1

Language Learning Styles and Reading Comprehension Skills of BSED English

Students

Proposed Baby Thesis to the

Faculty of the College of Teacher Education
St. John Paul II College of Davao,
Davao City

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement in

GECC105-Purposive Communication

Submitted by:

Behona, Ervin N.
Besana, Dulce Amor
Berja, Kendie
Blanco, Joanna B.
Dionaldo, Aiken Alpha
Diaman, Roby Gean
Enriquez, Ernalyn
Elesio, Merita M.
Fernandez, Rosgen
Vinculado. Rozalita

May 2023
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Acknowledgment

The researchers would like to offer their sincere gratitude and appreciation to everyone

who helped this modest project succeed in some manner.

We first bow to the compassionate and forgiving God for bestowing upon us the

understanding of wisdom by which we can recognize our ignorance. For giving us the will to

finish this project and advance ourselves in a circumstance that we never thought the developer

could exceed. The determination to do this task with the available means, time, and resources.

Second, we want to thank all of our classmates and classmates for giving us enough

time and information. We also like to express our gratitude for their unwavering support.

I would like to express my special thanks of gratitude to my teacher Mr. Darryl Imperial,

who gave me the golden opportunity to do this wonderful project, which also helped me in doing

a lot of Research I came to know about so many new things we are thankful to him.
 3

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2

TABLE OF CONTENTS-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------3

CHAPTER 1--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------4
Rationale----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 4
Research Objectives-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 5
Hypothesis--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 6
Significance of the study--------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 6
Definition of terms----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 7

CHAPTER 2---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------8
Dependent Variable Literature-------------------------------------------------------------------------8
Independent Variable Literature----------------------------------------------------------------------21
Related Studies-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------35
Theoretical Framework---------------------------------------------------------------------------------36
Conceptual Framework---------------------------------------------------------------------------------37

CHAPTER 3----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------38
Research Design------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------38
Research Respondents----------------------------------------------------------------------------------38
Research Locale-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------39
Research Instruments------------------------------------------------------------------------------------40
Data Collection and Analysis---------------------------------------------------------------------------40
Statistical Treatment--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------40

REFERENCES-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------41
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CHAPTER 1

1.1 Rationale

Reading Comprehension is the ability to read text, process it and understand its
meaning. Being able to understand the meaning of the words and sentences. Reading
Comprehension is essential for successful functioning in our society. In virtually all instances,
the good of reading is to identify the meaning or message of the text at hand. It can help to
improve our knowledge of understanding most effectively.

The researchers found out that the problems encountered that greatly affect the reading
comprehension is the inability to extract the main idea of the text, unfamiliarity of the terms, lack
of knowledge with the functions of the words, underdeveloped reading fluency and the
appropriate knowledge to use them. The students find difficulty in comprehending the text
because they cannot decode the meaning of the text. Furthermore, because of poor vocabulary
development, students were unable to get the meaning of the text in spite of the context clues
used followed by the poor background knowledge in the English language. Reading
comprehension problems manifest themselves a difficulty when reading aloud. Lack of ability to
understand more.

Reading comprehension help us to grow academically. It is essential and serves as a

basic building block for learnings. In daily life reading comprehension is more important. Well
without proper comprehension students lack of the ability to understand what they read. Having
a good reading comprehension is grasping abstract concepts, applying logic in various situation,
recognizing cause and effect and utilizing a good judgement.

The Present Study Regardless of the educational context, in any university discipline,
preparing essays or developing arguments are formative tasks that require a deep level of
reading comprehension (inferences and transformation of information) that allows the
elaboration of a situation model, and not having this level can lead to limited formative learning.
Therefore, the objective of this research was to know the state of reading comprehension levels
in higher education; specifically, the proportion of university students who perform optimally at
each level of reading comprehension. It is important to note that there is not much information
about the different levels in university students and that it is the only meta-analytic review that
explores different levels of reading comprehension in this educational stage. This is a relevant
 5

issue because the university system requires that students produce knowledge from the critical
reflection of scientific texts, preparing them for innovation, employability, and coexistence in
society.

Reading comprehension is the ability to read text, process it and understand its
meaning. It relies on two, interconnected abilities: word reading (being able to decode the
symbols on the page) and language comprehension (being able to understand the meaning of
the words and sentences). The range of one's perceptions, thoughts, or actions: broaden one's
scope by reading. The opportunity or possibility to function or be active: gave her imagination
broad scope. See Synonyms at room. Reading comprehension is understanding a written text
means extracting the squired information from it as efficiently as possible. In reading
comprehension, the students need to read a text then Comprehend and construct the meaning
from the text.

This study will be conducted at St. John Paul II College of Davao. The researchers also
gathered 10 students as their participants in the said study. These participants will be given a
survey questionnaire through face-to-face. The researchers chose this place of implementation
for it gives the necessary information that the researchers needed. The study will be conducted
in the second semester of the academic year 2022-2023.

1.2 Research Objective

The goal of this study is to determine the Reading Comprehension skills as its
dependent variable, is to assist students acquire the knowledge, skills, and experiences
necessary to become competent and enthusiastic readers.

The purpose of this study is to ascertain the language learning styles as an independent
variable, is to determine how the English proficiency of college students is influenced by their
language learning preferences.

Specifically, this study aims to:

A. Analyze the relationship between Language Learning Styles and Reading Comprehension
skills

B. This study looked at how BSED English students' Reading comprehension skills and
Language Learning style related to one another.
 6

C. Test the influence of Language Learning Styles and Reading Comprehension skills of BSED
English students.

1.3 Hypothesis

Is there a significant relationship between Language Learning Style and Reading

comprehension?

HO: There is no significant relationship between language learning style and reading
comprehension skills of BSED English students.

H1: There is a significant relationship between language learning style and reading
comprehension of BSED English students.

1.4 Significance of the study

This study is conducted to benefit the following:

Students
This study may serve as a guide and reference for the students undertakingsimilar
studies.

Administrators and Staffs

This study will help them organize enrollment procedure and different transactions made in their
respective areas.

Professors

This research will aid them their discussions regarding related lessons. It will be easier for them
to tackle related topics about this research.
 7

Future Researchers

This research will be a useful reference for the researchers who would plan to make any related
study.

Overall, this research study will aid St. Johnpaul II College of Davao: the students,
Administrators and Staffs, Professors and Future Researchers in giving a standard and
synchronized way of making their work accessible.

1.5 Definition of terms

Learning style -Learning styles play a vital role in the learning process and contribute to
the overall educational environment. based on the theory that individuals have different stimulus
sense modalities from which they prefer to absorb, retain and process new information (Cassidy
& Eachus, 2000; Dunn, 1983; Harrison, Andrews, & Saklofske, 2003 another definition was
presented for learning styles as educational conditions under which learners prefer to learn
(Stewart & Felicetti, 1992).

B- Comprehension - Reading is a significant skill that learners should know. The use of
reading strategies in language learning has a vital role to improve reading comprehension
(Anderson, 2003; Cohen, 1998). Readers’ language proficiency is related to the use of their
reading strategies (Hong-Nam & Leavell, 2006; Shen, 2003; Wharton, 2000; Yang, 2002).
Based on this research, readers who have high proficiency try to use global strategies for
understanding a text (Kletzien, 1991; Zhang & Wu, 2009). Readers who have low proficiency,
try to utilize particular techniques that are not beneficial to understand a text (Gan, Humphreys,
& Hamp-Lyons, 2004; Zhang & Wu, 2009).

Chapter 2

2.1 READING COMPREHENSION

According to national and international tests of literacy about Reading Comprehension,

such as the Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) and National Assessment of
 8

Educational Progress (National Assessment of Education Progress [NAEP]), students in the

United States are unable to do relatively easy literacy tasks such as locate relevant information
to determine the main idea of a text or make simple inferences (Kastberg, Chan, & Murray,
2016; National Center for Education Statistics, 2017). According to the most recent PISA, U.S.
adolescents rank 15th in literacy skills. Results showed that 19% of the 15-year-olds tested
scored below Level 2 (of 6) indicating they had difficulty with tasks such as locating explicitly
stated information, recognizing main ideas, and making low-level inferences in a familiar topic.
Only 10% of U.S. students achieved a Level 5 indicating that they could organize several pieces
of deeply embedded information, and engage in reflective, evaluative, and interpretative tasks
on unfamiliar topics. Similarly, the NAEP scores showed that 64% of eighth-grade students
eighth-grade low at a basic level. Unfortunately, these scores have remained relatively flat for
many years and have led many educators, researchers, and policymakers to policy maker
students are being prepared for a job market that increasingly requires self-learning, analytical
skills, and transferable knowledge (e.g., Goldman & Pellegrino, 2015).

To make the concept of reading clear, the researcher needs to explore the differences
between reading skills and strategies. Besides reading skills, reading strategies are one of the
prerequisites needed to comprehend the texts. The differences between each are presented by
the following definition. Reading skill is an important tool that students need to become
academically successful. The school curriculum allows texts to use to acquire information, when
reading a text, the goal is to understand its content. In this case, skills are seen as parts of the
generalized reading process (Liu, 2010: 153). By having these skills, students will have this
good reading competence. They will get fewer difficulties when they do a reading activity.
Urquhart & Weir (1998) cited in Liu (2010: 153) describe a reading skill as a cognitive ability that
a person can use that interacts with texts. ‖When interacting with the texts, a reader (i.e. a
student) uses his/her cognitive ability to grasp information to comprehend them. Reading skills
have so sub-skills, i.e. scanning (reading for specific information), skimming (reading for gist),
reading for detail, and approaches such as extensive reading and intensive reading. When
scanning, the readers do not read the whole text. They just quickly read most of the text until
they find the information they are interested in. While skimming is reading quickly through a text
to get a general idea of what it is about. Another sub-skill is reading for detail.

This sub-skill engages the readers to get the meaning out of each word. Another
appraise s extensive reading. Extensive reading involves reading long pieces of text, for
example, a story and an article. Besides, there is intensive reading. In an intensive reading, the
 9

texts are used to examine the language.

Learners are asked to look for all the words in the text related to a particular topic or
work out the grammar of a particular sentence. This activity is aimed to make learners more
aware of how language is used. These sub-skills influence how readers read (Spratt,
Pulverness, and Williams, 2005: 22).

