, K. Ragaller, M. Sanders:
Tnteraction between an electric arc and the flow of gaseous
quenching medium. Brown Boveri Rev. 61 1974 (4)
130-134.
[11] A.Mayer, J. Pratl: Measurement techniques and
equipment for testing circuit-breakers. Brown Boveri Rev.
55 1968 (12) 727-733.

166 Brown Boveri Rev. 4-74

SF 6 Compressed Gas Insulated Cables
for Extra High Power Transmission

A. Eidinger and C. D. Flössel

Single and three-phase en closed SFs compressed gas insu-
lated cables are described, their design features and tech-
nical data discussed and their transmission properties are
compared with those of conventional overhead line and cable
systems. Active and reactive losses, dielectric stresses and
the effects of forces due to short circuits are reviewed to-
gether with the possibilities of direct and indirect cooling
where the cables are laid underground.
Introduction
rated currents, do not reach extremely high values. The
application ränge of these cables can be considerably
expanded in the future by forced cooling.
For higher voltages than this it will become increasingly
more difficult to dissipate the heat losses because the
thickness of insulation, and therefore also the internal
thermal resistance, will be necessarily increased, and also
the dielectric losses increase with voltage at a power of
about 1-4, and can hardly be contained within acceptable
limits. Here the CGI cable is a real alternative.
The active losses of a transmission medium depend pri-
marily on the cross section of the conductor. Additional
active losses occur in cables and CGI systems due to loss
currents in the metallic enclosure and due to dielectric
losses which are a factor to be considered only where
cables are concerned. The cross sections of individual
transmission media which can be carried out in practice
are determined largely by their active resistance which
also influences their ränge of application. Figure I shows
a comparison of cross sections which can be produced in
practice. Overhead lines are generally aluminium stranded
conductors with cross sections of 240 to 500 mm 2 . This
relatively small ränge is, however, increased by the neces-
sity of using bundled conductors for higher voltages so

SF 6 compressed gas insulated (CGI) cables present new

possibilities for underground transmission of high powers
with rated voltages above 123 kV. Their development is
based on knowledge and experience gained in the con-
Fig. 1 - Comparison of normal and technically feasible conductor cross
struction and operation of enclosed SF 6 high-voltage
sections q with their relative rated voltages Un for
switchgear during the past few years [1]. The ränge of
a = Overhead lines
application of CGI cables stretches from short links such b = C G I cables
as are required between enclosed switchgear installations c = Conventional cables
and the corresponding transformers, or for transmitting
energy from cavern type power stations, up to long trans-
mission distances in high consumption areas where over-
head lines are out of the question.

The Transmission Capability of CGI

Cables in Comparison t o Conventional
Overhead Linesand Cables

For the foreseeable future the major part of a high-

voltage network will remain the overhead line transmis-
sion system as this will always represent the most eco-
nomical arrangement [2, 3]. It will, however, become
increasingly more difficult to construct new overhead
line systems in densely populated areas. Consequently,
there will be a growing need to lay at least sections of the
transmission system underground. Conventional cables
will be adequate for rated voltages up to about 110 or
150 kV because their dielectric losses in this voltage ränge,
and over the short distances involved, and also their

Brown Boveri Rev. 4-74 17


.... - ' . • :
that the cross section and thus also the conductivity and
current carrying capacity increases with voltage.
The usual cross sections of cables today are less than
500 mm 2 . An upper limit of about 1500 mm 2 is given by
manufacturing and cable laying restrictions, regardless of
the rated voltage. The loading capacity of cables reduces
with rise in rated voltage because their thermal resistance
and dielectric losses increase with the thickness of insu-
lating material.
In the case of CGI cables, which comprise solid conduc-
tors and cable sheaths, design aspects predetermine the
minimum wall thicknesses so that the result is relatively
large conductor cross sections which decrease with rated
voltage. In the case of high voltages therefore, the CGI
cable is predestined for transmitting very high currents
and has considerably better properties than the conven-
tional cable.
Where long transmission distances are involved the ränge
of practical applications of a transmission medium de-
pends Iargely on the amount of its reactive losses [4],
The reactive loss curves for various transmission media at
420 kV are shown in Fig. 2 for comparison. The origin of
the curves at I = 0 corresponds to the capacitive charging
power of the corresponding system under no load. As
168
Fig. 2 - Characteristic curves of reactive losses
Q of various transmission media at 420 kV
a = Overhead lines with stranded conductors
6, = Single-phase C G I cable without sheath
current
b„ = Single-phase C G I cable with sheath
current
ö 3 = Three-phase C G I cable
c = Conventional cable
Fig. 3 - Single-phase C G I cable
current increases, this charging power is compensated
more and more by the inductive losses until the ideal
operating condition is reached where the natural power
curve ( P n a t ) intersects the zero line. At this point there
are zero reactive losses. If the current is further increased
the inductive reactive losses increase rapidly.
The curves b in Fig. 2 represent the reactive loss charac-
teristics of CGI cables where represents a single-phase
CGI cable without the sheath current, b 2 represents a
single-phase CGI cable with the füll sheath current and
the curve between these two, i.e. b 3 applies to a three-
phase CGI cable. The surge impedance load (SIL) of
CGI cables is 3 to 4 times greater than that of overhead
lines. Consequently the transmission properties of a CGI
cable correspond to those of three or four parallel over-
head lines.
The limiting value to which a CGI cable can be conti-
nuously loaded without additional cooling depends not
only on its dimensions but also to a large extent on the
ambient conditions, i.e. primarily on the depth to which
it is buried and the thermal properties of the soil.
Conventional cables (curve c in Fig. 2) represent a high
capacitive loading over the whole ränge of Operations.
Although the characteristic curve is basically similar to
Brown Boveri Rev. 4 - 7 4
Fig. 4 - Three-phase C G I cable - conductor and
support insulator assembly being fitted into
outer sheath

that of overhead lines and CGI cables the surge impe- tween the conductor and the cable sheath and appropriate
dance load is always considerably higher than the thermal measures are taken to prevent wear due to friction.
limit. Consequently, only the initial ränge, with virtually There are no short circuit forces to be considered between
constant, high capacitive reactive power, is of practical conductor and cable sheath in single-phase CGI cables
interest. Compensating the reactive power would be a because the individual forces are mutually compensating
costly proposition. in this cylindrical, symmetrica! arrangement.
In the case of three-phase CGI cables each conductor is
supported by two insulators arranged in the shape of
Design Features a vee (Fig. 4) mounted on a ring which permits movement
to take place relative to the cable sheath. This arrangement
Operational and economics aspects are the factors which has the considerable advantage that there is no solid
decide whether single-phase or three-phase CGI cables insulating material between the three conductors, thus
will be used. Over short transmission distances the single- preventing any creepage paths from forming. The axes of
phase version is more favourable because the potheads the two supports are in line with the supports of the other
with the outdoor bushings or the individual phase junc- conductors so that in the event of a short circuit the forces
tions to the transformer and switching stations are simpler occurring are only tensile or compressive. This arrange-
and less expensive to produce. Where longer distances are
involved, and particularly where the cables are laid under-
ground, the three-phase CGI cable becomes more eco-
nomical because the space occupied is considerably smal-
ler and thus the high proportion of the costs for burying
the cables is considerably reduced. Fig. 5 - Compressed-gas insulated cable with bulkhead insulator and
ball joint
Single and three-phase CGI cables are produced as rigid
sections of about 12 m long comprising cable sheath,
aluminium conductor and support insulators preassembled
in the factory, tested and fitted with gas and dust proof
seals ready for transport. The units are welded together
(conductor and cable sheath) on site and precautions are
taken to prevent ingress of dust or other pollution during
this process.

