1.What is Boolean Algebra? Explain them in detail.

Boolean Algebra is used to analyze and simplify the digital (logic) circuits. It uses
only the binary numbers i.e. 0 and 1. It is also called as Binary Algebra or logical
Algebra.

Rule in Boolean Algebra

Following are the important rules used in Boolean algebra.

 Variable used can have only two values. Binary 1 for HIGH and Binary 0
for LOW.
 Complement of a variable is represented by an overbar (-). Thus,
complement of variable B is represented as . Thus if B = 0 then =1
and B = 1 then = 0.
 Logical AND of the two or more variable is represented by writing a dot
between them such as A.B.C. Sometime the dot may be omitted like ABC.

Boolean Laws

There are six types of Boolean Laws.

Commutative law
Any binary operation which satisfies the following expression is referred to as
commutative operation.

Commutative law states that changing the sequence of the variables does not have
any effect on the output of a logic circuit.
Associative law
This law states that the order in which the logic operations are performed is
irrelevant as their effect is the same.

Distributive law
Distributive law states the following condition.

AND law
These laws use the AND operation. Therefore they are called as AND laws.
OR law
These laws use the OR operation. Therefore they are called as OR laws.

INVERSION law
This law uses the NOT operation. The inversion law states that double inversion
of a variable results in the original variable itself.

2. What are logic gates? Explain them in detail.

Logic gates are the basic building blocks of any digital system. It is an electronic
circuit having one or more than one input and only one output. The relationship
between the input and the output is based on a certain logic. Based on this, logic
gates are named as AND gate, OR gate, NOT gate etc.

AND Gate

A circuit which performs an AND operation is shown in figure. It has n input (n

>= 2) and one output.

Logic diagram
Truth Table

OR Gate

A circuit which performs an OR operation is shown in figure. It has n input (n >=

2) and one output.

Logic diagram

Truth Table

NOT Gate

NOT gate is also known as Inverter. It has one input A and one output Y.

Logic diagram

Truth Table
NAND Gate

A NOT-AND operation is known as NAND operation. It has n input (n >= 2) and

one output.

Logic diagram

Truth Table

NOR Gate

A NOT-OR operation is known as NOR operation. It has n input (n >= 2) and one
output.

Logic diagram

Truth Table
XOR Gate

XOR or Ex-OR gate is a special type of gate. It can be used in the half adder, full
adder and subtractor. The exclusive-OR gate is abbreviated as EX-OR gate or
sometime as X-OR gate. It has n input (n >= 2) and one output.

Logic diagram

Truth Table

XNOR Gate

XNOR gate is a special type of gate. It can be used in the half adder, full adder
and subtractor. The exclusive-NOR gate is abbreviated as EX-NOR gate or
sometime as X-NOR gate. It has n input (n >= 2) and one output.

Logic diagram
Truth Table

3. What are Universal Gates? Explain them in detail.

NAND Gate

A NOT-AND operation is known as NAND operation. It has n input (n >= 2) and

one output.

Logic diagram

Truth Table

NOR Gate
A NOT-OR operation is known as NOR operation. It has n input (n >= 2) and one
output.

Logic diagram

Truth Table

4. Explain 8086 Architecture in detail.

8086 –
It was a 16-bit machine and was far more powerful than previous one.
It had a wider data path of 16-bits and larger registers along with an
instruction cache or queue that prefetches a few instructions before they are
executed.
It is the first appearance of 8086 architecture. It has a real mode and an
addressable memory of 1 MB.
8086 – 2
It has an addressable memory of 16 MB instead of just 1 MB and contains two
modes-real mode and first generation 16-bit protected mode.
It has a data transfer width of 16-bits and programming model of 16-bits (16-
bits general purpose registers and 16-bit addressing).