In this article, we briefly review the theoretical and empirical resin second language
reading research, simple regression has been used when researchers net predict scores on a
teased on of another test. According to Hatch and Lazarton (199 1),MR is used when
researchers want to know how much "weight" to give several of possible independent variables
that relate to performance on the dependent variable. For exemplifier researchers that examines
a comprehension assessment test for L2 reading may have shown that success on the test is
related to factors such as topic familiarity levels, gender, type assessment task asks, etc. By
using a MR model researcher can determine which of the variables predicts achievement Ent. A
combination of these variables or which variables do not predict achievement can also be
predicted. In MR analysis, the amount of explained variation is often contrasted with residual,
which is unexplained variation. MR takes correlations among the predictors into account, and
thus gives estimates of the unique variance accounted for in the outcome by the predictors.
Arch in comprehension and consider the reasons for stagnant scores in reading comprehension
in the United States. In the first part of the article, we explore different theoretical models for
comprehension and then focus on malleable factors that have been shown to be important to
comprehension. We conclude with possible solutions for translating research to practice and
policies for improving reading comprehension instruction.

Reading comprehension is one of the most complex behaviors in which humans engage.
Reading theorists have grappled with how to comprehensively and meaningfully portray reading
comprehension and many different theoretical models have been proposed in recent decades
(McNamara & Magliano, 2009; Perfetti & Stafura, 2014). These models range from broad
theoretical models depicting the relationships and interactions among comprehension
subcomponents to models of specific comprehension processes. We review different
frameworks and models that have significantly impacted theory development, reading
comprehension research, and instruction.
 10

One framework, the Simple View of Reading (SVR), posits that reading comprehension
is the product of word decoding and linguistic comprehension (Gough & Tunmer, 1986). Across
many languages, research has shown that reading comprehension can be explained by
individual differences in these two components, though the relative relationship of the
components changes over time (Catts, 2018).The SVR has been useful to researchers and
practitioners by providing a framework for understanding different profiles of struggling readers
including students who struggle primarily due to word-level problems (i.e., dyslexic),
comprehension issues ( poor comprehended), or both ( garden variety poor reader). As useful
as the model has been, it does not explicate the subcomponents of language or cognitive
processes that underlie reading comprehension (Catts, 2018).

Component models such as the direct and inferential mediation model (DIME; Ahmed et
al., 2016; Cromley, Snyder-Hogan, & Luciw-Dubas, 2010; Oslund, Clemens, Simmons, &
Simmons, 2018; Oslund, Clemens, Simmons, Smith, & Simmons, 2016) have been fairly
consistent in their findings. These models indicate that vocabulary, both directly and indirectly, is
consistently the strongest predictor of reading comprehension for younger adolescents.
Furthermore, these models also demonstrated that, although not as strong as vocabulary,
inference-making and background knowledge also had strong direct and indirect effects on
comprehension. As students get older, inference-making plays a stronger direct role in
comprehension than vocabulary (Cromley et al., 2010, replicated by Ahmed et al., 2016).
Across studies, vocabulary, inference-making, and background knowledge all influence, both
directly and indirectly, reading comprehension from adolescent to young adult readers.
Comprehension monitoring is a metacognitive skill that refers to readers’ ability to reflect on
their understanding of a written text (Language and Reading Research Consortium & Yeomans-
Maldonado, 2017). Strategic monitoring of text understanding matters (Oakhill, Hartt, & Samols,
2005). The ability to monitor comprehension correlates with reading comprehension and
increases over development (Language and Reading Research Consortium & Yeomans-
Maldonado, 2017). Comprehension is considered as the essence of reading as it accounts for
the process that supports effective extraction of meaning from a written passage. Modern
literacy standards require that the students can self-modify, self-manage and self-monitor as a
means to become strategic readers who can select information from the text, develop rational
and incorporate critical reflection on the text while reading. In this instance, the students are
required to be provided with an extensive range of reading and writing activities that include
effective reading comprehension techniques (Alfallaj, 2011). The practice of effective reading
comprehension techniques is essential to enhance the extent of comprehension among
 11

students and thus, language instructors are required to implement adequate reading strategies
to improve comprehension and facilitate critical thinking in understanding complex texts.
Reading comprehension is comprised of complicated factors; mainly comprising of cognitive,
linguistic and socio-cultural variables, due to which the development of an effective reading
strategy is difficult for language instructors (Alenizi, 2019; Ismail & Tawalbeh, 2015). The
effectiveness of reading strategies is accepted widely, but the language instructors should also
understand the significance of engagement in reading. Because engagement is not a mere
consequence of reading strategies, as it is a combination of strategies that incorporate mental
dispositions known as ‘Habits of Mind’ (HoM). The Habits of Mind include factors like managing
impulsivity, empathic listening, rational and flexible thinking, and persistence. These factors are
considered significant in the development of students with effective problem-solving skills by
means of enabling their ability to ask the right question, reflect on available information and
think constructively (Abdelhalim, 2017). Reading comprehension integrated with HoM promotes
interaction between students and reading material, due to which reading objectives in language
courses are rejuvenated to develop HoM skills in reading practices. Furthermore, language
instructors accentuate collaborative reading practices to provide the students. The
comprehension level of students is increased by implementing the related pre–reading activities
as the empirical association between student engagement and reading comprehension level
due to the practice of related pre-reading activities is proved. Thus, these activities improve the
level of engagement among the EFL students, which eventually increases their level of reading
comprehension. These findings are consistent with the research by Abdelhalim (2017), where
the students’ level of comprehension is increased when they are assigned with pre-reading
tasks that develop their level of engagement and promote critical reflection and understanding
of text. The current study uses related pre-reading activities to enhance the comprehension
level of students, and the study conducted by Jiang (2016) accounts for oral reading strategies
and comprehension level of students, while providing evidence for the efficacy of reading
strategies. Therefore, the findings presented in this study are found to be consistent with the
results presented by Jiang (2016). Jingblad and Johansson (2017) have implied that when
students are demotivated then they lack engaging reading habits, and the current study shows
that when reading engagement is high then the students perform well on reading
comprehension. Thus, reading engagement via related pre-reading activities can be an effective
means to improve the intrinsic motivation of students to practice reading as an autonomous
activity, which eventually improves the level of comprehension. Moreover, the study conducted
by Protacio (2017) implied that reading engagement represents the students’ motivation to read
 12

and engage in reading activities to improve their understanding from texts and hence, the
current study provides evidence regarding the efficacy of reading engagement and
comprehension level.

As per self-determination theory (SDT), individuals tend to be motivated in order to

address their psychological needs to achieve intrinsic rewards (Komiyama & McMorris, 2017).
In this instance, the psychological need to learn in an individual can lead to intrinsic motivation
for the achievement of intrinsic rewards; acknowledgement for improved knowledge, skills and
abilities. The current study entails this notion by providing empirical evidence that reading
engagement activities improves reading comprehension on account of increased motivation
among the students to perform better. Similarly, habits of mind theory (HoM) is also integrated
with the findings of the current study as related pre-reading activities are considered as an
antecedent of promoting reflective thinking among the students to understand complex
information and comprehend texts in an effective manner.

Comprehension is the reason for people to read. They will find lots of texts in daily life to
comprehend. Then, in comprehending a topic or main idea, people definitely interact with the
text relating determining purpose of the text and finding messages or information which can be
found in the text. Hence, it is necessary for people especially students in Senior High School to
master reading comprehension in order to understand every text they will read along learning
English. Contextual diversity favors the learning of new words in children regardless of their
comprehension skills Eva Rosa, Rafael Salom, Manuel Perea Journal of Experimental Child
Psychology 214, 105312, 2022 Recent research has shown the benefits of high contextual
diversity, defined as the number of different contexts in which a word appears, when incidentally
learning new words. These benefits have been found both in laboratory settings and in
ecological settings such as the classroom during regular hours. To examine the nature of this
effect in young readers aged 11–13 years, we analyzed whether these benefits are modulated
by the individuals’ reading comprehension scores; that is, would better comprehends benefit the
most from contextual.

Education leaders will need to strengthen teacher preparation programs and

professional development to ensure teachers are prepared to use evidence-based practices to
meet the literacy needs of their students.

According to national and international tests of literacy, such as the Program for
International Student Assessment (PISA) and National Assessment of Educational Progress
 13

(National Assessment of Education Progress [NAEP]), students in the United States are unable
to do relatively easy literacy tasks such as locate relevant information to determine the main
idea of a text or make simple inferences (Kastberg, Chan, & Murray, 2016; National Center for
Education Statistics, 2017). According to the most recent PISA, U.S. adolescents rank 15th in
literacy skills. Results showed that 19% of the 15-year-olds tested scored below a Level 2 (of 6)
indicating they had difficulty with tasks such as locating explicitly stated information, recognizing
main ideas, and making low-level inferences in a familiar topic. Only 10% of U.S. students
achieved a Level 5 indicating that they could organize several pieces of deeply embedded
information, and engage in reflective, evaluative, and interpretative tasks in unfamiliar topics.
Similarly, the NAEP scores showed that 64% of eighth grade students read at or below a basic
level. Unfortunately, these scores have remained relatively flat for many years and have led
many educators, researchers, and policy makers to question how well students are being
prepared for a job market that increasingly requires self-learning, analytical skills, and
transferable knowledge (e.g., Goldman & Pellegrino, 2015). In this article, we briefly review the
theoretical and empirical research in comprehension and consider the reasons for stagnant
scores in reading comprehension in the United States. In the first part of the article, we explore
different theoretical models for comprehension and then focus on malleable factor

Their Relationship to Reading Comprehension.Wilkinson Daniel Wong Gonzales,

Patrisha Lliane O Torres TESOL International Journal 11 (2), 70-90, 2016 Departing from
Gonzales and Torres' (2015) quantitative quasi-experimental study on the effectiveness of
cooperative learning (CL) on Grade 8 students in a private school in Manila, the present study
attempts to uncover possible findings in the affective dimension through a 25-item survey
questionnaire that quantitatively gauges the Grade 8 Filipino ESL learners' attitudes towards
CL. The effectiveness of the approach was further assessed by correlating the attitudes with
reading comprehension test scores in Gonzales and Torres' (2015) study. Adopting both
quantitative and qualitative approaches, it was discovered that, despite certain reservations, the
Grade 8 learners had positive attitudes towards CL. In addition, findings indicate a very weak
positive relationship between learner CL attitudes and reading comprehension. The current
study has implications not only limited to Philippine ESL classrooms, but also to ESL
classrooms around the world.