Insulation
Because of the large number of support insulators re-
quired between the conductor and the cable sheath they
must be easy to produce and must have ideal properties in
respect of the electrical, thermal and mechanical require-
ments. In the case of a single-phase CGI cable these con-
ditions are best met with a three-legged arrangement as
shown in Fig. 3. The conductor can slide in an aluminium
ring to facilitate the difference in thermal expansion be-
BROWN BOVERI 163506.1

Brown Boveri Rev. 4-74 1

 ment eliminates any cantilever or component forces which
are far more difficult to overcome.
[p.u.; Where long transmission distances are involved the gas
Chambers are divided into self-contained lengths of about
200 m to facilitate improved monitoring. At the bulk-
heads between the compartments the distance between the
phase conductors and to earth is increased by about 20%
so that the disc insulator in the bulkhead has a greater
dielectric strength and has a correspondingly larger margin
of safety (Fig. 5).

Changing Direction
Directional changes of up to 5° are permissible between
adjacent tube sections when they are installed on site.
Consequently, where the 12 m long sections are installed
the minimum radius for a change of direction is 140 m.
Shorter tube sections permit smaller bend radii to be
achieved. Ball-type swivel joints are available for sudden
changes in direction of up to 90° (Fig. 5). Where space is
restricted and complex cable runs are involved in densely
built-up areas, this arrangement of infinitely variable
changes in direction has a considerable advantage over
Standard high-voltage cables.

Monitoring the Gas Density

Fig. 6 - Curve of field strength £ f o r a single-phase C G I cable
The dotted line shows the improved field strength distribution attained
by special Support design with encapsulated electrodes.
As the individual sections of a CGI cable are welded
together there are no seals involved. Each welded joint
is tested several times for leakage and therefore the density
of the insulating medium, and thus also its insulation
strength, remains constant over many years. Neverthe-
less, for safety reasons, the density of each gas compart-
ment must be monitored. This is carried out by density
monitors whose reliability has been proved over several
years of operation in SF 6 switchgear plants.

Corrosion Protection
Fig. 7 - Curves of field strength between the electrodes ( E a n d to earth
( E 2 ) for a three-phase C G I cable The aluminium sheaths of single-phase CGI cables are
fitted with a corrosion protection which may take the
[p.u.] form of a glass fibre bandage with several layers of tar/
3
£ epoxy resin coating before they are buried.
\ 1 / The steel casings of the three-phase CGI cables are fitted
\\ \7( f t ^/ with a 3-5 mm thick plastic coating which has been proved
on oil and gas pipelines.
A specially developed paint coating has proved itself
adequate for above-ground installation of CGI cable.
\\ ii
\\ ii
\ i
Field D i s t r i b u t i o n and Dielectric Stresses
ii in CGI Cables
ii
ii In contrast to the ideal even distribution of stresses in the
—if— ii dielectric (SF 6 ) in an homogenous field the field strength
*lV3-. distribution in a symmetrical cylindrical field (as is the

170 Brown Boveri Rev. 4-74

case in single-phase CGI cables) varies considerably 3® 1© 3®
according to location. The maximum field strength al- 40,3 30 22,8 [i.Q/m
ways occurs at the surfaces of the inner conductor and
reduces constantly towards the outer sheath. As can be
easily proved by calculation the stress at the insulating
medium becomes a minimum where the radius of the
conductor corresponds to the eth part (e = 2-718) of
the cable sheath radius. As a result, the field strength at
the conductor is also approximately three times greater
than at the outer sheath (see Fig. 6). The streng local
influence on field strength in this cylindrical configuration
enables the field distribution to be evenly distributed by
appropriate design of support insulators and their elec-
trodes such that the maximum stress at the support and in
its immediate vicinity is smaller than in an undisturbed
field (dotted curve in Fig. 6). With suitable design the
supports do not represent weak points in the symmetrical
cylindrical field as they are subjected to lower dielectric
stresses than the rest of the busbar.
In the case of three-phase CGI cables there are two
different stresses superimposed on each other. The field
distribution between the eccentric conductors and the
cable sheath is very similar to that of a single-phase cable
[GVA]
and about the same distances are required for the same
rated and surge voltages (see curve E2 in Fig. 7 compared
Fig. 8 - Active losses P of C G I cables quoted in the Table in relation to
with Fig. 6). The stress between the conductors (curve Ex current and power at 420 kV
in Fig. 7) is more evenly distributed, i.e. it does not drop
to such low values as curve E 2 . Nevertheless, the distance
between the conductors must be approximately the same
as to earth because the normal stress at that point is
V3 times smaller and also because it is normally required
that the surge level between conductors should be greater
than to earth.
These considerations result in an outside diameter for A c t i v e Losses and H e a t Dissipation
three-phase CGI cables which is 1-6 times larger than the
diameter for single-phase CGI cables. Three-phase CGI No direct comparison can be made between the trans-
cables thus require a correspondingly narrower trench mission capacities of overhead lines, cables and CGI
and the savings in cable laying costs and right of way cables on the basis of the conductor cross sections shown
represent one of the major advantages of the three-phase in Fig. 1, firstly because the cross section is not the only
arrangement. determining factor for the active losses, and secondly

Comparison of active losses

Single-phase CGI cable Three-phase CGI cable
[j.O/m [xQ/m

D.C. resistance of conductor of 5000 mm 2 cross section

aluminium at 50°C 3 x 6 - 5 = 19-5 3 x 6 - 5 = 19-5
Additional a.c. resistance (skin effect, proximity effect) 3 x 1 - 0 = 3-0 3 x 1 - 1 = 3-3
Sheath resistance (sheath current or eddy current, hysteresis) 3 x 2 - 5 = 7-5 0 to 17-5

Total 30-0 22-8 to 40-3*

* The lower value applies for cable sheaths of non-conducting materials (and also approximately for stainless steel and aluminium) and the higher
value for magnetizable steels.