8086 – 3
It was Intel’s first 32-bit machine.
Due to its 32-bit architecture it was able to compete against the complexity and
power of microcomputers and mainframes introduced just a few years earlierIt
was the first processor to support multitasking and contained the 32-bit
protected mode.
It also implemented the concept of paging (permitted 32-bit virtual memory
address to be translated into 32-bit physical memory address).
It has an addressable physical memory of 4 GB and data transfer width of 32-
bits.
(16-bits general purpose registers and 16-bit addressing).
.
8086 – 4
It introduced the concept of cache technology and instruction pipelining.
It contained write protect feature and offered a built in math co-processor that
offloaded complex math operations from the main CPU.

INTEL 8086 - Pin Diagram

8086 Registers:-

General Purpose Index

AH AL
BP
AX

SP
BH BL
BX
SI

CH CL
DI
CX

DH DL
DX Segment

CS

Status and Control SS

Flags DS

IP ES
5.What are computer component? Explain them in detail.

Computer systems consist of three components as shown in below image:

Central Processing Unit,
Input devices,
Output devices.
Input devices provide data input to processor, which processes data and generates
useful information that’s displayed to the user through output devices.
This is stored in computer’s memory.
Central Processing Unit

The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is called "the brain of computer" as it controls
operation of all parts of computer.
It consists of two components:
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU),
Control Unit.

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

Data entered into computer is sent to RAM, from where it is then sent to ALU,
where rest of data processing takes place.
\All types of processing, such as comparisons, decision-making and processing
of non-numeric information takes place here and once again data is moved to
RAM.

Control Unit

As name indicates, this part of CPU extracts instructions, performs execution,

maintains and directs operations of entire system.
Input Device : A piece of equipment/hardware which helps us enter data into a
computer is called an input device.
For example keyboard, mouse, etc.

Following are some of the important input devices which are used in a computer
−
 Keyboard
 Mouse
 Joy Stick
 Light pen
 Track Ball
 Scanner
 Graphic Tablet
 Microphone
 Magnetic Ink Card Reader(MICR)
 Optical Character Reader(OCR)
 Bar Code Reader
 Optical Mark Reader(OMR)

1. Keyboard

 A simple device comprising keys and each key denotes either an

alphabet, number or number commands which can be given to a computer
for various actions to be performed
 It has a modified version of typewriter keys
 The keyboard is an essential input device and computer and laptops both
use keyboards to give commands to the computer

2. Mouse

 It is also known as a pointing device

 Using mouse we can directly click on the various icons present on the
system and open up various files and programs
 A mouse comprises 3 buttons on the top and one trackball at the bottom
which helps in selecting and moving the mouse around, respectively
 In case of laptops, the touchpad is given as a replacement of the mouse
which helps in the movement of the mouse pointer

3. Joy Stick

 It is a device which comprises a stick which is attached at an angle to the

base so that it can be moved and controlled
 Mostly used to control the movement in video games
 Apart from a computer system, a joystick is also used in the cockpit of an
aeroplane, wheelchairs, cranes, trucks, etc. to operate them well

4. Light Pen

 It is a wand-like looking device which can directly be moved over the

device’s screen
 It is light-sensitive
 Used in conjunction with computer’s cathode ray tube

5. Microphone

 Using a microphone, sound can be stored in a device in its digital form

 It converts sound into an electrical signal
 To record or reproduce a sound created using a microphone, it needs to be
connected with an amplifier

6. Scanner

 This device can scan images or text and convert it into a digital signal
 When we place any piece of a document on a scanner, it converts it into a
digital signal and displays it on the computer screen

7. Barcode Reader

 It is a kind of an optical scanner

 It can read bar codes
 A source of light is passed through a bar code, and its aspects and details
are displayed on the screen
Output Device:
A piece of equipment/hardware which gives out the result of the entered input,
once it is processed (i.e. converts data from machine language to a human-
understandable language), is called an output device. For example printer,
monitor.

1. Monitor

 The device which displays all the icons, text, images, etc. over a screen is
called the Monitor
 When we ask the computer to perform an action, the result of that action
is displayed on the monitor
 Various types of monitors have also been developed over the years.