Attitudes toward Cooperative Learning and Their Relationship to Reading

 14

Comprehension. Wilkinson Daniel Wong Gonzales, Patrisha Lliane O Torres TESOL

International Journal 11 (2), 70-90, 2016 Departing from Gonzales and Torres' (2015)
quantitative quasi-experimental study on the effectiveness of cooperative learning (CL) on
Grade 8 students in a private school in Manila, the present study attempts to uncover possible
findings in the affective dimension through a 25-item survey questionnaire that quantitatively
gauges the Grade 8 Filipino ESL learners' attitudes towards CL. The effectiveness of the
approach was further assessed by correlating the attitudes with reading comprehension test
scores in Gonzales and Torres' (2015) study. Adopting both quantitative and qualitative
approaches, it was discovered that, despite certain reservations, the Grade 8 learners had
positive attitudes towards CL. In addition, findings indicate a very weak positive relationship
between learner CL attitudes and reading comprehension. The current study has implications
not only limited to Philippine ESL classrooms, but also to ESL classrooms around the world.

Comprehension performance of Filipino learners Ruel T Bonganciso Asia Pacific Higher

Education Research Journal (APHERJ) 3 (1), 2016 Contextualizing reading comprehension
instruction places the learners in a vivid and meaningful authentic situation. Â Contextualization
can be done through designing the reading lessons and activities that center on the learners€™
field of interests and environment. The present study attempts to determine the effects of
Contextualized Teaching and Learning on reading comprehension performance of the learners.
There were thirty-three (33) Bachelor of Science in Information Technology learners who
participated in this quasi-experimental study. A researcher-made reading comprehension test
was used to measure the learners€™ reading comprehension performance. Results revealed
that the reading comprehension performance of the learners during pretest is within the average
 (M= 9.12, SD= 2.56), and the posttest result is above average rating (M= 12.91, SD= 2.38). Â
Furthermore, there was a significant increase

Students who enter into a graduate degree do so with reading and writing abilities that
are at an undergraduate level and thus have trouble comprehending the more technical and
advanced written English journal articles (Paltridge & Starfield, 2007). The reading of EJA
involve not only relevant English reading ability, but also what Dressen-Hammouda (2008)
describe as “a wide range of specialist knowledge frames” (p. 233). As Cheng (2008) suggests,
the genre of learning contributes significantly to students’ awareness of the rhetorical form and
academic format of research articles. In this study, reading comprehension difficulty refers to the
problem of understanding the context of an article being read due to the limited language
abilities of the reader, and/or the complexity of the language in the content of the article. It does
 15

not refer to the situation in which a reader displays difficulty in reading as a result of neurological
or physical factors. Factors that contribute to reading comprehension difficulties include the lack
of sufficient prior knowledge, limited vocabulary, a lack of sufficient syntactic knowledge, limited
semantic knowledge and language proficiency, short attention span, memory failure, low
interest in reading, and the inability to use effective reading strategies (Perfetti, Marroni, & Foltz,
1996). Other barriers include insufficient knowledge of English vocabulary, limited memory
span, problems with understanding the main points and evidence, and the lack of prior
knowledge of the subject. Of these above-mentioned barriers, limited vocabulary and memory
failure are the most prevalent. Furthermore, the breadth of the reader’s vocabulary is an
important indicator for reading comprehension, a factor which relies heavily on memory (DeSoto
& DeSoto, 1983). The factors that influence the reading comprehension of EJA are scarce as
the literature on this subject is limited. However, factors that influence reading comprehension in
general have been articulated as follows (National Reading Panel, 2000; Wiederholt & Bryant,
1987): • Contextual factors: text features, text structure, readability, language complexity, etc. •
Reader factors: background knowledge, vocabulary, fluency, comprehension strategies,
comprehension skills, motivation, memory span, attention span, intelligence, physical status,
cultural background, etc. • Environmental factors: instructor’s teaching strategies, learning
environment, learning atmosphere, etc. Related research on EJA reading strategies Many
graduates simply attempt to read an EJA as if it were a newspaper article or a short story, by
reading it from the beginning through to the end (Holmes, n.d.). They ignore the fact that journal
articles are written by researchers for the specific purpose of supporting scholarly
communication and delivering new information, not for general information and the
entertainment of a broad audience (Campbell, 2002). In other words, graduates need to be
aware of the format and writing style of a journal article in order to facilitate their reading
comprehension, and this may require specific instruction or training of reading strategies.
Reading strategies are defined as “the mental operations involved when readers purposefully
approach a text and make sense of what they read” (Barnett, 1988, p. 68). The promotion of
English reading strategies began in the 1960s due to a substantial increase in the number of
international college students visiting America who desperately needed to improve their ability to
understand, speak, and write academic English. In the 1970s, English reading strategies
received a considerable amount of attention from researchers investigating learners’ reading
comprehension, before becoming the main focus of English reading research in the1980s
(Grabe, 1991). Since then, many studies on English reading have contributed to the
understanding of learners’ reading processes and their usage of various strategies to enhance
 16

reading comprehension in efficient and effective ways (Brantmeier, 2002; Kim, Wang, Ahn, &
Bong, 2015; Lee, 2015; O’Malley & Chamot, 1990; Oxford, 1990; Zhong, 2015). NNES graduate
students with limited English proficiency might attempt to translate an EJA from English into
their native language in order to fully understand the text. However, in doing so, there is a risk
that they may misinterpret the content due to, for example, translation errors and cultural
differences. In fact, the difficulties faced by NNES readers when reading an EJA are not
necessarily due to their insufficient English proficiency but to academic readiness. NNES
graduate students with no prior experience often have misconceptions about the nature of
research. They need to learn and use reading strategies that are specifically targeted at EJA,
such as scanning the paper to determine the context, making predictions, noting the identified
main points, and summarizing while reading (Shaw, 1991). Once students become familiar with
the unique writing style of an EJA, then their reading speed and comprehension will improve. It
is suggested by Almasi and Fullerton (2012) that graduate students should start by reading the
title and abstract carefully in order to grasp the basic argument the author is trying to make
before starting to read the whole article. As a consequence of this attention, many English
learning strategies have been identified and classified by different researchers. Goodman
(1970) divided English reading strategies into two process types, namely bottom-up and top-
down. Bottom-up strategies involve the recognition of a multiplicity of linguistic signals, such as
letters, morphemes, syllables, words, phrases, grammatical cues, and discourse markers, and
the application of a linguistic data-processing mechanism to impose order on these signals.
Top-down strategies involve the reader using their intelligence and experience to understand a
text through a puzzle-solving process, or referring to the meaning to decide what to retain and
what to discard. Barnett (1988) further stated that second language reading strategies involve
skim reading, scanning, guessing and evaluating those guesses, separating the main ideas
from the supporting ideas, recognizing cognates and word families, reading for meaning,
predicting, activating general knowledge, making inferences and predicting the word meanings
from the context. Sheorey and Mokhtari (2001) divided English reading strategies into three
categories: metacognitive, cognitive, and supportive. Metacognitive strategies are the intentional
and carefully planned techniques used by learners to monitor or manage their reading.
Cognitive strategies are those where readers use certain actions and procedures while they
work directly with the text. Support strategies are where the readers use tools to comprehend
the text, such as a dictionary, taking notes, or underlining or highlighting the text. Mokhtari and
Reichard (2002) further classified these English reading strategies to include global reading
strategies (GLOB), problem-solving strategies (PROB), and support strategies (SUP). GLOB
 17

are strategies that are intentional and carefully planned by students to monitor their reading,
such as setting out the purpose for reading, activating prior knowledge, checking whether the
content of the text fits the purpose, and predicting what the text is about. PROB strategies are
actions employed by the readers when interacting with the text directly, and even more so when
challenging text is encountered. These strategies include reading slowly and carefully, adjusting
the reading rate, reading text aloud, and guessing the meaning of unknown words. SUP
strategies are used by the readers to aid their comprehension, such as visualizing the
information read, reading text aloud, and guessing the meaning of unknown words. In addition,
Duke and Pearson (2002) proposed six second language and foreign language reading
strategies: prediction or prior knowledge, using think-aloud strategies to monitor
comprehension, using text structures, visual models (e.g., graphic organizers and imagery),
summarizing, and raising and answering questions whilst reading. Many pioneering researchers
have devoted their careers to the issues surrounding the writing of research papers and theses
or dissertations (e.g., Bitchener & Basturkmen, 2006; Paltridge, 2002; Samraj, 2008). However,
little research has investigated the awareness and usage of EJA reading strategies. Rosenshine
(1980) proposed seven potential reading strategies for EJA. These were “recognizing
sequences, recognizing words in context, identifying the main idea, decoding the details,
drawing inferences, recognizing the cause and effect, and comparing and contrasting” (p. 540).
McNeal (1989) suggested the use of four steps when reading research articles that can be
modified to fit the EJA reading.

According to Clarke et. al. (2014), reading comprehension is a vital ability for all students
because it involves the process of simultaneously obtaining and generating meaning from
written language through engagement and involvement. Understanding the meaning of words,
analyzing the author's point of view, aiming for writing, and acquiring new vocabulary are all
critical reading abilities that aid in reading comprehension. On the other hand, according to
Gough & Tunmer (1986) as cited by Chen et. al. (2020), reading comprehension is a
multifaceted process that requires the integration and coordination of a variety of abilities,
including word decoding, the capacity to decipher or recognize written words, and speech or
listening comprehension, the ability to comprehend what is decoded in spoken form.Reading is
a critical ability for students to develop early in their schooling since it serves as the basis for
learning in all academic disciplines throughout their education (Sloat et. al., 2013 as cited by
Almutairi, 2018).