Brown Boveri Rev. 4-74 17


200032.1
Fig. 9 - Direction and magnitude of the force with respect to time of
forces acting in phase R
F o r symbols see text.
AB = 1 0 0 kgf/m
because overhead lines have better cooling conditions
than underground transmission media. Also, because
of its larger surface area a CGI cable can dissipate ap-
proximately twice as much heat as a Standard cable for
the same ambient conditions.
Some figures for active losses in single and three-phase
CGI cables are quoted in the Table for comparison.
The active losses in relation to current loading for the
three versions quoted in the Table with 30, 22-8 and 40-3
(i.Q/m are compared in Fig. 8.
Assuming the most adverse conditions, i.e. a cable depth
of 2 m, a specific thermal resistance of the soil of
172
100°C . cm/W, and a maximum permissible temperature
of the outer sheath of 40 °C a three-phase CGI cable can
continually dissipate about 70 W/m at a soil temperature of
15°C and a single-phase CGI cable, because of its larger
surface area, can dissipate about 80 W/m to the surround-
ings (points 1, 2 and 3 in Fig. 8). Under the assumed
boundary conditions and with the dimensions as shown,
the versions shown in the Table can continuously trans-
mit between 1-3 and 1-8 kA. If special material is used to
fill up the cable trench or if the local soil moisture content
is high due to close proximity to the ground water level,
the specific thermal resistance of the earth can be up to
60°C . cm/W and the transmission capacity rises by about
30% to 1-7 to 2-3 kA (points 1', 2' and 3' in Fig. 8). If the
local thermal conductivity is lower this does not auto-
matically mean a corresponding reduction in the trans-
mission capacity but primarily only a slight rise in the
assumed casing temperature of 40°C.
The problem of thermal conductivity through the earth is
fundamentally similar for CGI cables as for conventional
cables. Where very high transmission powers are involved
the CGI cable may also require supplementary cooling.
The conditions for this are very favourable because the
internal thermal resistance of the CGI cables is compara-
tively low. In ordinary cables the heat transfer between
conductor and cable outer surface is exclusively by con-
duction. The gaseous insulating medium of the CGI cable
facilitates additional heat transfer due to radiation and
convection [5], Consequently the temperature difference
between conductor and sheath of an underground CGI
cable without supplementary cooling is only about 5°C as
compared with 15 to 20°C with a Standard cable. With a
maximum conductor temperature of 85 °C and cooling of
the outer sheath surface to 15°C (AT = 70 deg. C) these
temperature differences can be increased by a factor of
14 for CGI cables and by a factor of 3-5 to 4-5 for con-
ventional cables. In other words this means that by direct
cooling of the outer sheath surface (e.g. water cooling) the
power transmission of a CGI cable can be increased by
about a factor of 4 whereas a factor of about 2 can be
achieved for Standard cables. Consequently, with supple-
mentary cooling the versions quoted in the Table can
transmit about 7 to 9 kA which corresponds to 5 to
6 GVA at 420 kV.
Indirect cooling by means of water pipes parallel to the
transmission systems has been used only in rare cases
where Standard cables are concerned because the trans-
mission power can be increased only by about 30 to 40%.
On the other hand, in the case of CGI cables a simple and
inexpensive cooling water tube arranged parallel to the
cable can double the transmission capacity, i.e. the ver-
sions shown in the Table are increased to about 2-6 to
3-6 kA which corresponds to 2 to 2-6 GVA at 420 kV [6],
The transmission capacities required today and in the
foreseeable future are easily achieved with this system of
Brown Boveri Rev. 4-74
parallel water cooling. It is not until higher values are Bibliography
required that it will be necessary to employ a rather more
expensive direct cooling system. Direct or indirect cooling [1] G. Mauthe, P. Högg, W. Honsberger: SF 6 switchgear
of CGI cables makes them largely independent of the type ELK for 145 to 525 kV. Brown Boveri Rev. 60
thermal properties of the earth which can only be approxi- 1973 (4) 140-152.
mated and which can vary considerably with respect to
time, e.g. due to a drop in the ground water level. [2] E. Abilgaard: Zukunftsaussichten für die Übertragung
elektrischer Energie mit Freileitungen und Kabeln. Ener-
gie u. Technik 25 1973 (4) 101-110.
[3] A. Eidinger: Künftige Möglichkeiten für die Übertra-
Forces B e t w e e n t h e C o n d u c t o r s gung höchster Leistungen. Elektrotech. u. Maschinenb. 90
1973 (6) 269-275.
Assuming that there is füll current return through the
cable sheath a short circuit does not create any forces in [4] A. Eidinger, C.D. Flössel: Energieübertragung mittels
a single-phase CGI cable. In a three-phase CGI cable, Rohrgaskabel - ein Vergleich mit den konventionellen
however, there are attractive and repulsive forces which Übertragungsmitteln. Scientific contributions to the inter-
vary with respect to time between the individual conductors national symposium of high voltage engineering, Munich
and these must be taken into consideration at the design University, March 1972, pp. 542-549.
stage. Single, two and three-phase short circuits can occur
[5] H.J. Haubrich: Thermisch zulässige Dauerbelastbar-
on an overhead line connected to a three-phase CGI cable.
keit in Erde verlegter Rohrgaskabel mit SF 6 -Isolation.
As maximum stress occurs in a three-phase short circuit
Elektrotech. Z. - A 93 1972 (9) 504-508.
we will consider this case more closely.
Between the conductors arranged in an equilateral triangle [6] A. Eidinger, W. Klement: Underground power trans-
there are forces acting which originate from the current mission using compressed-gas insulated cables. CIGRE
flowing in the adjacent phases and they can be combined 1974, Report 21-11.
to form a resultant force for each conductor. The curve
of this resultant force with respect to time for phase R
is shown in Fig. 9. It was assumed that the distance be-
tween phases was 26-8 cm with an asymmetrical short-
circuit current of 50 kA (r.m.s.) or 127-5 kA (peak). The
short circuit was initiated at the instant when maximum
asymmetry occurred in phase R and there was 50%
asymmetry in phases S and T. It can be seen that the force
vector always goes from point R to any arbitrary point on
the periphery of the ellipses, where two numbers in se-
quence indicate a time difference of 30°el (i.e. point 6 =
180°el = 10 ms, point 18 = 540°el = 30 ms following
the start of the short circuit). The maximum force occur-
ring (point 6) equals 1060 kgf/m.
The above calculation applies only for a CGI cable with
an outer casing of insulating material. In the case of alu-
minium or steel tubes the forces occurring are reduced by
10 to 25% because the eddy currents flowing in the tube
reduce the effect of the forces.

