WEEK 6: Correlational and Quasi-Experimental Designs

CORRELATIONAL DESIGNS

A correlational study aims to establish the statistical link or degree of relationship between two
traits, behaviors, or events.

● It assumes that changes in one variable are related to changes in the other.

● This type of study is often used to investigate behaviors that are not fully understood,
with the ultimate goal of identifying potential cause-and-effect relationships.

● For instance, researchers might conduct a correlational study on two variables, X and Y,
by measuring them and then analyzing their association statistically.

● To minimize the impact of other factors that could influence the results, researchers may
employ statistical control and specialized research designs.

● When conducting correlational research in psychology, it's crucial to remember that

variables are measured, not manipulated. This type of research often explores three
potential sources of associations.

● The first is when X and Y are characteristics of the same individuals, such as
examining whether a person's level of self-esteem (X) is correlated with their level of
anxiety (Y).

● The second is when X and Y are characteristics of different but related groups, like
investigating whether a child's level of self-esteem (X) is associated with their parent's
level of self- esteem (Y).

● The third is when X is a personal trait and Y is an environmental factor, such as

studying whether people are more likely to act aggressively (X) on hotter days (Y)

EVALUATING RELATIONSHIPS FOR NUMERICAL SCORES

● Correlational research- involves obtaining two or more scores for each individual, but
researchers typically focus on the relationship between two variables at the same time.

To analyze the data, multiple scores are often paired together. In cases where the data consists of
numerical values, these pairs of scores are traditionally referred to as X and Y.
The data can be presented in a list that shows the two scores for each individual, or
alternatively, a scatter plot can be used to visualize the data.

● Scatter plots, also known as scatter graphs or scattergrams, use a single point to
represent each individual, with the horizontal coordinate reflecting the X score and the
vertical coordinate reflecting the Y score.

The benefit of using a scatter plot is that it allows researchers to easily observe the characteristics
of the relationship between the two variables.

● In order to assess and explain the relationship between two variables, researchers
generally calculate a numerical value called a correlation or correlation coefficient.

This value captures three key aspects of the relationship between the variables:

1. The direction of the relationship.

● Variables can be positively or negatively correlated. In a scatter plot, data points that
cluster around a line that slopes up to the right indicate a positive relationship.

● Positive Correlation means that higher scores or levels of one variable tend to be
associated with higher scores or levels of another variable (as X increases/decreases, Y
also tends to increase/decrease).

● On the other hand, a Negative relationship, in which X and Y tend to change in opposite
directions (as X increases, Y decreases, or vice versa), is indicated by negative values
(less than zero) for the correlation.
● Negative Correlation means that higher scores or levels of one variable tend to be
associated with lower scores or levels of another variable.

● It is indicated by data points that cluster around a line that slopes down to the right in a
scatter plot.

1. The form of the relationship.

Researchers commonly seek a pattern in the data that suggests a constant and predictable
relationship between the two variables.

In a Linear relationship, the data points tend to cluster around a straight line in the scatter
plot.

Each time the X variable increases by 1 point, the Y variable also increases, and the size of
the increase is a consistently predictable amount if it has a positive linear relationship.

A Pearson correlation explains and measures linear relationships when both variables are
numerical scores from interval or ratio scales.

A Monotonic relationship is a relationship that is invariably one-directional, either

consistently positive or consistently negative.

In a Positive monotonic relationship, increases in one variable tend to be accompanied by

increases in the other variable.

A Spearman correlation is utilized to measure and explain monotonic relationships when

both variables are ranked from an ordinal score or have been transformed to ranks.

1. The consistency or strength of the relationship. The most common technique for
measuring the strength of the relationship between two variables is to compute the
coefficient of determination, which is obtained by squaring the numerical value of the
correlation.

In real behavioral sciences data, entirely consistent relationships are practically never
found. Rather, real data indicate a degree of consistency.

The consistency of a relationship is typically measured and described by the numerical

value obtained for a correlation coefficient in correlational studies.
 A correlation of 11.00 (or -1.00) indicates a perfectly consistent relationship, and a value of
zero indicates no consistency whatsoever. Intermediate values indicate different degrees of
consistency.

By contrast, a correlation of 0.2 (or -0.2) describes a relationship in which there is only a
weak tendency for the value of Y to change in a predictable manner when the value of X
changes. In this case, the data points are widely scattered around a straight line.

Note that a correlation coefficient simply describes the consistency or strength of a

relationship between variables. Even the strongest correlation of 1.00 (or -1.00) does not
imply that there is a cause-and-effect relationship between the two variables.

CORRELATION DOES NOT ESTABLISH CAUSATION

Because correlational research does not establish causation, researchers cannot make definitive
conclusions. However, there are three important criteria used to draw causal inferences:

1. Covariation: As X changes, Y changes.

1. Temporal precedence: Changes in X must occur before changes in Y.

1. Absence of alternative explanations: There must be no other plausible causes for the
observed changes in Y besides changes in X.

● The concept of correlation implies that X and Y covary. However, researchers may
encounter challenges when attempting to establish the temporal order between the two
variables.
● In correlational studies, the variables are measured but not manipulated, which can create
uncertainty regarding the sequence of X and Y.

● Additionally, researchers must consider the possibility that Y has influenced X, which is
known as the bidirectionality problem or two-way causality problem.

● This issue arises due to the ambiguity around whether X caused Y or vice versa.

● Although this is a common issue in correlational research, it can sometimes be resolved

through logical reasoning.

● In order to conclude that X causes Y, researchers must also rule out other plausible
explanations for the observed changes in Y.

● It is possible that X and Y are not causally related at all, and that another variable - a
confounding variable (Z) - is responsible for changes in both X and Y.

● This issue is known as the third-variable problem, where Z may be the actual cause of
the apparent relationship between X and Y.

● It is crucial to consider potential third variables when interpreting correlational results.