In addition, developing reading abilities before students enter third grade is crucial, as
 18

students begin to read in order to obtain information and learn from academic content after third
grade. Additionally, students who do not master reading abilities by the end of third grade have
low desire for learning, behavioral difficulties, and academic success, and are at danger of
failing to graduate from high school. However, students who grasp reading by the third or fourth
grade have a better chance of academic success. (Foorman et. al., 2003 as cited by Almutairi,
2018). More significantly, according to FletcherJanzen et. al., (2013) as cited by Almutairi
(2018), students must be able to comprehend what they are reading while participating in
reading activities. Reading comprehension is a critical component of reading that must be
mastered. It demands students to progress beyond decoding specific words and phrases to
developing a thorough knowledge of the material as a whole. Comprehension is a complicated
process that needs a collaborative effort between students' prior knowledge of the context, the
goal of the reading material, and the degree of vocabulary and language used by the writers to
convey meaning in a

book. The procedure is

complicated due to the fact that
it demands students to
participate in a variety of
cognitive tasks, processes, and
abilities. These abilities
include decoding words
effectively, comprehending
language grammar, drawing
 19

conclusions, utilizing prior

knowledge, and regulating
working memory appropriately.
Even a brief passage of content
requires the reader to use
strategic judgment in
determining when and how to
employ each of these abilities.
Moreover, Clarke et. al., (2014)
also states that students must
develop reading
comprehension abilities in order
to succeed academically and
personally. Reading
 20

comprehension is the
foundation for understanding all
academic information
throughout
students' academic careers.
Reading comprehension
becomes increasingly important
in
all academic disciplines as
students’ progress through the
grades. Students, in
particular, require reading
comprehension abilities in order
to meet educational goals at
 21

school and in the classroom. For

instance, students are required
to comprehend what
they read from diverse sources
in order to do research in a
variety of academic
disciplines. Additionally, being
able to comprehend what they
are reading enables
students to swiftly seek key
material, eliminate irrelevant
information to the current
issue, and focus on the critical
information. Academic
achievement also necessitates
 22

students' ability to comprehend,

evaluate, and apply knowledge
gleaned from reading.
Furthermore, students require
reading comprehension skills in
order to comprehend and
complete academic work.
However, students who lack
reading comprehension abilities
will be unable to complete all of
that work
book. The procedure is
complicated due to the fact that
it demands students to
 23

participate in a variety of
cognitive tasks, processes, and
abilities. These abilities
include decoding words
effectively, comprehending
language grammar, drawing
conclusions, utilizing prior
knowledge, and regulating
working memory appropriately.
Even a brief passage of content
requires the reader to use
strategic judgment in
determining when and how to
employ each of these abilities.
 24

Moreover, Clarke et. al., (2014)

also states that students must
develop reading
comprehension abilities in order
to succeed academically and
personally. Reading
comprehension is the
foundation for understanding all
academic information
throughout
students' academic careers.
Reading comprehension
becomes increasingly important
in
 25

all academic disciplines as

students’ progress through the
grades. Students, in
particular, require reading
comprehension abilities in order
to meet educational goals at
school and in the classroom. For
instance, students are required
to comprehend what
they read from diverse sources
in order to do research in a
variety of academic
disciplines. Additionally, being
able to comprehend what they
are reading enables
 26

students to swiftly seek key

material, eliminate irrelevant
information to the current
issue, and focus on the critical
information. Academic
achievement also necessitates
students' ability to comprehend,
evaluate, and apply knowledge
gleaned from reading.
Furthermore, students require
reading comprehension skills in
order to comprehend and
complete academic work.
However, students who lack
reading comprehension abilities
 27

will be unable to complete all of

that work
This chapter discusses about previous study, the nature of reading, concept of reading,
aspect of reading comprehension, definition of reading comprehension, level of reading, reading
as a language skill, reading assessment, theory of think aloud, benefits of think aloud, how to
apply think aloud strategy.

A. The Nature of Reading

1. Definition of Reading Comprehension

Reading is a means to assist personal development, then to provide entertainment and

information. In Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary is defined that reading is to look at and
understand the something in particulars way, away in which something is interpreted or
understood. Reading is an active cognitive process of interaction with print and monitoring
comprehension of establishing meaning which means the brain does not work in reading, the
pupils get information by comprehending the massage and the teacher motivate the pupils to
read. Furthermore, that the definition of reading comprehension is most likely to occur when
pupils are reading what they want to read, or at least what they see some good reasons to read.

2. Concept of Reading

Although, on the world-wide level, the format of teaching reading skill may differ according to
local circumstances, the 1994 English GBPP Stresses the implementation of teaching reading
skill in an integrated skill unit. It means that reading is thought integrated with the other
language skill. Such as, teaching vocabulary, grammar, punctuation and the way construct
sentences, paragraphs and texts. The development of reading skills mostly occurs in this stage.
To be effective reader, the pupils should be able to (1) scan (2) skim (3) read between the lines
(4) read intensively and (5) deduce meaning from the context.

3. Level of Comprehension
 28

Level of comprehension in order to understand fully what they read. To take in ideas that
are directly stated is literal comprehension (reading the lines) this is the most basic type. To
read between the lines is interpretative level, and the applied level (reading beyond the lines).
11 a. Literal Reading for literal comprehension, or acquiring information that is directly stated in
a selection, is important in its self and is also a prerequisite for higher level comprehension.
Recognizing stated information is the basis of literal comprehension, the specific, explicitly
stated parts of a paragraph or passage that contain basic information are the details on which
main ideas, cause and effect relationships, inferences, and so on are built. It means that literal
is to inform the readers directly shown in the text. b. Interpretative Reading Interpretive reading
is reading between the lines or making inferences. It is process of deriving ideas that are implied
rather than directly stated. Interpretive reading includes making inferences about main ideas of
passages, cause and effect relationship that are not directly stated, referents or pronouns,
referents of adverb, and omitted words. It also includes detecting the mood of a passage,
detecting the author’s purpose in writing a selection, drawing conclusions, and interpreting
figurative language. Knowing the how and why behind this level of understanding is obviously a
much deeper or profound level of thinking. This level of comprehension is that college
instructions will most likely expect their students to get in their courses. c. Applied Reading At
his level, the readers are about to elevate or raise your thinking one more “notch” or level to
more critical, analyzing level. This presumes that the readers are have already reached the
previous two levels. At this level, the readers are reading between the lines and then examining
the message from the author or attempting to apply that message to other settings. 15 Types of
reading that are used in this research based on the proportional of reading comprehension. This
is latticework of reading ability test that was adopted from Farr in Dianion.

In very real sense, reading process is a progress report. It means that a major reason for
the lack of forward motion in attempts to develop more effective reading in striation was a
common failure to examine Retention requires both decoding and comprehending what is
written. This task relies on high level cognitive skills, including memory and the ability to group
and retrieve related ideas. As students’ progress through grade levels, they are expected to
retain more and more of what they read. From third grade on reading to learn is central to
classroom work. By high school essential task. Signs of retention difficulty were: a) Trouble
remembering or summarizing what is read; b) Difficulty connecting what is read to prior
knowledge;

Readers to comprehend more easily what was being read by them. think-aloud serves
 29

firstly as a method of measuring the cognitive reading process, then as metacognitive tool to
monitor comprehension. In that sense, the think aloud is appropriate for this study because
through this strategy the students can monitor their comprehension process, this strategy is
useful because students are verbalizing all their thought in order to create understanding of the
reading texts. Another definition of this strategy is provided by Pressley et al. in McKeown and
Gentilic’s work: “think-aloud is one of the "transactional strategies" because it is a joint process
of teachers and students working together to construct understandings of text as they interact
with it. Think-aloud as originally developed by (Newell and Simon), who used think aloud
protocols in combination with computer models of problem-solving processes to build very
detailed models. Using this methodology Newell and Simon were able to explain protocol data
from a theory of human memory and assumptions about the knowledge that subjects could
bring to bear on a task. This work had a major influence, because it showed that very detailed
explanations of verbal data can be obtained.

2.2 Language Learning Style

Language Learning Style As seen earlier, L2 learning strategies are specific behaviors or
thought processes that students use to enhance their own L2 learning. The word strategy
comes from the ancient Greek word strategic, which means steps or actions taken for the
purpose of winning a war. The warlike meaning of strategic has fortunately fallen away, but the
control and goal directedness remain in the modern version of the word (Oxford, 1990). A given
strategy is neither good nor bad; it is essentially neutral until the context of its use is thoroughly
considered. What makes a strategy positive and helpful for a given learner? A strategy is useful
if the following conditions are present: (a) the strategy relates well to the L2taskathand, (b)the
strategy fits the particular student’s learning style preferences to one degree or another, and (c)
the student employs the strategy effectively and links it with other relevant strategies. Strategies
that fulfill the second its ions “make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed,
more effective, and more transferable tone situations” (Oxford, 1990, p. Learning strategies can
also enable students to become more independent, autonomous, lifelong learners (Allwright,
1990; Little, 1991). Yet students are not always aware of the power of consciously using L2
learning strategies for making learning quicker and more effective (Nyiko’s & Oxford, 1993).
Skilled teachers help their students develop an awareness of learning strategies and enable
them to use a wider range of appropriate strategies. Strategy Use Often Relates to Style
 30

Preferences When left to their own devices and if not encouraged by the teacher or forced by
the lesson to use a certain set of strategies, students typically use learning strategies that reflect
their basic learning styles (Herman & Oxford, 1989; Oxford, 1996a, 1996b). However, teachers
can actively help students “stretch” their learning styles by trying out some strategies that are
outside of their primary style preferences. This can happen through strategy instruction, as
discussed later in this chapter. Conscious Movement Toward Goals Learning strategies are
intentionally used and consciously controlled by the learner (Pressley with McCormick, 1995). In
our field, virtually all definitions of strategies imply conscious movement toward a language goal
(Bialystok, 1990; Oxford, 1990, 1996a). Let us consider Divna, whose goal is to conduct
research in chemistry with the help of articles written in the L2. She is a busy professional
without a lot of extra time for reading journals, but she needs the information contained in them.
To meet the need, she plans a manageable task: finding and reading one L2 article per week on
chemistry until she develops a rapid reading rate and is able to identify and understand
published research findings. Other strategies to help Divna accomplish this task might include
scheduling time each week to search for an article in the library or on the Internet, as well as
preparing herself by looking at articles on related topics in her own language. In addition, she
could use strategies such as skimming for the main points, reading carefully for supporting
details, keeping a notebook for L2 scientific vocabulary, using the dictionary to look up difficult
words, guessing the meaning of words from the context, and making a written outline or
summary if needed. The well-orchestrated set of strategies used by Divna might be called a
strategy chain, i.e., a set of interlocking, related, and mutually supportive strategies. Positive
Outcomes from Strategy Use In subject areas outside of L2 learning, the use of learning
strategies is demonstrably related to student achievement and proficiency (Pressley &
Associates, 1990). Research has repeatedly shown this relationship in content fields ranging
from physics to reading and from social studies to science. In light of this remarkable
association between learning strategy use and positive learning outcomes, it is not surprising
that students who frequently employ learning strategies enjoy a high level of self-efficacy, i.e., a
perception of being effective as learners (Zimmerman & Pons, 1986). In the L2 arena, early
studies of so-called“goodlanguagelearners”(Naiman,Fröhlich, Stern, & Todesco, 1975; Rubin,
1975) determined that such learners consistently used certain types of learning strategies, such
as guessing meaning from the context. Later studies found
thattherewasnosinglesetofstrategiesalwaysusedby“goodlanguagelearners,”however.Those
studies found that less able learners used strategies in a random, unconnected, and
uncontrolled manner (Abraham & Vann, 1987; Chamot et al., 1996), while more effective
 31

learners showed careful orchestration of strategies, targeted in a relevant, systematic way