Brown Boveri Rev. 4 - 7 17

Switching Capacitive Currents with
Minimum-Oil Circuit-Breakers
P. Larsson and R. Wehrli
The application ränge for switching capacitive currents and 2-0 times the power frequency voltage phase-to-earth with
the voltage and current stresses occurring are discussed in effectively earthed neutrals of the supply network and the
brief It is shown how restriking is eliminated during inter- capacitor,
ruption by installing an oil injection pump and also how a
damping unit reduces the pressure waves when switching
capacitor banks in parallel. The minimum-oil breaker can
also cope with these difficult switching conditions.
Introduction
Of the many requirements made today of h.v. circuit-
breakers two special problems are dealt with in the follow-
ing, i.e. restrike-free interruption of capacitive currents
and the effects and control of the making arc with rapid
current rise, e.g. when closing on capacitor banks or
cables.
Interruption of capacitive currents in general, i.e. from
capacitor banks, no load lines and cables, has already been
widely discussed in the literature [1, 2]. Special attention
has been paid to the voltage stresses occurring as the
breaker opens. It should be noted here that the voltage
across the breaker is as follows:
Fig. 1 - Voltage eurve with respect to time during a capacitive inter-
ruption
u = Driving voltage
us = Voltage across breaker pole
Usi = Voltage across the breaker pole approximately 7 ms after
contact Separation
usmax M a x i m u m voltage across the breaker pole for restrike-free
switching
174
- in the case of capacitor banks [1]:
2-5 times with isolated neutral points.
- with no-load lines:
2-0 times the power frequency voltage phase-to-earth
increased by the influence of the non-interrupted adjacent
phases and the Ferranti effect [2]. The latter is only ap-
proximately 2% on a 200 km line and is of significance
only from 400 km upwards (then about 9 %).
These phenomena are considered as known factors in
this contribution. It is also assumed that the breakers
interrupt without restriking. The specific problems occur-
ring with minimum-oil breakers are discussed.
During closing there is generally pre-arcing in the break
a few milliseconds before the contacts close, i.e. there is a
making arc. However, if the current rises rapidly, such as
when connecting capacitors in parallel, a corresponding
pressure surge in the oil quenching Chamber must be
expected.
Interrupting Capacitive Currents
w i t h M i n i m u m - O i l Breakers
Interrupting capacitive currents is mainly a problem of
the dielectric strength of the break, i.e. the distance be-
tween the fixed and the moving contacts. In order to
ensure restrike-free switching the dielectric strength of
the break must always be greater during the entire inter-
ruption process than the corresponding instantaneous
voltage stress.
Figure 1 shows a simple example of the voltage/time
curve for a breaker pole at a rated frequency of 50 Hz
while interrupting a capacitor; the neutral points of the
supply network and the capacitor are effectively earthed.
The voltage stress with respect to time can be derived from
(t) = XJ (1 - coscot) (1)
M s
Twice the phase voltage occurs across the breaker pole
half a cycle after quenching. However, this maximum
value is not as significant as the specific voltage stress
q (t). If the moving contact travels at constant velocity
v then
us(t) Ü(l-cosmt)
( 2 )
,(/) w
If the arc is quenched in the first pole to clear shortly
after contact Separation, the maximum specific voltage
stress observed after about 7 ms is as shown in Fig. 2. If
quenching takes place later the stress is lower because of
the greater travel
Brown Boveri Rev. 4 - 7 4
It can be seen from Eq. (2) that the specific voltage stress
depends very largely on the velocity of the moving con-
1,6
tact. At the maximum value after 7 ms there is a mean ß
field strength of: M
f - . >
\\
£7.1-7.10 kV \ \

/
q max = — (3) 1,2 / / X \

/ //'/
v. n7 cm / ' /
\

where Ü in kV 1,0 /
\
/
v in m/s /
0,8
Figure 3 shows the corresponding maxima for the specific / / /
voltage stress in relation to the line-to-line voltage for
three different velocities and for the critical instant of
0,6
// /
/

quenching. The minimum velocity can be determined for

0,4
// /
/

a given voltage and a given permissible mean stress. If this 0,2 / /

'
is not attained, restriking and its associated overvoltages
10 ms 12
can occur. t 200052.1
In its degassed and dry condition, oil has a very high Fig. 2 - Specific voltage stress Q at break
dielectric strength; if the oil is under a given pressure a = Arc quenched at instant contacts separate
exerted by a gas it will absorb gas in proportion to the b = Arc quenched 1 ms after contacts separate
pressure but this gas separates out immediately the pres- c Arc quenched as a but with higher contact velocity
sure is reduced. As the breaker oil is adjacent to the air
space which is at atmospheric pressure the oil will absorb
gas corresponding to this pressure after a certain time.
When the contact moves to the open position a vacuum is
created in the quenching Chamber and this draws air from The pressure in relation to the displaced quantity and the
the oil, considerably reducing the dielectric strength of velocity is determined by calculation and given in Fig. 5.
the oil. To eliminate this an oil pump rigidly connected It is thus possible to optimize the pressure generated for a
to the moving contact injects oil into the quenching Cham- given velocity to arrive at a maximum dielectric strength
ber (Fig. 4). This creates a high pressure and the high of the oil. The maximum pressure depends largely on the
dielectric strength of the oil is maintained. At a given losses so that it is also necessary to optimize the flow
velocity of the moving contact this considerably increases cross sections.
the resistance to restriking. The quenching Chamber is This optimization has been carried out for each model of
flushed with fresh oil. our ränge of minimum-oil breakers. The results obtained
The oil flow is calculated by means of Bernoulli's formula are described in [3, 4, 5, 6, 7].
fl
ri , 2
Vi = P 2
-i ^ ' 2
+ k (4)
and the continuity law
Q = V l Al = v2 A2 (5)
where Fig. 3 - Maximum voltage stress g in relation to the line-to-line voltage
U and the velocity of the moving contact
k = losses 60r
Pi = pressure at pump piston N/m 2
P2 = pressure in the quenching zone N/m 2
H = density kg/m 3
Vi, V 2 = flow velocities m/s
Aly A5 = flow cross sections m2
3
= displaced quantity m /s

On the assumption that the losses in the velocity ränge

concerned are approximately proportional to the quantity
of oil displaced by the pump, the pressure generated Ap =
p 2 - p x can be described as follows:
80 100 120 140 160 kV 200
Ap ~ a Q - b <22 (6) —- U

Brown Boveri Rev. 4 - 7 4 175

 AP

— Q
Fig. 5 - Pressure curve \ p in relation to the displaced quantity Q and
velocities v1 and v 2

It should also be mentioned here that oil injection has

advantages not only during interrupting capacitive cur-
rents but also in interrupting inductive currents with high
natural frequencies of transient recovery voltage.

Closing w i t h Capacitive Currents

The following deals only with the making currents and

not with the closing overvoltages.
When connecting capacitor banks in parallel for compen-
sation purposes, or cables, inrush currents occur having
high frequencies and high amplitudes and these can re-
present excessive stresses at the quenching Chambers.
Figure 6 shows the switching diagram for two capacitor
banks A and B which are approximately the same size,
where bank A is already in operation. If the connecting
lines between the two banks are short the transient pheno-
menon occurs virtually exclusively between the banks
when bank B is switched in. The inrush current has a
characteristically high natural frequency / e . Ignoring the
resistance losses this is
Fig. 4 - Design arrangement of a main-break section 1
1 = Spring loaded valve
(7)
2 7i j / z . res • Cres
2 = U p p e r contact assembly
3 = Extinction Chamber where Lves and C r e s are the resultant inductances or
4 = Inserts
5 = Moving contact capacitances, and this is generally within the ränge of
6 = P u m p unit several kHz, depending on the plant layout. We can
7 = Lower contact assembly
calculate the maximum peak inrush current
8 = Main-break operating cylinder
9 = Unidirectional aperture

f
Cres
10 = Contact drive section (8)
11 = D a m p i n g unit Lres

176 Brown Boveri Rev. 4-74

and this can reach values of from 10 to more than 50 kA.
Virtually the same considerations apply when connecting
cables in parallel. However, as the inductances in the •S, i, Cj
circuit are larger, the frequency of the restriking voltage <* u
II
and the current amplitude become smaller.
Figure 4 shows the design arrangement of a quenching S{ Ly C,
Chamber for a minimum-oil breaker. On closing, i.e. when " " ~ I I
the moving contact approaches the fixed contact, pre-
ignition occurs. The pre-ignition time depends on the
instantaneous voltage, the instantaneous dielectric strength
across the break, and on the velocity of the moving con-
tact, and can be of the order of several ms. The current
flow begins at the instant of pre-ignition and the energy
S L C
stored in the capacitor bank is released within a very 2 ^ 2 || 2

