Course:

Writing a research paper

CA R ME N G R EGOR I S I G NES
S E RGIO MA R UE NDA BATA L L ER
CA R ME N P I QUÉ N OG U ERA
The aims of this introductory course is to provide you with:

• an understanding of the structure and underlying logic of scientific research articles

published in English in the international literature.

• strategies that will help you turn a set of results into a paper for publication;

• skills for analysing the structure and language features of scientific articles in your own
discipline, and for using the results of this analysis to improve your own scientific writing;

• knowledge of the stages involved in the process of submitting an article for publication,
and strategies for completing each stage;

• Some practice on specific English language features commonly used in each section of
published articles and additional references that will help you write.
(Cargill & O’Connor 2009)
PART 2. Structure and content of a research paper
 Title
2.1. The overall structure
Abstract
Keywords

I Introduction
Literature Review
M Methods

R Results

D Discussion
Conclusion
References

Appendices
I INTRODUCTION • Background to the subject
• Reasons for carrying out the work
LITERATURE • Review of other research in the area
REVIEW
• How you did your research
M METHODS
• Description of the tools/materials used
• What you discovered
R RESULTS
• Comments on likely accuracy of results
• Of your main findings
D DISCUSSION
• Of the effectiveness of your research
• Summary of your work
CONCLUSION
• Suggestions for further research (Bailey, p. 258)
 2.2. The Introduction section

 It is the first section of a written research paper.

 Although they may vary from genre to genre,

good Introduction sections generally accomplish
the same tasks and follow a few basic patterns.
 Introduction: Why do it?
 Without an introduction it is difficult for your
audience to figure out what you are trying to
say.

 We need a thread of an idea that the audience

will follow through your paper.

 It gives the reader the beginning of the piece of

thread so they can follow it.
 Introduction: When do I do it?

 Many books recommend writing your

introduction LAST, after you finish your project.
 Why?
To make sure that you introduce what
you are actually going to say.
 If your project changes, make sure that your
introduction accurately reflect what you will be
saying.
Introduction: How to do it?

A concise, engaging and well-

written introduction will lead
your readers to think highly
of your
 analytical skills,
 your writing style and
 your research approach.
 Introduction: How to do it?

 By reviewing the introductions to research articles in

your discipline, you can get an idea of what is
considered the norm for that discipline.

 Study several of these before you begin your paper so

that you know what may be expected.
 Introduction: Phases in writing an introduction
1. Establish an area to research by:

◦Highlighting the importance of the topic, and/or

◦Making general statements about the topic, and/or
◦Presenting an overview on current research on the subject.

2. Identify a research niche by:

◦ Opposing an existing assumption, and/or

◦ Revealing a gap in existing research, and/or
◦ Formulating a research question or problem, and/or
◦ Continuing a disciplinary tradition.
http://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/introduction
3. Place your research within the research niche by:

◦ Stating the intent of your study,

◦ Outlining the key characteristics of your study,
◦ Describing important results, and
◦ Giving a brief overview of the structure of the paper.
 Introduction: The narrative flow
 Establish context by providing a brief and balanced review of
the pertinent published literature that is available on the
subject.
Strategy: summarize for the reader what is known about the
specific research problem before you do your analysis.
This part of your introduction should not represent a
comprehensive literature review. It consists of a general review of the
important research literature (with citations) that lays a foundation for
understanding key elements of the research problem.
The topic
◦ Its boundaries
◦ Why it is interesting

Structure and/or Methodology

◦ The essay’s main sections (structure)
◦ Why they come in that order (structural principle)
◦ How the author plans to draw the necessary conclusions
from the information available (methodology)

The Thesis Statement

(usually a single sentence & paragraph)
◦ Its premise (the general claim about the information
available)
◦ Its conclusion (the consequences of the first claim)
INTRODUCTION Main facts

More specific topic information that

provides context

Research problem/
statement of purpose
and rationale
Potential
outcomes

ADAPTED FROM HTTP://LIBGUIDES.USC.EDU/CONTENT.PHP?PID=83009&SID=618406

 2.1. The Literature Review

The Literature Review can be treated separately or combined

with the Introduction section, depending on the author, the
discipline, the journal you are about to submit your paper to,
the supervisor’s advice, the type of research, etc.

In the following slides, the Literature Review is described

separately.
 The Literature Review

 A literature review surveys books, scholarly articles, and any

other sources relevant to a particular issue, area of research,
or theory, and provides a description, summary, and critical
evaluation of these works in relation to the research
problem being investigated.
 The Literature Review

 Literature reviews are designed to provide an overview of

sources you have explored while researching a particular
topic and to demonstrate to your readers how your research
fits within a larger field of study.
 The Literature Review

Other ways of referring to this section?

Review of the Literature

Background
State of the art
Contextualization
Specific subsection titles
 The Literature Review

What does ‘literature’ mean here?

Mainly, but not exclusively, academic papers

which help you build an argument.
 The purpose of the Literature Review

 To situate your research objective within the field of study -

this means your review needs to constantly address and
relate to your research objective;

 To describe your critical assessment of previous studies –

your critical appraising skills will develop as you gain more
knowledge of the topic, towards the end of the reading and
writing processes;
 The purpose of the Literature Review

 To summarize main developments and methods;

 To identify a controversy, a gap, in your field of study, which

you will then attempt to address in your dissertation; and

 To formulate research questions.

 2.3.The Methods section
The methods section “establishes credibility for the results and should
therefore provide enough information about how the work was done
for readers to evaluate the results” (Cargill & O’Connor, 2009: 35).