atspecific L2 tasks. In an investigation by Nunan (1991), more effective learners differed from
less effective learners in their greater ability. The acquisition and application of knowledge is a
part of collective societal endeavor (UNESCO, 2015). The need to produce competent
graduates in their specific discipline who possessed the skills and attributes to deal with the
ever-changing work environment in the 21st century is a herculean task assigned to HEIs in the
Philippines (Magulod, 2017a, 2017b). One of the important steps to undertake to ensure quality
and optimal learning experience among university students is to consider their different learning
styles and preferences. Learning style refers to how students learn and process information in
their own ways. A number of previous studies have investigated the relationship between
college students’ learning styles and academic performance, In fact, Moeinikia and Zahed-
Babelan (2010) and Williams, Brown and Etherington (2013) confirm that there is a positive link
between learning styles and academic performance in the university settings. Learning style is
defined as the characteristics, strengths, and preferences in the way how people receive and
process information (Hsieh, Jang, Hwang & Chen, 2011). It also refers to the fact that every
person has his or her own method or set of strategies when learning (Gokalp, 2013). Likewise,
James and Gardner (1995) as cited by Dung and Florea (2012) defined learning styles as a
complex process for individual learner to effectively acquire information. Consequently, Reid
(1987) as cited by Ghaedi and Jam (2014) defines learning styles as the changes among
learners in using one or more senses to understand, organize, and, retain experiences. As the
premise of the present study, Threeton and Walter (2009) affirm that there is a dearth of
learning style studies of students within the trade, technology and industry sector of career and
technical education. Kolb and Kolb (2009) confirm that learning styles differ significantly to
different professional and technical fields of specialization. An individual tends to choose degree
courses where the learning environment nurtures their learning styles. This present study
focused on the assessment of the learning style preferences of students enrolled in applied
science courses with the end goal of contributing to the existing body of knowledge about the
distinct learning styles of students in these disciplines. Awareness of the different learning style
preferences of students enrolled in applied sciences courses will eventually lead to more
effective learning experiences. In fact, Alavi and Toozandehjani (2017) concluded that having a
background of the learning styles of students can enhance their learning and at the same time
help students strengthen self-actualization. Teevan, Michael and Schlesselman (2011) also
emphasize that knowledge of the learning styles can help facilitate teachers to employ suitable
teaching strategies and methods to nurture students' academic performance. This will also
 32

provide both teachers and students positive feedback on their strengths and weaknesses in the
teaching and learning scenario. Likewise, knowledge of the learning styles can provide
implications to curriculum design allowing teachers to implement a learner-centered curriculum
model in the classroom. Dalmolin, Mackeivicz, Pochapski, Pilatti and Santos (2018) suggest
that determining the learning styles of students will ultimately improve their educational
experience. Previous exiting literature confirms that learning styles predict students’ academic
performance. Jiraporncharoen, Angkurawaranon, Chockjamsai, Deesomchok and
Euathrongchit (2015) studied learning styles and academic achievement of undergraduate
students in Thailand found out a positive association between the two. Barman, Aziz and Yusoff
(2014) also studied the learning style awareness and academic performance of students
concluded that students ‘awareness of their strengths such as learning style and how to utilize
their strengths may improve their academic performance. Another variable being investigated is
the study habits and skills of students enrolled in applied science courses. The literature further
suggests that study habits are a predictive factor of academic performance. Ebele and Olofu
(2017) found out that there is a significant relationship between study habits and students'
academic performance. Looyeh, Fazelpour, Masoule, Chehrzad and Leili (2017) investigated
the relationship between the Study habits and the Academic performance of Medical Sciences
Students found out the significant relationship between the study habits of students and their
academic performance. Similarly, Siahi and Maiyo (2015) studied study habits and academic
achievement of students.

For English language teachers, identifying the students learning style could aid them in
choosing the appropriate methods and strategies that can be used to cover all learning style of
their students in order to improve students’ achievement, Grace Fayombo (2015) stated that the
alignment of teaching strategies and learning styles has a positive impact on the academic
achievement of students. According to this, Tulbure (2012) found that there are significant
differences between the achievement scores obtained by three categories of learners
(convergers, divergers and accommodators) from two classes of a Romanian University after
implementing the cooperative learning strategy. Likewise, Damrongpanit and Reungtragu
(2013) also discovered significant differences between different matching conditions of students’
learning styles and teachers’ teaching styles after the academic achievement of more than 3000
ninth-grade students compared. Evidence abounds that matching teaching strategies and
learning styles has a positive impact on the academic achievement and learning outcomes and
that the match of teaching and learning styles in tertiary learners’ second language acquisition
can effectively improve students’ achievement (Arthurs, 2007; Liu & He, 2014); motivation (Bell,
 33

2007) and attitudes toward learning (Felder, 1996).

Learning styles can be defined, classified, and identified in many different ways.Keefe
(1979: 71) defines learning style as the composite of characteristic cognitive, affective, and
physiological factors that serve as relatively stable indicators of how a learner perceives,
interacts with, and responds to the learning environment. Essentially, learning style is not really
concerned with what the learners learn, but rather how they prefer to learn material. Each
student has his or her own best way to learn something. Some learners may rely on visual
image or presentation, others prefer listening to music while learning, and still others may
respond better to handson activities. Learning styles are found to affect students' learning
behaviors. Students who have different learning style preferences would act differently in the
way they perceive, interact with, and respond to the learning environment.

Learning styles found to be affected by the student's learning behaviour in gaining

information of learning. Besides listening skill reading is included as receptive skill, where the
skill is used to retrieve information from the discourse that people see or hear (Harmer, 2001:
199). For this reason, reading becomes one of the most important skills in learning English
which many students are not mastering yet in gaining and comprehending information of a text,
especially in their reading achievement. For many language learners, reading is ranked first
among the academic skills that they wish to gain mastery over (Grabe&Stoller, 2001;Richards
and Renandya, 2002). Reading comprehension is a good way to let people think seriously about
the exactly aim of what they are reading.

Learning styles and English receptive skills among Filipino college students Julieta B
Tendero The Asian ESP Journal 105, 2019 Anchored on Sperry’s (1977) Split-Brain model of
Intelligence, learning styles in terms of brain hemisphericity are generally linked to language
performance. This study determined the relationship between the learning styles and the scores
in the receptive skills among college students of a state university in Southern Philippines. To
pursue with this end, the study employed the Descriptive-Correlational Design in the context of
the randomly selected one hundred sixty (160) first to fourth year college students of the
university under study. For the data gathering, it used three instruments: the validated
Hemispheric Dominance Test (HDT) adapted from Brown (2000), the Listening Comprehension
Test (LCT) adapted from the standardized Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL)
(Sulivan & Zhong, 1990) and the Reading Comprehension Test (RCT) adopted from Sicat
(1992). Using Pearson r as the main statistical tool, the study revealed a significant relationship
 34

between learning styles and score in listening test when respondents were grouped by age. The
study recommends, among others, that the English Department include a test of receptive skills
in its English Proficiency Test for incoming first year and hold a yearly English festival with a
plethora of language activities to develop students’ right-brain.

According to Ajideh et al. (2018), students apply their own individual experiences,
learning styles and strategies to their own learning process. Indeed, learning styles and
strategies help learners to explore their skills and to enhance their learning experiences.
Moreover, learners can employ a variety of learning styles, which include an essential element
in creating effective learning environments. Considering that each student has his/her own way
of learning, their needs must be addressed in the teaching-learning process (Adnan & Marlina,
2017). From the four fundamental skills mentioned above, we can highlight the crucial role of
reading and writing skills. As for reading skills, they are essential to process information (Yan,
2017.Over the last few years, researchers in the field of EFL have widely discussed the
influence of learning styles on EFL reading and writing skills separately; thus, being a
controversial issue with varied results (e.g. Srijongjai, 2011; Balcı, 2017; Ajideh et al., 2018;
Aliakbari & Tazik, 2019; Foroozandehfar & Khalili, 2019; Sabarun et al., 2020).Küçükoğlu (2013)
states that inferring means to read between the lines. It allows readers to guess what is
currently happening, based on the hints in the text and what they already know about the text.
Inference is an important strategy; because it helps readers to draw conclusions, to predict, and
to create meaning from the test This strategy improves students’ understanding and retention
from reading;because it allows them to take notes of the most relevant ideas from the
text,instead of copying a great deal of the information. To take good notes, students should
maintain their focus, while reading, analyze the text, and think critically about what they are
reading (The Learning Center, 2021).Due to the importance of learning styles in the classroom,
it is necessary to address their classification. Some authors classify them byconsidering the
dimensions that result in four styles: divergent, convergent, assimilating, and accommodating
(Kolb, 2014.Balcı (2017) determined the effects of learning-style based activities on students
reading comprehension skills in a quasi-experimental study. The sample included 78 freshmen
university students, 39 students in the control group, and 39 in the experimental group. The
experimental group worked with learning-style based activities; while the control group
continued with traditional classes without any change. Both groups received three sessions of
one hour a week for eight weeks. The findings revealed that reading comprehension post-test
scores and the Self-Efficacy Scale for English post-test scores of the experimental group were
higher.
 35

It was also determined that there was a significant correlation between English-reading
comprehension achievement and English self-efficacy. In conclusion, learning-style based
activities improved reading comprehension skills and theEnglish self-efficacy perceptions.Ajideh
et al. (2018) determined the relationship between students' learning tyles and their ESP reading
strategies in an academic setting of an Art and Sciences program. For this purpose, 313
undergraduate students participated in this study by completing two questionnaires: The
Perceptual learning style preference questionnaire by Reid (1984) and a survey of various
reading strategies. Through the use of the Pearson correlation coefficient, it was concluded that
Art student.Aliakbari and Tazik (2019) investigated the effects of accommodating writing
assignments to the learning styles of EFL learners in their writing improvement. The participants
were 22 EFL visual learners. To gather the data, pre- and post-tests were given to the students.
During the intervention, the students worked on writing assignments on those topics that
matched their styles. The means of pre-and post-tests were subjected to a matched t-test. The
results showed that those students who had completed tasks, according to their learning style
improvedtheir writing. They concluded that taking individual differences into account increased
the number of writing students to be promoted. Foroozandehfar and Khalili (2019) explored the
relationship between EFL students’ personality types, learning styles, and reading fluency. One
hundred and thirty EFL learners participated in this study.

Based on the enlightening views displayed above on ‘good language learner’, the issue
of learner training has been foregrounded. As regards this area, quite a number of questions
have been asked, hypothesis been tested, results been discussed and implications been drawn
by L2 learning researchers and classroom practitioners. In this section, I would just like to give
an example of how the novice EFL teacher practitioners like me could set out identifying the
strategies used by certain learners and then planning training as to what the learners need.