short time (at a frequency of 1000 Hz the cycle is 1 ms)

creating a pressure wave in the breaker and this spreads S
2 C
2
at high velocity (approximately 1000 mm/ms). The rate of 200056.1
rise and the amplitude of the pressure wave are the deter-
Fig. 6 - Circuit arrangement for switching in a capacitor bank when an
mining factors for the mechanical stress in the quenching identical bank is already in operation
Chamber. The amplitude and rate of rise, in turn, depend Cj, C 2 = Capacitances
on the magnitude and frequency of the inrush current L x , i 2 = Inductances
and can impose excessive stress on the active part of the N = Network
SL3 S2 = Breakers
quenching Chamber.
In order to control the stress in the Chamber the maximum
permissible closing current of the breaker must be deter-
mined taking the frequency of the inrush current into
account. In determining the maximum values for practica!
applications, the following considerations have shown Installing a specially designed air damping unit around the
good agreement with investigations carried out: The effect break in the quenching Chamber (item 11 in Fig. 4) to
of the pressure wave is largely dependent on the arc some of our breakers has made it possible to reduce the
energy E converted during the pre-ignition period. This pressure surges and increase their ränge of application.
must not exceed the maximum permissible value £ m ax at The behaviour of type F breakers was tested during
any frequency. If the arc voltage (7l is considered as commissioning at a 400 kV capacitor installation with
approximately constant we have 600 Mvar for series compensation. The main task of the
l
breaker is to bridge the capacitor bank in the event of a
»L L
short circuit. The inrush current occurring can reach peak
E = /{ULI . |*| . dt = \Ul\ .f\i\ . dt < £ m a x (9) values of about 60 kA at a frequency of around 800 Hz.
o o
The investigations show that the breaker is capable of
The maximum value can be considered as the energy con- dealing with this extreme switching condition.
verted during closing on a short circuit at rated breaker
frequency. The corresponding energy content for a typical
pre-ignition time is shown shaded in Fig. 7. The energy
content must not be greater for any other frequency. Fig. 7 - Curve of maximum making current i with a pre-ignition time t
From Eq. (9) we can calculate the maximum permissible
peak current I for a given natural frequency fe of the
making current * = / . sin (2n ,fe . t).
From this it follows that the permissible peak current is
considerably lower for 250 Hz and 1000 Hz than at rated
frequency. The circuit damping becomes noticeable at
5000 Hz and somewhat higher peak values are permissible.
Figure 8 shows the approximate curve of maximum per-
missible peak values of inrush currents in relation to the
frequency. The curve drops at lower frequencies but rises
again for higher frequencies depending on the circuit
damping.

Brown Boveri Rev. 4-74 17

 [5] R. Wehrli: Minimum oil content circuit-breakers of
the type F ränge, network and special tests. Bull. Oerlikon
1969 (391) 2-8.
[6] H. Widmer, W. Latal: Type F outdoor minimum-oil
circuit-breakers. Brown Boveri Rev. 57 1970 (12) 527-538.
[7] A. Ganz, E. Berger: Type T minimum-oil circuit-
breakers for 36 to 170 kV. Brown Boveri Rev. 57 1970 (12)
539-547.

Fig. 8 - Maximum permissible making current / in relation to natural

frequency / e

In order to reduce the stress on the breaker it is also

possible to increase the inductance of the circuit by
installing chokes and this, primarily, reduces the com-
pensating current.

Conclusion

The pressure in the quenching Chamber can be increased

by installing an oil injection pump rigidly connected to
the moving contact. This increase in pressure permits not
only restrike-free interruption of capacitive currents but
also reliable interruption of inductive currents at high
frequencies. An additional damping unit permits high
natural frequencies and extremely high rates of current
rise, i.e. the breaker can be used for switching capacitor
banks in parallel. The special features make the breakers
universally suited to all practical applications.

Bibliography

[1] P. Baltensperger: Switching high-voltage capacitors

with airblast circuit-breakers. Brown Boveri Rev. 43 1956
(8) 287-295.
[2] P. Baltensperger: Line-dropping under extremely
severe conditions in the 300 kV network of the Quebec
Hydro-Electric Commission. Brown Boveri Rev. 48 1961
(7) 376-380.
[3] H. Manz: Type F circuit-breaker system. Bull. Oerli-
kon 1966 (367) 2-9.
[4] A. Käch: Series M medium voltage circuit-breakers
for indoor installation. Bull. Oerlikon 1966 (367) 17-23.

178 Brown Boveri Rev. 4 - 7 4

Overvoltage Protection for Totally Enclosed
SF 6 Switchgear and CGI Cables

U. Burger
still requires an effective overvoltage protection system
Totally enclosed SFf) switchgear is being used on an ever and the question arises as to which is the most favourable
wider scale. Although totally enclosed lightning arresters location for it. Protection must be provided primarily for
are also available it is often desirable to provide protection the most expensive object, i.e. the transformer. In an
by means of conventional lightning arresters at the junction SF 6 plant it is connected through the overhead line by a
between the overhead line and enclosure. The extent to section of CGI cable. In the totally enclosed SF 6 insulated
which protection of the equipment, especially the trans- lightning arresters available today the conductor is in an
former, is provided is discussed here. insulating tube filled with either nitrogen or air and this
tube is enclosed in an SF 6 filled housing. However, a con-
ventional lightning arrester at the entrance to the plant at
the junction with the overhead line involves less expen-
diture. The question then arises as to whether an SF 6
insulated, totally enclosed lightning arrester or a conven-
tional arrester is to be provided for protecting the plant,
particularly the transformer. The degree of protection
The Problem provided by the second, simpler arrangement in respect of
the transformer is investigated in the following. A Com-
Rising power consumption in agglomeration areas and puter programme [1] was made available for the relevant
shortage of space will increase the use of SF 6 switchgear calculations.
over the next few years. Although it is theoretically pos-
sible to provide the link between power stations and
distribution centres with materials available today in the
form of cables (conventional or compressed gas insulated Basic Considerations
using SF e ) the overhead line will always remain an eco-
nomical means of transporting electrical energy. However, Plant Layout
the overhead grid is subject to atmospheric faults. Inten- A switchgear plant generally has a complex configuration.
sive lightning research over the last twenty years has pro- It would be beyond the scope of this contribution to
vided us with plenty of information and also a better investigate all combinations of feeders, busbars and con-
knowledge of lightning discharges. As investigations have nections to the transformers. The most unfavourable case
shown, the more important lightning data can be gained in respect of stresses due to overvoltages is surely the
by Statistical methods. The results indicate that in spite simple arrangement shown in Fig. 1 on which this investi-
of all protection measures which it would be possible to gation is based. A long overhead line is connected to a
apply to an overhead line the probability of a lightning transformer by means of an SF 6 CGI cable. This case can
stroke or a flashover between phases cannot be entirely also occur in a very complex plant where various feeders
eliminated. The expensive equipment in the various plants to and from the busbar are disconnected.
The same surge impedance is assumed for both the over-
head line and the lead to the lightning arrester. The values
chosen are given in Table I.
Fig. 1 - Layout of plant under investigation
= Line impedance
D = Distance between junction of overhead line and cable and
the nearest tower
Table I
RE = Earth resistance of tower
Zx, t2 = Line impedance and length of connection to arrester Surge Length
Z 3 ) /3 = Line impedance and length of C G I cable or length of totally
enclosed plant between junction 1 and transformer T
impedance
T = Transformer
1 = Junction between overhead line and enclosure or arrester Overhead line Z x = 350 Q o o , D = 250 m
connection point
2 = Arrester Arrester connecting line Z 2 = 350 Q 0 to 20 m
CGI cable Z 3 = 75 Q Oto 100(500) m