2. Printer

 A device which makes a copy of the pictorial or textual content, usually

over a paper is called a printer
 For example, an author types the entire book on his/her computer and
later gets a print out of it, which is in the form of paper and is later
published
 Multiple types of printers are also available in the market, which can
serve different purposes

3. Speakers

 A device through which we can listen to a sound as an outcome of what

we command a computer to do is called a speaker
 Speakers are attached with a computer system and also are a hardware
device which can be attached separately
 With the advancement in technology, speakers are now available which
are wireless and can be connected using BlueTooth or other applications

4. Projector

 An optical device which presents an image or moving images onto a

projection screen is called a projector
 Most commonly these projectors are used in auditoriums and movie
theatres for the display of the videos or lighting
  If a projector is connected to a computer, then the image/video displayed
on the screen is the same as the one displayed on the computer screen

5. Headphones

 They perform the same function as a speaker, the only difference is the
frequency of sound
 Using speakers, the sound can be heard over a larger area and using
headphones, the sound is only audible to the person using them
 Also known as earphones or headset.

6.What is software? Explain in brief.

The term software is used to describe computer programs that perform a task or
task on a computer.

Programs:-

Set of instructions to the computer

Programming languages

» Machine language
» Assembly language
» Procedural languages
– Basic, Fortran, Cobol
» Object oriented languages
– Visual Basic, C++, C#, Java

Systems Software:-

Run fundamental operations

» Loading and running programs

» Saving and retrieving data
 » Communicating with printers, modems, etc.

Examples of systems software

» DOS
» Windows 3.1, 95, 98, Me, 2000, and XP
» Unix
» Linux

Applications Software:-

Helps you to accomplish a certain task

Examples

» Word processing - memos, reports, etc.

» Spreadsheets - budgets, etc.
» Database - search, sort, select data
» Educational - simulations, practice
» Graphics - charts, diagrams
» Desktop publishing - pamphlets, etc.

Software - Legal Issues:-

Commercial software

» Can only make backup copies for yourself

» Can only use on one machine at a time
– Site license - use on more that one machine

Shareware

» Can use - make copies and give to anyone

» Should pay if you continue to use

Freeware – can copy and use indefinitely

 Software Viruses:-

Illegal code added to a program

May spread to many computers

» Copy files from one computer to another

» Download files by modem
» E-mail attachments

Virus may be relatively harmless

» Writes “You’ve been stoned” on screen

Virus may also be very damaging

» Erases everything on hard drive

Virus may activate on a certain date

Virus Protection:-

Be careful where you copy files from

Do not open e-mail attachments unless you are sure that it is safe

Use virus protection program

» Detects and removes illegal code

» Should be updated often

7. What is hardware? Explain in brief.

All of the electronic and mechanical equipment in a computer is called the

hardware. Examples include:

• Motherboard
 • Hard disk
• RAM
• Power supply
• Processor
• Case
• Monitor
• Keyboard
• Mouse

• Motherboard:- Mainboard or system board - the main circuit board for

the computer system.
• All device in the computer system will either be part of the motherboard
or connected to it.

Monitor:-

 The device which displays all the icons, text, images, etc. over a screen is
called the Monitor
 When we ask the computer to perform an action, the result of that action
is displayed on the monitor
 Various types of monitors have also been developed over the years.

Keyboard

 A simple device comprising keys and each key denotes either an

alphabet, number or number commands which can be given to a computer
for various actions to be performed
 It has a modified version of typewriter keys
 The keyboard is an essential input device and computer and laptops both
use keyboards to give commands to the computer

Mouse

 It is also known as a pointing device

 Using mouse we can directly click on the various icons present on the
system and open up various files and programs
  A mouse comprises 3 buttons on the top and one trackball at the bottom
which helps in selecting and moving the mouse around, respectively
 In case of laptops, the touchpad is given as a replacement of the mouse
which helps in the movement of the mouse pointer.

Printer

 A device which makes a copy of the pictorial or textual content, usually

over a paper is called a printer
 For example, an author types the entire book on his/her computer and
later gets a print out of it, which is in the form of paper and is later
published

Multiple types of printers are also available in the market, which can serve
different purposes.