To begin with, it is necessary to find out about the learners’ learning strategies in a
particular context. Oxford (2002) lists a group of frequently adopted techniques for eliciting L2
learners’ strategies, include classroom observation, formal and informal interviews, learning
diaries, open-ended or structured surveys of strategy use frequency, and think-aloud
procedures. In fact, it would be more reasonable to combine two or more of them, according to
specific objectives, subject features and context factors, as different methods have their
respective strengths and weaknesses.

Take my current teaching context for example, the learners are 29 first-year junior
 36

college students majoring in mechanics, using textbooks focusing on reading and writing skills.
If I would like to check the learners’ use of language learning strategies, any one from self-
designed think-aloud written report, reading journal, informal interview, classroom observation
and survey would be worth trying. To get a general profile of the learners’ strategy use
frequency as a preliminary step, I can use Chinese translation of the Strategy Inventory for
Language Learning (SILL Version 7.0 for ESL/EFL, Oxford, 1989), a widely employed
summative rating scale involving 6 subscales (namely, memory, cognitive, compensation,
metacognitive, affective and social strategy) of 50 items on a five-point Likert-scale, the
reliability and validity of which have been confirmed by many researchers in cross-cultural
contexts. As a supplement to this inventory, a few lines of background information is expected
to be supplied by the learners, such as gender, age and the college entrance exam mark (given
no other placement test result is available at the moment). Descriptive

statistics are then used to analyze the data. As can be seen from the results presented in Table
1, the means for the learners’ overall strategy use frequency, regardless of the specific strategy
type, are rather similar, that is between 2 and 3, which means less than half of the time, with
compensation and metacognitive strategy use happening slightly more frequent than the others.

To have a closer look at each high frequency item as well as the low frequency one and
analyze the possible causes, the data of each inventory item is also computed and put into
Table 2 (see Appendix). Within the scope of the compensation strategies and the metacognitive
strategies, the following items have both their mean scores and mode scores above 3 in

`Table 2: item (24) ‘guessing unknown words’ meaning’, item (29) ‘using alternatives to
unavailable words’, item (32) ‘paying attention to people speaking English’ and item (33)
‘striving to become better English learners’. These findings show that the learners tend to
compensate when aware of limited vocabulary, and they are willing and making effort to do
better in English learning, which is also embodied in the mode score of item (38) ‘reflecting on
the progress in learning. Noticeably, they have great interests in speaking English, which makes
an interesting contrast to the quite low results of item (35) ‘looking for people to talk with in
English’. This probably reveals that good oral ability is regarded as important and admiring by
the learners, but presumably due to the priority given to reading and writing in classroom, they
seldom take the initiatives or seek chances to speak English, which is reflected in item (14).

Additionally, some items in other categories are also worth noticing. For instance, using
item (39) could mean that affective factor has a significant effect on how they learn; the poor
 37

results in item (7) and (43) might be seen as the indicators of the learners’ weak awareness of
the applying diary and physical acts in English learning

Everyone learns his or her first language and the process of learning one’s first language
seems almost effortless. Yet, when it comes to learning additional language, whether it is a
foreign language or a second language, some people seem to be more successful than others.
This observation motivated early studies on characteristics of successful language learners,
which examined good language learners (GLLs) from a multitude of angles. For instance, a
number of personality characteristics have been proposed to influence second language
learning (see Lightbown & Spada, 1999, for a review). Genesee (1976) discussed the role of
intelligence in second language learning. Other learner factors discussed as influential on
language learning include aptitude, age and learner beliefs. In addition to research on traits of
individual language learners, another strand of research focused on what successful language
learners do. Rubin (1975) states, “if we knew more about what the “successful learners” did, we
might be able to teach these strategies to poorer learners to enhance their success record” (p.
42). Based on the belief that the strategies of GLLs would help less successful language
learners, Rubin presented several key characteristics of GLLs. Specifically, the good language
learner is “a willing and accurate guesser” (p. 45) and “prepared to attend to form” (p. 47). GLLs
also practice and monitor their own and the speech of others. These studies on good language
learners (GLLs), such as Rubin (1975), and Stevick (1989), show that there are certain
behaviors for learning commonly observed among successful language learners. These findings
suggest that research on GLLs’ strategies might teach us how to develop English proficiency
more effectively. Since then, a number of empirical studies have been conducted to document
the strategies used by GLLs and the factors affecting their use.

In the field of learning strategy research, language learning strategies can be defined as
“strategies that contribute to the development of the language system which the learner
constructs and affect learning directly” (Rubin, 1987, p. 23). O’Malley and Chamot (1990)
described learning strategies as “the special thoughts or behaviors that individuals use to help
them comprehend, learn, or retain new information” (p. 1). It has been documented that
language learning strategies not only promote language learning but also contribute to
increased learner-directed learning. Therefore, research on language learning strategies can
produce insights that can better guide language learners. Several early studies on language
learning strategies were carried out to identify what kinds of learning strategies are effective for
language learni0ng. For instance, O’Malley and his colleagues (O’Malley et al, 1985; O’Malley &
 38

Chamot, 1990, among others) examined the use of strategies by learners of English as a
Second Language (ESL) and categorized the strategies into three groups: metacognitive
strategies, cognitive strategies, and socio-affective strategies. Metacognitive strategies are used
to plan for learning, reflecting on the learning process, monitoring one’s production or
comprehension, and evaluating learning after an activity is completed (Purpura, 1997).
Cognitive strategies are employed while learners carry out specific learning tasks. Socio-
affective strategies are concerned with social mediating activity in interactions with others. As
such, some of the socio-affective strategies can also be referred to as communication
strategies. In an attempt to facilitate research on LLSs, Oxford (1990) designed the Strategy
Inventory for Language Learning (SILL), which is a self-report questionnaire that can be used to
investigate the use of strategies by language learners in a variety of settings. In the SILL,
language learning strategies are grouped into six categories: memory strategies for storing and
retrieving information, cognitive strategies for language comprehension and production,
compensation strategies for overcoming constraints in language learning, metacognitive
strategies for planning and monitoring.

Learning, affective strategies for controlling emotions and motivation, and social
strategies for cooperation with others in language learning. This instrument has been used
extensively in research on LLSs (e.g., Hong-Nam & Leavell, 2006; Nisbet et al, 2005).
Numerous empirical studies were carried out to document the use of LLSs in their language
learning. For instance, O’Malley et al (1985) interviewed ESL students and teachers to identify
strategies employed in classrooms and other settings and found that they used a variety of
learning strategies to carry out language learning activities. Griffiths and Parr (2001) used SILL
to survey preferences of LLSs among adult ESL learners in New Zealand and reported that
social strategies and metacognitive strategies were used most frequently. In another study on
adult ESL learners by Hong-Nam and Leavell (2006), students in the intermediate level were
found to use learning strategies more frequently than those in the beginner and advanced levels
and that these students preferred to use metacognitive strategies. Individual language learners
may employ learning strategies differently, and strategy use has been known to be influenced
by a number of factors. They include “motivation, the language learning environment, learning
style or personality type, gender, culture or national origin, career orientation, age, and the
nature of the language task” (Oxford, 2001, pp. 170-171). Therefore, researchers may need to
take into account these factors in analyzing and accounting for the use of LLSs by different
learner groups. One important factor that has informed the present study is the language
learning environment. More specifically, the distinction between an EFL environment and an
 39

ESL environment may influence strategy preferences by learners. In this regard, Takeuchi’s
(2003) study bears much implication for the present study. Takeuchi argues that “the strategies
frequently used by GLLs in an Asian FL (foreign language) context differ drastically from those
in the North American SL (second language) context)” (p. 385). The qualitative data analyses on
good foreign language learners showed that metacognitive strategies such as “maximizing
opportunities to use the language,” and “learning regularly” (p. 386) were preferred strategies to
maximize language input and practice. The author explains that such metacognitive strategies
are favored due to the foreign language learning context. Likewise, the present study took into
consideration the fact that most participants have studied English in an EFL context, which may
have motivated them to choose certain strategies over others.

Another part of the literature that has informed the present study is research on learner
autonomy. Autonomous and self-directed learning is crucial especially in the EFL context. As
Kim (2013) rightfully argues, learner autonomy and self-directed learning are essential in an
EFL environment where there are not many opportunities to use English and be exposed to
authentic language use. Cotterall (1995) defines autonomy as “the extent to which learners
demonstrate the ability to use a set of tactics for taking control of their learning” (p. 195). In this
regard, Little (1995) posited that “the basis of learner autonomy is that the learner accepts
responsibility for his or her learning” (p. 175). In the social cognitive theory, autonomous
learning has been discussed in terms of self-regulated learning. The selfregulated process
includes the performance phase, self-reflection phase and forethought phase (Zimmerman,
2011). In the performance phase, a crucial element is self-observation, which involves
metacognitive monitoring of one’s performance, the relevant conditions related to such
performance, and their effects. In the EFL context, learners with a strong sense of autonomy
may engage in self-regulated learning activities, which includes actively pursuing opportunities
to use the language, monitoring their own learning activities, and taking control of their learning.
Research has been carried out on this important topic. For instance, Ho and Crookall (1995)
used simulation to transform the ordinary classroom in China into a learning environment that
fosters learner autonomy. They reported that autonomy can be learned through the concrete
actions of taking responsibility for their own learning process. Autonomous learners are able to
engage in self-directed learning activities. In another study, Kim (2012) examined the
relationship between motivational factors and self-directed learning ability and found that the
high achieving group tended to be more intrinsically oriented and more self-directed in their
approach to English language learning. As discussed in this section, previous research
suggests that good language learners are in control of their learning and reflective of their
 40

learning process and outcomes. In this process, they employ various language learning
strategies to achieve successful learning. In this context, the present study analyzed data from
advanced L2 speakers of English to discuss characteristics of autonomous learners.