Transformer
From the consideration that the maximum voltage at the
transformer occurs during the first 10 JAS during the very
rapid phenomena occurring here, the equivalent circuit

Brown Boveri Rev. 4-74 17

[p.u.] Lightning Arresters, Basis of the ' Per- Unit' Representation
3,0
In order to derive a generally applicable Statement inde-
pendent of the supply voltage the overvoltages are cal-
culated as per-unit values of the lightning arrester rated
voltage (r.m.s.). The earthing factor c e represents the rela-
2,6
tionship between the lightning arrester rated voltage t/ a
and the line-to-line operating voltage Um.
2,4
JTa
Ce =
2,2 Um

ce is a characteristic value of the transmission system and

2,0 0,2 0,3 0,5 0,7 1 2 3 5 7 10 [[«] is normally 1-0 for isolated networks or systems with arc
t 200039.1
suppression coils and 0-7 to 0-9 with solid earthing.
Fig. 2 - Response characteristic of arrester
In the IEC recommendations for arresters [2] the pro-
Time 1 is shown to a logarithmic Scale.
tection level zip of the lightning arrester is determined by
the quotient of the peak protection level Np and the rated
arrester voltage t/ a (r.m.s.).

Np

diagram for the transformer must be represented cor-

rectly only for this period of time. The magnetic pheno-
mena have a longer time constant and can be disregarded.
The input capacitance to earth and the line impedance of
the winding connected in parallel with it are therefore an
adequate Simulation of the transformer. The earth capa-
citance CT was chosen as 5 nF (with alternatives 2 nF
and 10 nF) and the line impedance was set at 10 kO. The
In the latest IEC recommendations for insulation coor-
dination [3] however, the protection level is related to the
peak value of the phase voltage in undisturbed operation:
- * _ All3
CAnV2

neutral was assumed to have a direct earth. With an earthing factor

t/a ]/2

'• = ^ = w = < 816

"
the design according to both recommendations leads to
the same protection level, i.e.

Fig. 3 - Peak values U and rates of rise s of overvoltages in relation to

rated arrester voltages l / a for conversion to reference values [p.u.] or The determining values for an arrester are the sparkover
[p-u./fxs]
voltage and the residual voltage. A generalized character-
A = Rate of rise according to I E C recommendations, publication
99-1 for testing arresters
istic of the sparkover voltage with a protection factor wp
RE = Earthing resistance of tower resulting in voltage U at a peak of approximately 2-3 is shown in Fig. 2. This shows an
current surge of 100 kA increased sparkover voltage in the steep front region, i.e.
with a rise time of less than 1 [is. This can be traced to a
[fl] [kV/[is] [kV]
40
4000
discharge delay which is a typical feature of all flashovers.
The representation in per-unit values, i.e. independent of
the rated voltage, can be justified in the voltage ränge
between about 100 and 700 kV in which we are interested.
The slight deviations occurring will not affect the result
30 to any appreciable degree. Adjacent to this ränge of very
steep surges the value is mostly less than 2-3 for Standard
lightning surges of 1-2/50 [xs, and can be further reduced
by proper selection of the control elements.
The residual voltage, the second characteristic value of
20 -2000 an arrester, can easily be reduced to 2-2 times the rated
arrester voltage with magnetically blown spark gaps.

10 Effects of Atmospheric Faults

A lightning stroke a long distance away, and whose re-

flections at the location of the stroke are not taken into
account, makes its presence known by the arrival of a
voltage wave. For a first consideration let us assume that
this wave has an unlimited linear front.

180 Brown Boveri Rev. 4 - 7 4

Gradients: 1-5, 3, 4-5 and 6 p.u./[xs
[p.u]
Figure 3 shows the relationship between the p.u. values/jxs
and the gradients in kV/fxs for the various rated voltages
of the arrester (see also under the heading 'conversions' in
the following). Curve A shows the voltage gradient for
N.
the IEC recommendation for arresters, whose maximum
is 1200 kV/fxs.
The highest values for gradients are to be expected with
restrikes or multiple strokes. At the origin of the over-
voltage the former have virtually the same gradient as the
collapse of the air gap in a time of less than 0-05 jxs.
With follow up strokes the maximum current gradient can
be in the region of 80 kA/fxs. The manner in which the
very steep waves are damped is dealt with in the conclusion
to this contribution.
In order to further refine the assumptions a second con-
sideration is made where the steepness of the overvoltage
wave is held constant above a given value. The assumption
that the tail of the wave is horizontal can be justified for
the short phenomena considered here.
Peak voltages: 3-5 and 5-5 p.u.
These values are also shown in Fig. 3.
The determining factor for close-up lightning strokes is
the impressed current. An investigation into the measure-
ment made at Monte San Salvatore near Lugano shows
the representative surge current to have a rise time of
about 1 [xs and a time to half-value on the wave-scale of
100 fj.s. The current peak is assumed to be so high that an
overvoltage at the location of the stroke is 1 -5, 3 and 6 p.u.
Holding Level Nt
It is a feature of the fifth edition of the IEC recommenda-
tions for insulation coordination [3] that a wide ränge of
values is allowed for selecting the holding voltage for a
given supply voltage. Figure 4 shows the upper and lower
values for the holding voltages under the surge loading
(the p.u. reference value is the r.m.s. value of the rated
arrester voltage at ce = 0-816 or the peak value of the
phase voltage). These curves are used in the conclusions
to this article for determining the results for a given plant.
Overvoltage Values at t h e Transformer
Conversions
All results given in the following are in p.u. values related
to the rated arrester voltage. In respect of insulation
coordination, however, it would be desirable to know the
overvoltages in relation to the peak value of the phase-
to-earth voltages. As stated above these two reference
values coincide at an earthing factor of c e = 0-816. This
case is favourable in as much as the earthing factor of
about 80 % is very common. However, the arrester must be
designed for higher or lower rated voltages depending on
the installed capacity and the length of the line involved.
The overvoltages shown in the following, expressed as p.u.
values, are generally applicable in so far as they can be
linearly converted from c e = 0-816 for other values of c e
or other rated arrester voltages. This conversion is also
Brown Boveri Rev. 4-74
6
//
i
V
m
y/y)
m
V//.
200 300 400 500 600 700[kV]800
100
•u 200041.1
Fig. 4 - R a n g e of permissible holding levels NT for insulation coordina-
tion according to IEC recommendations, publication 71, 5th edition, 1972
U = Peak phase voltage or rated arrester voltage (r.m.s.) for an earthing
factor of ce = 0-816
permissible if the arrester sparkover voltage is altered in
relation to the rated voltage, and here the reference value
is 2-3 p.u.
Wedge-Shaped Waves
Let us first consider the case of an arrester directly at the
input of an SF 6 CGI cable. Figure 5 shows the results for
a transformer earth capacitance of 5 nF. The overvoltage
at the transformer increases rapidly at first with increasing
cable length but the curve flattens olf later. The well
known expression
I
AM = 2 .s .
is shown by the dotted line for the gradient of the 3 and
6 p.u./[LS. This equation represents an overvoltage wave
increasing at a constant gradient and travelling past the
arrester towards the end of the line (assuming the same
line impedance throughout). The voltage at the end of
the line increases by AM above the protection level of the
arrester. The distance between the arrester and the end of
the line is /, s is the gradient and c is the speed of light.
It can be seen that initially, the dotted curve is almost
identical with the measured values. This indicates that
for very short CGI cables the line impedance is not the
determining factor but the travel time. In Fig. 6 an attempt
is made to show the influence of the earth capacitance of
the simulated transformer. The curves show unexpected
behaviour in as far as the overvoltages at the transformer
tend to be rather higher with larger capacitances. By way
of example Fig. 7 shows the voltage curve at the trans-
former and at the arrester with a rate of rise of the arriving
wave of 3 p.u./^s and a CGI cable length of 100 m. Apart
1
 2,01
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 [p. u./fxs]
—s
200043.1