Microphone

 Using a microphone, sound can be stored in a device in its digital form

 It converts sound into an electrical signal
 To record or reproduce a sound created using a microphone, it needs to be
connected with an amplifier

Scanner

 This device can scan images or text and convert it into a digital signal
 When we place any piece of a document on a scanner, it converts it into a
digital signal and displays it on the computer screen

8.What is PCI Express? Explain in brief.

 Peripheral component interconnect (PCI) is a popular high bandwidth

processor, independent bus.
  Compared with other common bus specifications, PCI delivers better
system performance for high-speed I/O subsystems.
 New version known as PCIe (PCI Express) has been developed.
 Key requirement for PCIe is high capacity to support the needs of higher
data rate I/O devices, such as gigabit Ethernet.
 Another requirement deals with the need to support time-dependent data
streams.
 Applications such as video-on- demand and audio redistribution are
putting real-time constraints on servers too.

PCI Physical and Logical Architecture

 A root complex device also referred to as a chipset,connects the processor
and memory subsystem to the PCI Express switch fabric comprising one
or more PCIe and PCIe switch devices.
 The root complex acts as a buffering device, to deal with difference in
data rates between I/O controllers and memory and processor
components.
 The root complex also translates between PCIe transaction formats and
the processor and memory signal and control requirements.

PCI Physical and Logical Architecture

Switch: The switch manages multiple PCIe streams.

PCIe endpoint: An I/O device or controller that implements PCIe, such as a

Gigabit Ethernet switch,a graphics or video controller, disk interface, or a
communications controller.

Legacy endpoint: Legacy endpoint category is intended for existing designs

that have been migrated to PCI Express, and it allows legacy behaviors such as
use of I/O space and locked transactions. PCI Express endpoints are not
permitted to require the use of I/O space at runtime and must not use locked
transactions. By distinguishing these categories, it is possible for a system
designer to restrict or eliminate
legacy behaviors that have negative impacts on system performance and
robustness.

PCIe/PCI bridge: Allows older PCI devices to be connected to PCIe-based

systems.
PCIe protocol architecture:-
⚫ Physical: Consists of the actual wires carrying the signals, as well as
circuitry and logic to support ancillary features required in the
transmission and receipt of the 1s and 0s.

⚫ Data link: Is responsible for reliable transmission and flow control. Data
packets generated and consumed by the DLL are called Data Link Layer
Packets (DLLPs).

⚫ Transaction: Generates and consumes data packets used to implement load/

store data transfer mechanisms and also manages the flow control of those
packets between the two components on a link. Data packets generated and
consumed by the TL are called Transaction Layer Packets (TLPs).

PCIe Physical Layer

⚫ PCIe is a point to point architecture.
⚫ Each PCIe port consists of a number of bidirectional lanes.
⚫ Transfer in each direction in a lane is by means of differential signaling over
pair of wires.
⚫ PCI port can provide 1,4,6,16 or 32 lanes
⚫ Data are distributed to the four lanes 1 byte at a time using round robin
scheme.
⚫ At each physical lane, data are buffered and processed 16 bytes(128 bits) at a
time.
⚫ Each block of 128 bits is encoded into a unique 130-bit codeword for
transmission; this is referred to as128b/130b encoding. Thus, the effective data
rate ofan individual lane is reduced by a factor of 128/130.

The scrambled output is then fed into a 128b/130b encoder,which buffers 128
bits and then maps the 128-bit block into a130-bit block.
⚫ This block then passes through a parallel-to-serial converter and transmitted
one bit at a time using differential signaling.
⚫ At the receiver, a clock is synchronized to the incoming data to
recover the bit stream. This then passes through a serial-toparallel
converter to produce a stream of 130-bit blocks.
⚫ Each block is passed through a 128b/130b decoder to recover
the original scrambled bit pattern, which is then descrambled to
produce the original bit stream.
⚫ Using these techniques, a data rate of 16 GB/s can be achieved.
One final detail to mention; each transmission of a block of
data over a PCI link begins and ends with an 8-bit framing
sequence intended to give the receiver time to synchronize with the
incoming physical layer bit stream.
PCIe Transmit and Receive Block Diagrams

