UNIT-7 : METALLURGY

Syllabus : By- A.P.S. Bhadouriya, M.Sc. , B.Ed., CSIR-NET

(i) Occurrence of metals in nature: • Mineral and ore - Meaning only.
• Common ores of iron, aluminium and zinc.
(ii) Stages involved in the extraction of metals:
(a) Dressing of the ore – hydrolytic method, magnetic separation, froth flotation method.
(b) Conversion of concentrated ore to its oxide- roasting and calcination (definition, examples with equations).
(c) Reduction of metallic oxides- some can be reduced by hydrogen, carbon and carbon monoxide (e.g. copper
oxide, lead (II) oxide, iron (III) oxide and zinc oxide) and some cannot (e.g. Al 2O3, MgO) - refer to activity series).
Active metals by electrolysis e.g. sodium, potassium and calcium. (reference only).(Equations with conditions should
be given. )
(d) Electro refining – reference only
(iii) Extraction of Aluminium. –
(a) Chemical method for purifying bauxite by using NaOH – Baeyer’s Process.
(b) Electrolytic extraction – Hall Heroult’s process: Structure of electrolytic cell - the various components as part of
the electrolyte, electrodes and electrode reactions. (Description of the changes occurring, purpose of the substances
used and the main reactions with their equations.)
(iv) Alloys – composition and uses -Stainless steel, duralumin, brass, bronze, fuse metal / solder.

About 118 elements are known today. There are more than 90 metals, 22 non metals and a few
metalloids. The elements which have a tendency to lose electrons and form positively charged ions are called
metals .
Sodium (Na), potassium (K), magnesium(Mg), aluminium(Al), calcium(Ca), Iron(Fe), Barium(Ba) are
Some metals.
Oxygen(O), hydrogen(H), nitrogen(N), sulphur(S), phosphorus(P), fluorine(F), chlorine(Cl),
bromine(Br), iodine(l) are some non-metals
Physical properties of metals:
Solid at room temperature except mercury
Ductile (drawn in to wires)
Malleable (beaten into thin sheets)
Sonorous(produce ringing sound)
Lustrous(natural shine)
Have high melting point. Cesium and gallium have very low melting point.
Generally good conductor of heat and electricity, except lead and mercury which are
comparatively poor conductors. Silver and copper are best conductors.
Have high density. Sodium and potassium can be cut with knife, they have low density.

Chemical Properties of Metals

 Metals generally have 1, 2 or 3 electrons in their valence shells.
 They are electropositive in nature, i.e., form cations by losing electrons, for example,
(a) Na - e− → Na+ (b) Ca - 2e− → Ca2+ (c) AI - 3e− → Al3+
 Generally, they form basic oxides. Their oxides react with acids to form salts and
water, for example,
(a) Na2O + 2HCI → 2NaCl + H2O (b) CaO + 2HCI → CaCl2, + H2O
 Cr2O3 is acidic, and oxides of AI, Zn and Pb are amphoteric.
 The metals placed above hydrogen in the activity series can replace the hydrogen ion from an acid and
so form a salt, for example,
(a) Mg + 2HCl(dil) → MgCl2 + H2 ↑ (b) Fe + H2SO4(dil) → FeSO4 + H2 ↑

 Generally, metals form non-volatile solid chlorides which are not hydrolysed by water (BiCl2, SbCl3, etc.,
are exceptions).
 Metallic chlorides are electrovalent, so they act as electrolytes, So they act as electrolytes, for example
NaCl → 𝑁𝑎+ + Cl−
 Metallic chlorides conduct electricity in fused state or in solution. For example, when an electric current is
passed through molten calcium chloride, calcium metal is liberated at cathode and chlorine at anode.
CaCl2 (molten) → Ca2+ + 2Cl−
Reaction at cathode: Ca2+ + 2e− → Ca
Reaction at anode: Cl− - e− → Cl
Cl + Cl → Cl2 ↑
 Metals are reducing agents, i.e., they donate electrons, for example,
Na - e− → Na+

Electrochemical (metal activity) Series: The activity series of metals is a list in which metals arc arranged in
the order of their decreasing chemical reactivity.
Potassium, K Most reactive metal R
Sodium Na Very reactive metals. E
Calcium Ca Never found as free A
Magnesium elements in nature. C
Mg
Aluminium Extracted by electrolysis. T
Al I
V
Moderately reactive I
Zinc Zn metals. Found as oxides, T
Iron Fe carbonates, or sulphites. Y
Lead Pb Extracted with carbon
or carbon monoxide. D
E
Hydrogen* H C
R
Copper Cu Less reactive metals. E
Mercury Hg They may be found as A
Silver Ag free elements. S
E
Gold Au (Least reactive metal)
S
*Hydrogen, although not a metal, is placed in the series to indicate the position it would occupy.