Fig. 5 - Transformer voltage UT in relation to length of C G I cable / 3 Fig. 6 - Transformer voltage UT in relation to the rate of rise s of the
Arrester direct at the junction between line and cable (/ 2 = 0) see Fig. 1 unrestricted, linearly rising wave
Curve Parameters: Rate of rise of wave rising without restriction Arrester direct at the junction between line and cable (/ 2 = 0)
Dotted line: See text.
l3 — Length of C G I cable
CT = Transformer capacitances

3,6 Fig. 7 - Examples of calculated voltages

-R

/ ,
[p.u.] | Arrester direct at junction between line and
° cable (/ 2 = 0), length of C G I cable l 3 = 100 m.
3.2 \ Rate of rise of unrestricted linearly rising cur-
\
/' \ rent: 3 p.u./[xs
/
\ /
/
1 = Voltage at transformer
/ I 2 = Voltage at arrester
2,8
/
U / // /
/

/
/
2,4 /
f

/
/
'1
I h h
/ /
/ /
/ /
/ /2 / 2 i / 2
2,0
' f
/ /
/ / / '''
/
•
/
/
/

1,6 / / /
/ ' J /

/ // // / /
/

// // //
1,2

// '//,
/ /

0,8
/ /
/
j

M / OnF
/ 2nF
/ /
/
' /
/ lOnF
0,4 /

0 0,5 1,0 1,5 2,0 2,5 3,0 [|is] 3,5

— t

from the initial curve a capacitance at the end of the line This may be possible if the overvoltage peak is of short
causes only a displacement of the gradient with respect to duration so that the capacitor is not fully charged. As the
time with an overvoltage surge rising linearly. The nor- oscillogram shows the wave tends briefly towards a drop
mally expected effect of a reduction in the overvoltage in voltage at the arrester. It is very difficult to obtain a
with a larger capacitance can therefore not occur here. clear picture of this complex phenomenon.

Brown Boveri Rev. 4-74

The Influence of the Distance Between Arrester and Cable
Pothead [p.u. / N
/
The layout of the equipment within a plant often leads
necessarily to the arrester being some distance away
from the protected object. This must be investigated in 6
each individual case where an SF 6 plant forms a junction
/ \ \ V \ \
with an overhead line. Figure 8 shows the increase in
overvoltage at the transformer in relation to the distance
to the arrester / 2 . Short CGI cables and large transformer
capacitances lead to the higher values in the shaded area
shown, and vice versa. The unexpectedly large increase
can be explained physically by the fact that after the
arrester has responded the increasing wave along the
3
feeder section must become effective with a 350 LI line
impedance. Consequently there must be several waves
running in both directions along the arrester feeder line in
order to cause a voltage drop in the CGI cable. With
regard to Fig. 8 the importance of a very short distance 1,5
to the arrester must be emphasized.

Wedge-Shaped Wave with Horizontal Peak

The assumption of an overvoltage with linear rise of the
wave front and horizontal tail appears feasible because,
on the one hand the maximum voltage at the transformer
is reached in a few fj.s and on the other hand the peak
value remains constant for several jxs both during a re-
strike and during a lightning stroke. Figures 9 a and 9 b
show the voltage at the transformer in relation to the
length of the CGI cable. The dotted lines indicate values
with an unrestricted wedge-shaped wave. At peak values
above 5-5 p.u. there is very good agreement.
In the case of the rectangular surge which represents the
limiting case of the wave under consideration the over-
voltages at the end of the SF 6 CGI cable without a trans-
former can be very easily calculated. The result in Fig. 10
shows an interesting curve where the rising peak of the
incoming wave at the end of the cable has maxima and
minima. The maxima appear when the partial wave flow-
ing from the transformer towards the arrester reaches the
exact arrester response voltage when the wave reflects at
the junction between the cable and the overhead line.
This results in a maximum partial wave flowing back
towards the transformer. If the double part wave reaches
exactly the arrester response voltage at the transformer
the cable is charged to this level. The arrester prevents
further rise at the input. The voltage thus remains at the
minimum level of the response voltage.
Finite rates of rise of wave fronts and taking the trans-
former capacitance into account result in other conditions
but in principle, show a similar behaviour pattern. This
indicates that it is important to be aware of interpreting
the investigation of an individual case with a given peak
because a peak value which is perhaps 20% lower for the
0 5 10 15 20 [m]
200045.1
Fig. 8 - Additional voltage increase at transformer AC/T in relation to
the distance / 2 from the arrester to the junction between line and cable
Parameter: Rate of rise of unrestricted, linearly rising wave
Scatter band (shaded area): Length of CGI cable / 3 = 20 to 100 m
Transformer capacitance CT = 2 to 10 n F
incoming voltage wave can result in a higher overvoltage
at the transformer.
Close-Up Lightning Strokes
After considering infinite travelling waves arriving let us
now deal with the case of a lightning stroke at the first
tower before the arrester. Some examples of the calcula-
tion are given in Fig. 11. For the sake of comparison the
dotted curves represent the values for a wedge-shaped
wave without (1) and with (2) horizontal limitation (rate
of rise 6 p.u./fj.s and peak 6 p.u.). As the illustration shows
the overvoltages due to close-up lightning strokes give
comparable values with a peak of 6 p.u. As was to be
expected the influence of the capacitance becomes more
apparent, i.e. lower overvoltage for larger capacitance.
In this case also there are maxima and minima with
rising peak value of the surge voltage, very similar to the
behaviour shown in Fig. 10. Therefore caution should
also be exercised here in interpreting a single, discrete
case.

Brown Boveri Rev. -74 1

 Fig. 9 - Transformer voltage UT in relation to
length of C G I cable l 3
Arrester direct at junction between line and
cable (/, = 0)
Parameter: Rate of rise of wave rising linearly
to l / s and then remaining at constant level
a: CT = 5 n F , U S = 5-5 p.u.
b: CT - 5 nF, Us = 3-5 p.u.