PCIE transaction layer

⚫ Transaction layer receives read and write request.
⚫ Creates request packets for transmission to a destination via link layer.
⚫ Each packet has a unique identifiers.(Example Amazon.)
⚫ Memory: The memory space includes system main memory. It also
includes PCIe I/O devices. Certain ranges of memory addresses map into I/O
devices.
⚫ I/O: This address space is used for legacy PCI devices, with reserved
memory address ranges used to address legacy I/O devices.
⚫ Configuration: This address space enables the TL to read/write
configuration registers associated with I/O devices.
⚫ Message: This address space is for control signals related to interrupts, error
handling, and power management.

PCIe Protocol Data Unit Format

Header: The header describes the type of packet and includes information
needed by the receiver to process the packet, including any needed routing
information. The internal header format is discussed subsequently.
Data: A data field of up to 4096 bytes may be included in the TLP. SomeTLPs
do not contain a data field.
ECRC: An optional end-to-end CRC field enables the destination TL layer to
check for errors in the header and data portions of the TLP.
LCRC(Link cyclic redundancy code):It is generated/checked in the data link
layer and is not available to the transaction layer and the application.
LCRC is an error detection code added to each TLP. The first step in error
checking is simply to verify that this code still evaluates correctly at the
receiver. Each packet is given a unique incremental Sequence
Number as well. Using that Sequence Number, we can also require that TLPs
must be successfully received in the same order they were sent.

PCIE Data link layer

⚫ The purpose of the PCIe data link layer is to ensure reliable delivery of
packets across the PCIe link.
⚫ The DLL participates in the formation of TLPs and also transmits DLLPs.

Data link layer packets

⚫ Data link layer packets originate at the data link layer of a transmitting device
and terminate at the DLL of the device on the other end of the link.
⚫ There are three important groups of DLLPs used in managing a link: flow
control packets, power management packets, and TLP ACK and NAK packets.
⚫ Power management packets are used in managing power platform
budgeting.
⚫ Flow control packets regulate the rate at which TLPs and DLLPs can be
transmitted across a link.
⚫ The ACK and NAK packets are used in TLP processing.
Transaction layer packet processing
⚫ The DLL adds two fields to the core of the TLP created by the TL : a 16-bit
sequence number and a 32-bit link-layer CRC (LCRC).
⚫ Whereas the core fields created at the TL are only used at the destination TL,
the two fields added by the DLL are processed at each intermediate node on the
way from source to destination.
⚫ TLP arrives at a device, the DLL strips off the sequence number and LCRC
fields and checks the
LCRC. There are two possibilities:

If no errors are detected, the core portion of the TLP is handed up to the local
transaction layer. If this receiving device is the intended destination, then the TL
processes the TLP. Otherwise, the TL determines a route for the TLP and passes
it back down to the DLL for transmission over the next link on the way to the
destination.
⚫If an error is detected, the DLL schedules an NAK DLL packet to return back
to the remote transmitter. The TLP is eliminated.
⚫When the DLL transmits a TLP, it retains a copy of the TLP. If it receives an
NAK for the TLP with this sequence number, it retransmits the TLP. When it
receives an ACK, it discards the buffered TLP.

9.What is bus interconnection? Explain in brief.

 Bus structures are still commonly used for embedded systems,

particularly microcontrollers.
 For general-purpose computers, it has gradually given way to various
point-to-point interconnection structures, which now dominate computer
system design.
 A bus is a communication pathway connecting two or more devices. A
key characteristic of a bus is that it is a shared transmission medium.

 Multiple devices connect to the bus, and a signal transmitted by any one
device is available for reception by all other devices attached to the bus.

 If two devices transmit during the same time period,their signals will
overlap and become garbled. Thus,only one device at a time can
successfully transmit.