Occurrence of Metals and its extraction

Minerals : The elements or compounds, which occur naturally in the earth’s crust, are known as minerals.
The earth’s crust is the major source of metals. Seawater also contains some soluble salts such as sodium
chloride, magnesium chloride, etc.
ORES : mineral from which metal can be profitably extracted is an ore. For example, sulphide ore, oxide
ore,carbonate ore.
– Metals at the bottom of activity series like gold, platinum, silver, copper generally occur in free state. But
copper and silver also occur in sulphide and oxide ores.
– Metals of medium reactivity (Zn, Fe, Pb etc.) occur mainly as oxides, sulphides or carbonates.
– Metals of high reactivity (K, Na, Ca, Mg and Al) are very reactive and thus found in combined state.
– The process of extraction of a metal from its ore is called as metallurgy.
– Some important ores of metals are as follow-
Metals Ores metals Ores
Iron Hematite: Fe2O3 , Magnetite: Fe3O4 Lead Galena: PbS
Copper Chalcopyrite: CuFeS2 Zinc Zinc Blende/ (ZnS) ,Calamine (ZnCO3)
Malachite: CuCO3.Cu(OH)2 Aluminium Bauxite Al2O3.2H2O, Cryolite (Na3AlF6)
Mercury Cinnabar: HgS Silver Argentite Ag2S
Metallurgy : all the process involved in extraction of a metal from its ore is called as metallurgy.
The main processes are -.
*Enrichment/ Dressing /concentration of ore
*Obtaining metal from enriched ore.
*Refining of impure metal to obtain pure metal.
A)Enrichment / dressing of ore –
Ores mined from the earth are usually contaminated with large amounts of impurities such as soil, sand,
etc., called gangue. The removal of these impurities from ore is called concentration of ore or enrichment
of ore. The processes used for removing the gangue from the ore are based on the differences between the
physical or chemical properties of the gangue and the ore, these are
a. Hydraulic washing
b. Magnetic separation (when ore or gangue any one is magnetic e.g. haematite and magnetite
c. Froath-floation process ( used for sulphide ores – CuFeS2, PbS, ZnS)

(i) Hydraulic washing (Levigation or gravity separation) : It is based on difference in densities

(gravities) of ore and the gangue. In this process ore is washed with stream of water under pressure so that
light impurities are washed away whereas heavy ores are left behind.

(ii) Magnetic separation : This method is based on magnetic and non-magnetic properties of two
components of ore. In the process, the ground ore is carried on a conveyor belt which passes over a
magnetic roller. The ore leaves the belt and falls from it, the particles are attracted by the magnetic field and
form a separated pile. This method is used to remove tungsten ore particles from cassiterite (SnO2)It is also
used to concentrate magnetite( Fe3O4), chromite (FeCr2O4) and pyrolusite (MnO2 )from unwanted gangue.

Froth Floatation Process: The principle behind froth floatation process is that sulphide ores are
preferentially wetted by pine oil, whereas gangue particles are wetted by the water. In this process, a suspension of a
powdered ore is made with water. Collectors like pine oil, fatty acids and xanthates are added to it. Froth stabilisers
like cresols, aniline stabilise the froth. The mineral particles become wet by oils while gangue particles by water. A
rotating paddle agitates the mixture and draws air in it. As a result, froth is formed which carries the mineral particles.
The froth is light and is skimmed off. It is then dried for the recovery of the ore particle.

It is possible to separate two sulphide ores by adjusting proportion of oil to water or by using ‘depressants’. For
example, in case of an ore containing ZnS and PbS, the depressant used is NaCN. It selectively prevents ZnS from
coming to froth but allows PbS to come with the froth.
B) Conversion of Ore into Oxide : It is easier to reduce oxide than sulphide or carbonate ore.
Therefore, the given ore should be converted into oxide by a suitable method.

i) Roasting – It involve strongly heating of ore (specially sulphide ore) in excess of air so that sulphide ore
is converted into oxide and volatile impurities are removed off.

ii) Calcination - Metal ore (specially carbonate ore) is heated strongly in limited or no supply
of air (Calcination), the volatile matter escapes leaving behind the metal oxide.

Slag : The compound formed on reaction of gangue with flux is called slag. It is a fusible mass which floats
over metal. Copper ore containing iron as impurity, is mixed with silica to remove iron oxide as iron silicate
(slag).

(C)Reduction of oxide to metal : The process of converting metal oxide into metal is called reduction. It
needs a suitable reducing agent depending upon the reactivity or reducing power of the metal. The common
reducing agents used are carbon or carbon monoxide or any other metals like Al, Mg etc.

1. USING COKE: Coke as a reducing agent.

2. USING CO ( Carbon monoxide) as reducing agent –

3. USING DISPLACEMENT REACTION : highly reactive metal like Na, Ca and Al are used to displace
metals of lower reactivity from their compounds.