Human being is not only an individual person but also a social person who needs to
communicate each other. Hence, Language as a tool of communication becomes very important
to be acquired and learned. Then, English which is considered as an international language is
considered as a significant language in the world especially in the world of language learning
and teaching. Many people want to learn English and increase their communication for either
general or specific purposes such as getting better job, going abroad, having foreign friends,
etc. Regarding the importance of English and the willingness of many people to learn English,
many different ways of learning it then provided by both formal and informal institutions. In fact,
not all students or learners can easily achieve their goals of learning English and follow the
language learning process well. Lightbown & Spada (2001) provide intelligence, aptitude,
personality, motivation and attitudes, learner preferences, learner beliefs, and age of acquisition
as factors affecting second/foreign language learning. Additionally, if the students know the
appropriate strategies to work out the answers for themselves, they are endorsed to manage
their own learning (Griffiths, 2004). Moreover, students who learn English for Specific Purposes
(ESP) must meet specific need not general English. They need to work closely with their field
and have English to support them catching their purposes. Those might require more effort than
those who learn general English. Conducting research on English language learning beliefs,
strategies, and English academic achievement is fascinating for the researcher for some
considerations related to the researcher’s previous research on language learning beliefs,
strategies, and English academic achievement, the importance of language learning beliefs and
strategies for the success and effectiveness of language learning, and the inconsistent result of
researches on beliefs, strategies, and academic achievement. First reason why the researcher
is interested in conducting this research is related to the importance of language learning beliefs
and strategies for the success and effectiveness of language learning. In the classroom context,
the perception, beliefs, attitudes, and metacognitive knowledge that students bring with them to
the learning situation are some of the important contributory factors in the learning process and
ultimate success Breen in Bernat & Gvozdenko (2005). Moreover, language learning strategy
has also the important contribution to the language learning (Su & Min-Hsun, 2005). Effective
language learners generally use proper learning strategies, and the use of learning strategies
help the students’ learning result. The importance of beliefs and strategies in language learning
 41

indicates that it is important for the teacher to know what beliefs and strategies of the students
in learning language and the correlation of them.

Carrol (1974) defines achievement as “a measure of the quality and or the quantity of
the success one has in the mastery of knowledge, skills, or understanding”. In accordance, C.
V. Good in Phye (1997) defines achievement as “knowledge gained or skills developed in the
school subjects, usually designated by test scores or by marks assigned by teachers, or by
both”. Brown (2003) states, “An achievement test is related directly to classroom lesson, units,
or even a total curriculum”. Another definition is based on Cobuild (2006) which states that
achievement is something someone has succeeded in doing, especially after a lot of effort. In
college, a student’s achievement in each subject is usually respected by their scores on
formative test – commonly given by the lecturers to the students after having studied one or two
basic competences-, mid-semester test which usually conducted after three-month studying,
and a test that is held at the end of the semester which is called final or semester test. The final
achievement of the students in each semester for each subject are usually measured based on
their scores in study report namely “Kartu Hasil Study” (KHS). Moreover, final achievement of
the students for all subjects in each semester are usually measured based on their Grade Point
Average (GPA), and the final achievement of the students in overall subjects in overall
semesters respected by their Cumulative Grade Point Average (CGPA). In this research, the
researcher took the first year students’ scores of English for Management subject taken from
the English lecturer of STIENAS as the measurement of the ESP students’ achievement.

Nikitina & Furuoka (2006) state that language-learning beliefs are context-specific so
different cultures may cause different opinion about learning a new language. Horwitz as cited in
Suwaranak (2012) says that although language-learning beliefs may not always be clear or
deliberately though out but language learners hold those beliefs. For further, Abraham and Vann
in Liao & Chiang (2004) suggest that learners have their individuals’ language learning
philosophies, that is, their beliefs about how language operates and how it is learned. Moreover,
the study conducted by Saminy and Lee in Saeb & Zamani (2013) found that learners with
higher grades had more confidence in their ability to learn foreign languages and were more
willing to practice with native speaker. There are some definitions of beliefs about language
learning proposed by the researchers. Horwitz as cited in Angelianawati (2012) defines beliefs
about language learning as “assumptions or ideas about various factors in language learning
that students hold and bring into language learning”. Banya and Cheng as cited in Li (1998)
define beliefs about language learning as an individual’s opinion about language learning.
 42

Generally, learning strategies relate to input such as the processing, storage, and
retrieval used to take messages from others. Likewise, Abraham and Vann and Vann and
Abraham in Su & Min-Hsun (2005) claim that the difference between successful and less
successful learners is the degree of flexibility the learners showed when choosing strategies,
and the learners’ ability to appropriately apply strategies in their own learning situation. Various
researchers have defined the term Language Learning Strategies (LLS) differently over the
years. Rubin in Griffiths (2004) provides a very broad definition of learning strategies as “The
techniques or devices which a learner may use to acquire knowledge”. Oxford (1990) as cited in
Lee (2010) defines learning strategies as the learners’ specific actions in making learning
easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed, more effective, and more transferable to new
situations. In addition, Chamot (2004) describes learning strategies as the thoughts and actions
that individuals use to obtain a learning goal. Another definition comes from Lee (2010) who
defines learning strategy as learning skills, learningto learn skills, thinking skills, problem skills.
Finally, Suwaranak (2012) concludes that language learning strategies are what learners do to
learn language and relate to learners’ characteristics, learning styles, and learning achievement.

Previous Studies There have been many researches concerning with the relationship
between language learning beliefs, strategies and other variables. Conducting studies as the
present one may contribute effectively on the better teaching of language to learners. In this
part, the researcher will present some of researches on the correlation of beliefs about language
learning and language learning strategies with academic achievement. Khodadady (2009)
conducted the research on learners’ beliefs and academic achievement. The aim of the study
was to investigate the relationship of sophomore undergraduate students’ beliefs about
language learning and their academic achievement. In this study, four hundred eighteen
students took part in completing Beliefs about Language Learning Inventory (BALLI). Having run
the one way ANOVA test by utilizing SPSS 16, the results revealed that among 34 items of
BALLI, only 5 items (item number 2, 4, 19, 24, and 25) which were correlated significantly with
the students’ academic achievement. Another study conducted by Lan (2010) as an attempt to
reveal 212 Taiwanese 7th graders’ foreign language beliefs about language learning, and to
investigate its relationship with the students’ English academic achievement. Like the previous
research, the researcher administered the Horwitz’ BALLI in A Study of English Language
Learning Beliefs, Strategies, and Achievement Dinamika Ilmu, Volume 15 (2), 2015 302
assessing the students’ beliefs about language learning. Employing Pearson Correlation to
exam the relationship between beliefs about language learning and English learning
achievement, the researcher found that overall beliefs about language learning was significantly
 43

correlated with English learning achievement. Another researcher, Jhaish (2010) carried out the
research to investigate the between the students’ language learning strategies and their
academic achievement. The Strategy Inventory for Language learning (SILL) was used to
identify the language learning strategy of the participants. Qualitative data was obtained through
an achievement test, which was designed to find out the students’ achievement in reading,
structure, synonyms, and writing. The study found that there were statistically significant
correlation coefficient between achievement and all strategies except compensation strategies.
Al-Hebaishi (2012) has also conducted the research on language learning strategies and the
English academic performance. The study was to identify the relationship of learning strategies
to academic performance in the methodology 1 Course of female ESP majors at Taibah
University. Administering SILL to the participants and analyzing the correlation of it with the
achievement test scores for methodology 1 course using SPSS for windows 18.0 and employing
Pearson coefficient analysis, the result revealed a significant positive relationship between
participants’ use of learning strategies and their academic performance. Another researcher,
Sioson (2011) who aims to determine which among the subscales of language learning
strategies and beliefs about language learning was the strongest predictor of performance in an
academic speaking context, and if there was significant relationships of the variables to the
students’ academic speaking. The language background questionnaire, SILL and BALLI
questionnaires were administered to the 300 first year college students in Philippine. Using
mean, standard deviation, Pearson r correlation and hierarchical multiple regression, the study
showed that in general, language learning beliefs and strategies were insignificantly correlated
academic speaking task. For language learning beliefs, only the motivation and expectation
subscale which had a significant correlation to the oral performance of the participants, but
yielded a negative relationship. Angelianawati (2012) has also conducted the research to
understand the contribution of beliefs about language learning and language learning strategies
on students’ English achievement. The research was done toward the eleventh grade students
of state senior high school in Singaraja semester.

2.3 Related Studies

There are some studies related to this study that were previously conducted by other
researchers. The first researchers are Klinger and Vaughn. They conducted the research in
1998 with 26 seventh and eighth graders with low learning abilities who used English as a
second language. In this study, students learn to use modified reciprocal teaching methods in
 44

cooperative learning groups (i.e., brainstorm, predict, clarify words and phrases, highlight main
idea, summarize main ideas and important detail, and ask and answer the questions).It was
found that CSR was effective in improving reading comprehension for most of the students with
low learning abilities. In 2000, they implemented CSR with fourth graders with a wide range of
reading levels. Students in the CSR group significantly outperformed those in the control group
on comprehension. In a subsequent study, fifth grade students were taught to apply CSR by
trained classroom teachers during English as a Second Language (ESL) science classes. It was
shown that the students significantly increased their vocabulary from pre- to post-testing.
Furthermore, students in CSR groups spent greater amounts of time engaged in academic
related strategic discussion and assisted one and another while using CSR.The second
researcher is Fan who conducted a research in 2010. The research was conducted on 110
Taiwanese students from two intact classes. The purpose of the research is to investigate the
impact of CSR towards EFL Taiwanese students‘ reading comprehension. The questionnaire
and standardized reading pre-test, posttest and interviews were used to gather the data. The
research findings showed thatthe statistical results confirm CSR was more effective than the
traditional teacherled reading approach which focuses on vocabulary and grammar teaching in

improving the students‘ reading comprehension scores. The findings indicated that CSR had a
positive effect on the Taiwanese university learners‘ reading comprehension particularly in
relation to the comprehension questions on getting the main idea and finding the supporting
details. Moreover, a detailed analysis of qualitative data suggested that the learners with
relatively homogenous English ability provided collaborative scaffolding for comprehension texts
through coconstruction, elaboration, and appeal for assistance, corrective feedback, and
prompts. The third researcher is Wang who did the research in 2008. He examined theeffect of
CSR on sixth-graders‘ reading comprehension and learning attitudes. Sixty-two pupils from two
intact classes were divided into a control group receiving the traditional teacher-directed reading
instruction and an experimental group of CSR instruction in combination with story retelling
strategy training for fifteen weeks. Multiple measures were used in this study. They consisted of
a questionnaire of English learning background, pre-tests and post-tests of reading
comprehension, five post-tests administered after reading stories, a story reading post-test
which students had not ever read in the class and a questionnaire of students‘ attitudes towards
the intervention. It was reported that modified CSR approach was effective in fostering her six-
graders‘ overall reading comprehension and understanding of the meaning of the stories, and
that it increased their English learning motivation. This research is a bit different from those
previous ones. It observes 30 tenth grade students of a senior high school with low reading
 45

comprehension. This research was conducted in the classroom action research that used
specific texts (i.e. narrative and recount texts) and used interviews, field notes, and the reading
comprehension tests that were reflected in the form of pre-test and post-test to gain the data.
The different method will lead to different results.