 A bus consists of multiple communication pathways, or lines. Each line is

capable of transmitting signals representing binary 1 and
binary 0. Over time, a sequence of binary digits can be transmitted across
a single line.
 A bus that connects major computercomponents (processor, memory,
I/O) is called a system bus.

 The data lines provide a path for moving data among system modules.
These lines, collectively, are called the data bus.
 The address lines are used to designate the source or destination of the
data on the data bus. For example, if the processor wishes to read a
word(8, 16, or 32 bits) of data from memory.
 The control lines are used to control the access to and the use of the data
and address lines.
Control Lines :
⚫ Memory write: causes data on the bus to be written into the addressed
location.
⚫ Memory read: causes data from the addressed location to be placed on the
bus.
⚫ I/O write: causes data on the bus to be output to the addressed I/O port.
⚫ I/O read: causes data from the addressed I/O port to be placed on the bus.
⚫ Transfer ACK: indicates that data have been accepted from or placed on the
bus.
⚫ Bus request: indicates that a module needs to gain control of the bus.
⚫ Bus grant: indicates that a requesting module has been granted control of the
bus.
⚫ Interrupt request: indicates that an interrupt is pending.
⚫ Interrupt ACK: acknowledges that the pending interrupt has been
recognized.
⚫ Clock:is used to synchronize operations.

⚫ Reset: initializes all modules.

Point to point interconnect
⚫ The point to point interconnect has lower latency, higher data rate, and better
scalability.
⚫ An important and representative example of the point to point interconnect
approach is “quick path interconnect” which was introduce in2008.

The shared bus architecture was the standard approach to interconnection

between the processor and the other components (Memory,I/O, and so on) for
decades.
⚫ The principle reason driving the change from the bus to point to point
interconnect was the electrical constraints encountered with increasing
frequency of wide synchronous buses

10. What is CPU? Explain in brief.

A CPU is also known as the Central Processing Unit. CPUs carry out all the
computer's primary functions as it receives instructions from both hardware and
the active software.

CPUs use this information to produce the required output.

A Central Processing Unit, or CPU, is functionally the most important
component of a computer system.

Without a CPU, any computer is more or less non-functional.

It is generally referred to as the ‘brain’ of the computer due to the vast number
of functions it performs.

The central processing unit has three significant parts. And those parts of CPU
are:
 Storage unit or memory.
 Control unit.
 ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)

 The Storage or the Memory Unit:

As per its name, this unit is dedicated to storing all information and data
that is saved on the computer system. This data is supplied whenever the
user needs it. It is also sometimes referred to as the internal storage unit.

There are also two types of memories in a computer, including primary

memory and secondary memory.

 The Control Unit:

This part of the CPU is responsible for handling all operations of the
system. But does not actually carry out specific functions related to data
processing. This unit uses electrical signals to execute all processes for the
system. It controls the transfer of data, input/output functions and
coordinates all internal working of the hardware.

 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU):

 As the name indicates, this unit mainly consists of two subsections. The
first is the arithmetic section, and the second is the logic section. The
function of the arithmetic section is to perform various arithmetic
operations. Some arithmetic operations that are usually performed include
addition, division, multiplication, and subtraction.

Types of CPU:-
There are mainly three different types of CPUs. Those three types of CPUs are:
Single Core: These are the oldest types of CPUs. They have a single core that is
used for processing all instructions and information.
These CPUs were used during the 1970s. As the name indicates, these types of
CPUs only have a single core that processes different operations.This means
that the CPU can only process one operation at a time. The CPU continuously
switches between different sets of data streams whenever more than one
program is started. This is why this type of CPU is not suitable for multitasking.
This is because this would reduce the quality of performance of the CPU.

Dual-Core CPU
Dual-Core CPUs contain two cores within a single Integrated Circuit (IC).
Each core also has its cache and controller. These controllers and cache are
linked together to work as a single unit. This is why these CPUs can work
faster than the single-core processors. These types of CPUs are better at
handling multitasking more efficiently in comparison to single-core
processors.