[p.u./(xs]

/ 1,5
/
/
/ 1,5
/
/
/
6

/
/ / O
f
20 40 60 80 100 [m]
1
0 200 400 600 800 [m] 1000

Conclusions These two statements lead to the following conclusions:

The possibilities for protecting an SF 6 installation with an
arrester at the junction between overhead line and cable
must be discussed step by step starting from a lightning
stroke a long distance away and concluding with one very
close up.
It should be borne in mind that the first fundamental is
given by the fact that a very high rate of rise can occur at
the origin of the overvoltage of the line, particularly in
the case of a follow-up lightning stroke or restriking. The
waves travelling away from the location of the lightning
stroke are attenuated along the line, particularly by Corona
losses. The values quoted in the literature [4] indicate an
increase in rate of rise of the order of 1 [i.s/km of line
travelled.
A further fundamental is that the holding voltage under
Standard surge is approximately 4 to 5 p.u. (see Fig. 4).
Overhead lines in the dry condition could possibly have
a higher dielectric strength in the case under discussion
here where the transient phenomena are very rapid. How-
ever, a peak value of 6 p.u. safely Covers an absolute
maximum of the peak value of the incoming wave.
- all lightning strokes which occur at a distance of 2 km
and more cause travelling waves which arrive at the plant
with a maximum rate of rise of 3 p.u./fxs.
- those lightning strokes occurring between 1 and 2 km
away can have a maximum rate of rise of 6 p.u./[xs. Any
reduction of this value which may be necessary involves
the same measures as for close-up lightning strokes and
this is discussed in the following.
Figure 12 represents an attempt to show graphically the
protective effect of the arrester in relation to the holding
level of the material. The curves on the right-hand side
are based on the values in Fig. 5 increased by an additional
margin, which results from an arrester distance of 5 m.
This distance should be feasible in practice if the arrester
is situated adjacent to the pothead taking the feed in and
earth connection into account.
The shaded area to the left shows again the latitude in
selecting the holding level as shown in Fig. 4. The value
along the abscissa is the rated arrester voltage at ce =
0-816 or the peak value of the phase voltage. Also related
to this basis are the holding levels Nt at present recom-

184 Brown Boveri Rev. -74

 100 120 [m]
200049.1

Fig. 10 - Theoretical overvoltage at transformer UT in relation to the Fig. 11 - Transformer voltage UT in relation to length of CGI cable L3
surge wave arriving Us with protection by an ideal arrester direct at the with a stroke of lightning direct at the first tower from the plant (D =
junction between line and cable 250 m, Fig. 1)
Arrester direct at the junction between line and cable.
Parameters of lightning stroke:
- form 1/100 [as
- current strength such that a voltage peak of 1-5, 3 and 6 p.u. occurs
at the tower earthing resistor
F o r 1 and 2 see text.

Fig. 12 - Diagram for assessing the protection ränge of a conventional The procedure for the practical application of the curves shown on the
arrester at the input of an S F 6 installation (distance l 2 = 5 m) left of the diagram is as follows:
Um = Operating voltage of network &> = Choose abscissa scale according to a given earthing factor (e.g.
Ce = Earthing factor c e = 0-8)
a = Holding levels Nt ® = Draw Ordinate at the corresponding abscissa value for the line-to-
b = Rate of rise of arriving wave [p.u./|xs] or voltage drop [p.u.] at line supply voltage (e.g. Um = 420 kV)
the tower earth with a close-up lightning stroke (conversion ® = Determine intersection of 2 with the holding voltage (e.g. Nt =
according to Fig. 3) 1300 kV)
/3 Length of CGI cable ® = Determine the length of CGI cable protected (e.g. C G I cable of
up to 50 m protected without special measures)

100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 [kV]

— U„

Brown Boveri Rev. -74 15

mended by IEC. The various voltage scales along the
abscissa permit a rapid evaluation of the arrester's pro-
tection ränge, starting from the earthing factor and the
supply voltage (see Fig. 12). For a first appraisal it is
sufficient to assume that overvoltages up to the impulse
withstand voltage levels are permissible.
For the phenomena under discussion here, with voltage
peaks of 1 [i,s duration, the holding voltage of the plant
material has a margin of safety of 10% higher than under
Standard impulse.
The question of whether an SF 6 insulated cable can be
adequately protected along its length by a conventional
arrester at the junction between the overhead line and
cable depends on many factors, as shown in Fig. 12. These
are:
The rated voltage of the plant, the holding voltage of the
material, the earthing factor, the rate of rise and height
of the incoming overvoltage wave, and so on. As a first
rough assessment for a rated voltage of 420 kV and more
the length of protected CGI cable is 50 m. At lower rated
voltages this value increases rapidly according to the
proportionately higher holding level. Supplementary meas-
ures, as discussed in the following, permit longer SF 6
insulated line sections to be protected.
In the ränge of a close-up lightning stroke (less than 1 km)
particularly at the first tower from the Station the curves
shown in Fig. 11 are applicable, and these have very
similar values in comparison to a long-distance lightning
stroke. For a first appraisal, therefore, it is permissible
to apply the curves shown on the right in Fig. 12, with the
modification that the parameters for the rate of rise are
to be taken at the peak value (conversion as Fig. 3). As
this peak value arises as a result of the lightning current
diversion through the tower earth, the magnitude of the
earthing resistance becomes the deciding factor. Table II
serves as an example of the conversion from earthing
resistance to overvoltage at the tower in question, but also
gives an idea of the orders of magnitude of the necessary
resistance values.
Consequently the total protection of a plant by an arrester
at the junction between the overhead line and the cable
depends not only on the critical length of the CGI cable
but also on the maximum permissible tower earthing
resistance at the first tower from the plant. For the sake
of completeness, however, mention should also be made
of the necessary earth conductor protection of the over-
head line, particularly across the line section nearest to
the plant. In all cases where these conditions cannot be
complied with it is essential to install one or more arresters
direct in the totally enclosed installation. This permits the
well-known protection concept used in conventional plants
to be applied in SF 6 high-voltage installations.
Bibliography
[1] P. Althammer, W. Frey: The calculation of electro-
magnetic transients on lines by means of a digital Com-
puter. Brown Boveri Rev. 48 1961 (5/6) 344-355.
[2] Lightning arresters, Part 1: Non-linear resistor type
arresters for a.c. systems. IEC Recommendations. Publi-
cation 99-1, 2nd edition, Geneva 1970.
[3] Insulation co-ordination. IEC Recommendations,
Publication 71, 5th edition, Geneva 1972.
[4] N. Hylten-Cavallius, S. Annestrand: Rapport sur l'ac-
tivite du comite d'etudes No. 8 (Surtensions et Foudre).
CIGRE rapport No. 325, 1962, Annexe III, p. 47-77.

Table II

Um [kV] U* 6 3 1-5 [p.u.]

120 5-9 ü 2-9 Q 1-5 O

240 11-8 ß 5-9 Q 2-9 Ü
420 20-6 Q 10-3 Q 5-1 Q
760 37-2 ü 18-6 Q 9-3 Q

Conditions:
Earthing factor c e = 0-816
Lightning current peak = 100 kA
* Parameter b in Fig. 12 (right-hand side)

186 Brown Boveri Rev. -74

BBC
B R O W N BOVERI

BBC Brown, Boveri & Company, Ltd.

Baden/Switzerland