These displacement reactions are highly exothermic. The amount of heat evolved is so large that the metals
are produced in the molten state. In fact, the reaction of iron(III) oxide (Fe2O3) with aluminium is used to
join railway tracks or cracked machine parts. This reaction is known as the thermite reaction.
*Extracting Metals at the Top of Activity Series :
These metals (Na, K, Ca, Mg, Al etc.)
– have more affinity for oxygen than carbon so can’t be reduced by coke or CO
– are obtained by electrolytic reduction. e.g.

Sodium is obtained by electrolysis of its molten chloride

NaCl Na+ + Cl–
As electricity is passed through the solution metal gets deposited at cathode and non-metal at anode.
At cathode : At anode :
–
+
Na + e– Na 2Cl Cl2 + 2e–

REFINING
A crude metal obtained by its extraction, is contaminated with some impurities that need to be removed for
getting highly pure metal. “Several techniques are used (depending upon the properties of the metal
and impurity) for purifying the crude metals, known as refining.”

Some common methods of refining are as follows

(i) Distillation: This method is used in case of volatile metals (like Zn, Hg, Cd, etc.) where impure metal is
evaporated to obtain the pure metal as distillate.

(ii) Electrolytic Refining: In this method, the impure metal as anode and a pure strip of same metal as
cathode are put in a suitable electrolytic bath containing soluble salt of the same metal. The more basic
metal remains in the solution while the less basic one goes
to the anode.

For example, copper is refined by electrolytic

method where the net result of electrolysis is the
transfer of copper in pure form from the anode
to the cathode.

Zinc may also be refined by electrolytic method.

(iii)Oxidation Refining : Iron, copper, and lead are fire-refined by selective oxidation. In this process,
oxygen or air is added to the impure liquid metal; the impurities oxidize before the metal and are removed
as an oxide slag or a volatile oxide gas. Impurities of Si, Mn from iron can be removed by this technique.

Metallurgy of Aluminium
Important ores-(i) Bauxite Al2O3.xH2O (ii) Corrundum Al2O3.
Bauxite is commercially important ore of Al
Extraction from Bauxite ore involves the following two stages:-
(i) Purification of bauxite to get pure alumina (Al2O3)
(ii) Electrolysis of pure alumina in molten cryolite
 (i) Purification of bauxite to get pure alumina (Al2O3) –Bayer’s Process-

Reactions involved-

(ii) Electrolysis of pure alumina in molten cryolite- Hall-Heroult process

In Hall-Heroults process, pure Al2O3 is mixed with CaF2 or Na3AlF6. This results in lowering of the melting
point of the mixture and increases its ability to conduct electricity. A steel vessel with the lining of carbon
and graphite rods is used.
The carbon lining acts as cathode and graphite act as an anode. When electricity is passed through the
electrolytic cell which consists of carbon electrodes oxygen is formed at the anode. This oxygen formed
reacts with the carbon of the anode to form carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide. Aluminium ions are
created at the cathode from the aluminium oxide and then sink down because they are heavier than the
cryolite solution. Then, the liquid shape of the aluminium that has sunk to the bottom. In this method of
production of aluminium for every 1 kg of Al produced, approximately 0.5 Kg of carbon anode is burnt.

The electrolytic reactions are:

C + O2  CO2
C + O2  CO

The overall reaction is: 2Al2O3 + 3C → 4Al + 3CO2

By this process 98.8% pure Aluminum is obtained.

Refining of Al : It is done by Hopps process which

involve electro-refining of Al.
Uses of Aluminium: It is used:
 for making electric wires, coils and cables.
 in the alumino-thermic welding (thermite welding) of broken metals.
 for the extraction of some metals like chromium, barium, etc.
 as a deoxidiser in steel industry.
 for making light and strong alloys.
 for making cooking utensils.
 for making the frames and angles of doors, windows, etc.


Alloy: An alloy is a homogeneous mixture of two or more metals or a metal and a non-metal fused together in
the molten state in a fixed proportion. For example, brass and bronze are alloys of Cu and Zn. They are made to
enhance the properties of the constituents in order to get desired properties.
Some important alloys are as follows-

S.No. Alloy composition Important Properties Uses

1 Aluminium Al(95%) Light strong alloy with Jwellery, picture frames, coins etc.
bronze golden lusture, resistant
Cu (5%) to corrosion.
2. Magnalium Al(95%) Light tough and strong Pressure cookers, Light instruments,
balance beams etc.
Mg (5%)
3. Brass Cu (60%) In brass and bronze, Wires, parts of machinery, condenser
tubes etc.
melting point and
Zn (40%)
electrical
4. Bronze Cu (80%) Coins, Statue, for making cooking
conductivity is lower
Zn (10%) utensils etc.
Sn (10%) than that of pure
metal.
5. Solder Sn(11%) low melting point used for welding electrical wires.
Pb(37%)
Bi(42%)
Cd(10%)
6. Stainless Fe (73%) Resistant to corrosion For making cycles, utensils,
Steel Cr (18%) automobiles, pens etc.
Ni (8%)
C (1%)

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