Quad-Core CPU
Quad-Core CPUs come with two dual-core processors present within a
single integrated circuit (IC) or chip. This means that a quad-core processor
contains a chip with four independent units, also known as cores.These
cores are capable of reading and executing various instructions provided
by the CPU.
 The cores can also run multiple instructions at the same time. This
increases the overall speed for programs that are compatible with parallel
processing.

11. Explain CPU Bus Structure in detail.

Bus structures in computer plays important role in connecting the internal

components of the computer.

The bus in the computer is the shared transmission medium.

This means multiple components or devices use the same bus structure to
transmit the information signals to each other.

Bus Structure in Computer Architecture

A system bus has typically from fifty to hundreds of distinct lines where each
line is meant for a certain function. These lines can be categories into three
functional groups i.e., data lines, address lines, and control lines. Let us discuss
them one by one each.

1. Data Lines

Data lines coordinate in transferring the data among the system

components. The data lines are collectively called data bus. A data bus may
 have 32 lines, 64 lines, 128 lines, or even more lines. The number of lines
present in the data bus defines the width of the data bus.

2. Address Lines
The content of the address lines of the bus determines the source or
destination of the data present on the data bus. The number of address lines
together is referred to as address bus. The number of address lines in the
address bus determines its width.

3. Control Lines

The address lines and data lines are shared by all the components of the system
so there must some means to control the use and access of data and address
lines. The control signals placed on the control lines control the use and access
to address and data lines of the bus.

The control lines include the lines for:

1. Memory Write
2. Memory Read
3. I/O Write
4. I/O Read
5. Transfer ACK
6. Bus Request
7. Bus Grant
8. Interrupt Request
9. Interrupt ACK
10.Clock
11.Reset

Timing in Bus:-

the control lines of the bus also provide timing information along with the
command.
The way of deriving the timing information over the control line can be
categorized in two ways:
1. Synchronous Bus.
2. Asynchronous Bus
 14. What is DMA? Explain in brief.

Direct Memory Access (DMA) transfers the block of data between

the memory and peripheral devices of the system, without the
participation of the processor.
The unit that controls the activity of accessing memory directly is called
a DMA controller.

The processor relinquishes the system bus for a few clock cycles.

Direct memory access (DMA) is a mode of data transfer between the

memory and I/O devices. This happens without the involvement of the
processor.

We have two other methods of data transfer, programmed

I/O and Interrupt driven I/O. Let’s revise each and get acknowledge with
their drawbacks.

The DMA controller transfers the data in three modes:

1. Burst Mode: Here, once the DMA controller gains the charge of the system
bus, then it releases the system bus only after completion of data transfer. Till
then the CPU has to wait for the system buses.

2. Cycle Stealing Mode: In this mode, the DMA controller forces the CPU to stop
its operation and relinquish the control over the bus for a short term to DMA
controller. After the transfer of every byte, the DMA
controller releases the bus and then again requests for the system bus. In this
way, the DMA controller steals the clock cycle for transferring every byte.
3. Transparent Mode: Here, the DMA controller takes the charge of system bus
only if the processor does not require the system bus.

Direct Memory Access Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages:

1. Transferring the data without the involvement of the processor will speed
up the read-write task.
2. DMA reduces the clock cycle requires to read or write a block of data.
3. Implementing DMA also reduces the overhead of the processor.

Disadvantages

1. As it is a hardware unit, it would cost to implement a DMA controller in the

system.
2. Cache coherence problem can occur while using DMA controller.
12.What is external device? Explain in brief.

Ans in question no:-7.

Keybord
Mouse
Lightpen
Scanner
Microphone
Monitor
Printer

13. What are I/O Modules? Explain in brief.

 I/O module: From an internal (to the computer system) point of view,
I/O is functionally similar to memory.
 There are two operations; read and write.
 Further, an I/O module may control more than one external device.
 We can refer to each of the interfaces to an external device as a port and
give each a unique address (e.g., 0, 1, c , M-1).
 In addition, there are external data paths for the input and output of data
with an external device.
 Finally, an I/O module may be able to send interrupt signals to the
processor.