2.4 Theoretical Framework

In the literature concerning cognitive science in general or language learning in particular, the
term ‘strategy’ has been referred to as a small range of synonyms such as ‘technique’, ‘tactic’
and ‘skills’, by which individual researchers describe their understandings in this particular area
in slightly differential ways. Just as Bialystok (1983, cited in Wenden and Rubin 1987:7) states,
‘there is little consensus in the literature concerning either the definition or the identification of
language learning strategies’. Some more or less overlapping statements are compared as
follows. To begin with, there are some views triggering the discussion about whether language
learning strategies are behavioral (observable), mental (unobservable) or both. For example,
Oxford (1989ˈ cited in Ellis, 1994: 531) defines the term as behaviours or actions’, whereas
Weinstein and Mayer (1986) argues learning strategies involve both behaviours and thoughts.
Secondly, the disagreement is about the nature of the behaviours, on the presupposition the
language learning strategies are behaviours. Stern (1983, cited in Ellis, 1994:531) claims that
‘strategy is best reserved for general tendencies or overall characteristics of the approach
employed by the language learner, leaving techniques as the term to refer to particular forms of
observable learning behavior.’ Here Stern describes the nature of strategy as general and
overall, while Wenden (1987a: 7) blurs the distinction between these two by referring to
‘strategies’ as specific actions or techniques, adding that they are not about general approach
of learners like reflecting and risk-taking. The last major dispute deals with learners’ awareness
of strategy use. Some address this by applying distinct terms, for example, Seliger (1984, cited
in Ellis, 1994:531) refers to the abstract cognitive categories of processing information
subconsciously or unconsciously as ‘strategies’, while he defines another term ‘tactics’ as
learners’ deliberate respond to the learning circumstances. However, many researchers avoid
making clear distinction on the issue of consciousness, and some suggest that learners cope
with new information by deploying strategies consciously and these strategies would gradually
become subconscious with repeated application and self-adaptation. Although each of these
arguments describes learning strategies from a unique perspective, altogether they may have
helped us get a general notion of what are learner strategies: Learning strategies are either
behavioral thus observable, or mental then not observable.Learning strategies could be either
 46

general approaches or specific actions or techniques adopted to learn a Target Language (TL).
Learners are generally aware of what approaches or techniques they have used in language
learning, despite some subconscious activities under certain circumstances.

2.5 Conceptual Framework

Figure 1. Conceptual Framework

Figure 1 present the the conceptual framework of the study. It consists the two variables which
is Independent variable Language learning styles and Dependent Variable Reading
Comprehension Skills.

CHAPTER 3

3.1 Research Design

According to Kothari (2004), research design is a plan, a roadmap and blueprint strategy
of investigation conceived so as to obtain answers to research questions (Kothari, 2004), it is
the heart of any study.

The researcher used a correlational research design in this study because the goal was
to investigate the relationship between language learning styles and Reading Comprehension
skills. Correlational research, according to Frankel and William (2009), is a study that seeks to
determine the relationship between two or more variables as well as their cause and effect.
Furthermore, Creswell (2012) states that "a correlation is a statistical test used to determine the
tendency or pattern for two (or more) variables or two sets of data to vary consistently." Ary et
al. According to al (2010), correlational research seeks the relationship or correlation between
variables in positive or negative correlation, and the level of correlation is determined by the
 47

coefficient of correlation.

Based on the description above, it is possible to conclude that this study is a type of
correlational research, which is classified as nonexperimental quantitative research because it
uses numerical data, does not manipulate variables, and seeks to identify the relationship
between two variables, namely language learning styles and reading comprehension skills..

3.2 Research Respondents

The respondent of the study is composed of BSED English Students in St. John Paul II College
of Davao. One of the vital processes to keep this study successful. All of these participants were
selected through random sampling. This sampling method is conducted where each member of
a population has a capability to become part of the sample.

The chosen respondents are containing of one hundred (100) respondents from selected year
level. Twenty-five (25) respondents from First year level, twenty-five (25) respondents from
second year level, twenty-five (25) respondents from third year level, and twenty-five (25)
respondents from 4rth year level. Those levels were chosen by the researchers because they
are suitable and applicable to the study.

3.3 Research Locale

The research conducted at St. John Paul II College Davao. The researcher chose the
the BSED English students of St. John Paul II College Davao to obtain the data which is used
as object of the research. St. John Paul II College of Davao located at

Ecoland Dr, Talomo, Davao City, 8000 Davao del Sur. 1.4 km, kilometers.
 48

3.4 Research Instrument

The researchers will use one research instrument in the study. The researchers will use
a semi-structured interview which is used when the researchers have a list of broad questions
that must be addressed in the interview. The researchers will use a written interview guide to
make sure that every question areas are covered (Polit & Beck, 2012).Furthermore, the
researcher will use pen and paper to note in detail the respondents non-verbal gestures; an
audio recorder will be

3.5 Data Collection and Analysis

For the purposes of this research, in depth interviews were used. In depth interviews are
personal and unstructured interviews, whose aim is to identify participant’s emotions, feelings,
and opinions regarding a particular research subject. The main advantage of personal
interviews is that they involve personal and direct contact between interviewers and
interviewees, as well as eliminate non-response rates, but interviewers need to have
developed the necessary skills to successfully carry an interview (Fisher, 2005, Wilson,
2003). What is more, unstructured interviews offer flexibility in terms of the flow of the interview,
thereby leaving room for the generation of conclusions that were not initially meant to be derived
 49

regarding a research subject. However, there is the risk that the interview may deviate from the
pre-specified research aims and objectives (Gill & Johnson, 2002). As far as data collection
tools were concerned, the conduction of the research involved the use of semi-structured
questionnaire, which was used as an interview guide for the researcher. Some certain
questions were prepared, so as for the researcher to guide the interview towards the
satisfaction of research objectives, but additional questions were made encountered during the
interviews.

We used this type of survey to determine what Language Learning Styles will help the
BSED English students in Reading Comprehension, the statements as follows:

Statements Strongly Disagree Agree Strongly

disagree agree
I learn more when I know the language
of what I reading.
Reading selections enhance the
understanding and comprehension of
English students.
When I don't understand something
while reading the English text, I like to
guess the meaning by connecting with
other related words.
Rather than listening to a story, I
preferred to read the textbook.
Instead of reading aloud, I preferred
reading in silence.
If I don't know the answer, I usually
look it up online.
If I don't comprehend a question, I
simply ignore it.
If I was able to understand the story, I
can confidently respond to a question.
I am an auditory learner that can
comprehend easily when someone is
telling a story or discussing.
I prefer to learn by moving around and
doing something in class.
 50

I do better at reading in English when I

work with others.
I learn more when I study with a group.

I use the dictionary when necessary.

The materials used in class are clear

and coherent with the objctives of the
class.

The data collected from the field were analyzed. Statistically weighted mean was used in
answering the research questions. The response options in the instrument are weighted as
shown below:

3.6 Statistical Treatment

To address the fundamental objective of the study, the following statistical tools
were used for data treatment:

Mean and Standard Deviation- this was used to determine the reading
comprehension of BSED English Students in line with their Language Learning Style.

Pearson (r)- This was used to determine the significant relationship between
Language Learning Style and Reading Comprehension.

Regression Analysis- This was used to determine the impact of Language

Learning style to the Reading Comprehension of BSED English Students.

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Comprehension. John Wiley &
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978-1-118-60676-6
Almutairi, N. R. (2018).
Effective Reading Strategies for
Increasing the Reading
Comprehension Level of Third-
Grade Students with Learning
Disabilities.
 57

Dissertations, 3247.
https://scholarworks.wmich.edu
/dissertations/3247
Chen, X., D'Angelo, N.,
Krenca, K. (2020). The Overlap
of Poor Reading
Comprehension in English and
French. Frontiers in
Psychology, 11.
https://www.doi.org/10.3389/
fpsyg.2020.00120
Clarke, P., Truelove, E., Hulme,
C., & Snowling, M. (2014).
Developing Reading
 58

Comprehension. John Wiley &

Sons, Ltd, First Edition. ISBN:
978-1-118-60676-6
Almutairi, N. R. (2018).
Effective Reading Strategies for
Increasing the Reading
Comprehension Level of Third-
Grade Students with Learning
Disabilities.
Dissertations, 3247.
https://scholarworks.wmich.edu
/dissertations/3247
Chen, X., D'Angelo, N.,
Krenca, K. (2020). The Overlap
of Poor Reading
 59

Comprehension in English and

French. Frontiers in
Psychology, 11.
https://www.doi.org/10.3389/
fpsyg.2020.00120
Clarke, P., Truelove, E., Hulme,
C., & Snowling, M. (2014).
Developing Reading
Comprehension. John Wiley &
Sons, Ltd, First Edition. ISBN:
978-1-118-60676-6
Almutairi, N. R. (2018).
Effective Reading Strategies for
Increasing the Reading
 60

Comprehension Level of Third-

Grade Students with Learning
Disabilities.
Dissertations, 3247.
https://scholarworks.wmich.edu
/dissertations/3247
Chen, X., D'Angelo, N.,
Krenca, K. (2020). The Overlap
of Poor Reading
Comprehension in English and
French. Frontiers in
Psychology, 11.
https://www.doi.org/10.3389/
fpsyg.2020.00120
 61

Clarke, P., Truelove, E., Hulme,

C., & Snowling, M. (2014).
Developing Reading
Comprehension. John Wiley &
Sons, Ltd, First Edition. ISBN:
978-1-118-60676-6
Almutairi, N. R. (2018).
Effective Reading Strategies for
Increasing the Reading
Comprehension Level of Third-
Grade Students with Learning
Disabilities.
Dissertations, 3247.
https://scholarworks.wmich.edu
/dissertations/3247
 62

Chen, X., D'Angelo, N.,

Krenca, K. (2020). The Overlap
of Poor Reading
Comprehension in English and
French. Frontiers in
Psychology, 11.
https://www.doi.org/10.3389/
fpsyg.2020.00120
Clarke, P., Truelove, E., Hulme,
C., & Snowling, M. (2014).
Developing Reading
Comprehension. John Wiley &
Sons, Ltd, First Edition. ISBN:
978-1-118-60676-6
 63

Almutairi, N. R. (2018).
Effective Reading Strategies for
Increasing the Reading
Comprehension Level of Third-
Grade Students with Learning
Disabilities.
Dissertations, 3247.
https://scholarworks.wmich.edu
/dissertations/3247
Chen, X., D'Angelo, N.,
Krenca, K. (2020). The Overlap
of Poor Reading
Comprehension in English and
French. Frontiers in
Psychology, 11.
 64

https://www.doi.org/10.3389/
fpsyg.2020.00120
Clarke, P., Truelove, E., Hulme,
C., & Snowling, M. (2014).
Developing Reading
Comprehension. John Wiley &
Sons, Ltd, First Edition. ISBN:
978-1-118-60676-
65