It has a key role in the argumentation of the research paper (Huckin &
Olsen, Technical Writing and Professional Communication for
Nonnative Speakers fo English, 1991).
It is the most vulnerable section in terms of the paper being refused by
the journal’s referees (Bobenrieth Astete, El artículo científico original.
Estructura, estilo y lectura crítica, 1994).
 Methods
The methods section describes the rationale for the application of
specific procedures or techniques used to identify, select, and
analyze information applied to understanding the research problem,
thereby, allowing the reader to critically evaluate a study’s overall
validity and reliability.
The methodology section of a research paper answers two main
questions:
 How was the data collected or generated?
 And, how was it analyzed?
http://libguides.usc.edu/content.php?pid=83009&sid=615865
 Methods
Do you know other ways of referring to this section?
Methodology
Method/s
Method of analysis
Corpus and methodology
Methods: corpus and procedure
Materials and methods
Methodology and presentation of the data
Etc.
 Methods: functions
Functions of the Methods section:

 Indicate a specific method

 Give reasons why a particular method was adopted or rejected
 Describe the characteristics of the sample
 Indicate reasons for sample characteristics
 Describe the process
 Indicate problems or limitations
 Methods: information elements

Depending on the type of research and discipline, it should contain

the following information elements:

 Research sample / materials: description, sampling technique.

 Experimental design: description, justification, data collection
process, limitations and restrictions.
 Data analysis procedure: data classifying procedure, variables
analyzed, statistical treatment and software package (if any),
 Methods

Who is using quantitative, qualitative or

combined methods?
QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE
empirical evidence opinions
objective subjective
factual holistic
generalizable ungeneralizable
 Problems to avoid

Irrelevant Detail

The methodology section of your paper should be thorough but to the

point. Do not provide any background information that doesn’t directly
help the reader to understand why a particular method was chosen,
how the data was gathered or obtained, and how it was analyzed.
 Problems to avoid

Unnecessary Explanation of Basic Procedures

Remember that you are not writing a how-to guide about a particular
method. You should make the assumption that readers possess a basic
understanding of how to investigate the research problem on their own
and, therefore, you do not have to go into great detail about specific
methodological procedures. The focus should be on how you applied a
method, not on the mechanics of doing a method.
 Tense and voice in the Methods section
 The typical tense employed in the description of procedures is
the simple past tense, both in the active and passive voice.
 Researchers commonly use the passive voice to describe the
materials and methods.
 The passive voice emphasizes the action and decreases the
emphasis from the doer of the action; it is more impersonal.
 However, the passive is often over-used in science writing, and
it is recommended to combine it with active verbs, which are
more direct and less wordy.
Factors influencing the choice of an active or passive verb

 If the reader does not need to know who or what carried out
the action, you may use a passive verb.
Example: The researchers collected data monthly.  Data were
collected monthly.
 If using a personal pronoun subject sounds repetitive or
immodest, it may sound more appropriate to use the passive.
Example: We calculated least significant differences to compare
means.  Least significant differences were calculated to
compare means.
 Common problem when writing passive sentences

To let the reader easily understand you, avoid writing very long
subjects and a short passive verb at the end as in the following
example:
Wheat and barley, collected from the Virginia field site, as well
as sorghum and millet, collected at Loxton, were used.
Instead, try to write the subject and verb at the beginning of the
sentence and then introduce the list of items:
Four cereals were used: wheat and barley, collected from the
Virginia field site; and sorghum and millet, collected at Loxton.
 2.4. Results & Discussion

The Results and Discussion sections can be treated separately

or combined, depending on the author, the discipline, the
journal you are about to submit your paper to, the supervisor’s
advice, the type of research, etc.

In the following slides, these two sections are described

separately.
 The Results section

The Results section is the core of the paper: the data.

The data presentation aims to illustrate the story, present

evidence to support or reject a hypothesis, and record
important data. You should not repeat in words all the
results from the tables or figures but the most relevant
ones.
 Results: data presentation

The way we present the data varies with discipline and

personal preference. If you are about to submit a paper,
carefully read the Instructions to Authors or Author
Guidelines or look at recent issues of the journal.
 When reporting your results, you should not …
 Discuss or interpret your results
 Compare your results with other research
 Ignore negative results
 Include raw data or intermediate calculations
 Overuse numbers
 Be vague and non-specific – instead be as factual and concise as
possible
 Present the same data or repeat the same information more than
once
 Confuse figures with tables
 Results: common use of tense

 When the sentence focuses on the completed study, that is,

what was done and found, it is common to use past tense,
either active or passive voice.
 The present tense is used to describe an ‘always true’
situation and when the sentence focuses on the document.
 Modal verbs can be found in comments, especially in that
clauses.
 2.5. Discussion
When the Discussion section is separated from the Results section,
the Discussion and Conclusions sections can be treated separately
or combined, depending on the author, the discipline, the journal
you are about to submit your paper to, the supervisor’s advice,
the type of research, etc.

In the following slides, these two sections are described

separately.
 Discussion

The purpose of the discussion is to interpret and describe

the significance of your findings in light of what was already
known about the research problem being investigated, and
to explain any new understanding or fresh insights about
the problem after you've taken the findings into
consideration.
 Discussion

The discussion will always connect to the introduction by

way of the research questions or hypotheses you posed and
the literature you reviewed, but it does not simply repeat
or rearrange the introduction; the discussion should always
explain how your study has moved the reader's
understanding of the research problem forward from where
you left them at the end of the introduction.
 Main functions of the Discussion

 you discuss – you do not recapitulate the results;

 you refer to the general objective of the study;
 you show how your results and interpretations agree (or
contrast) with previously published work;
 you explain meaning of findings;
 you discuss theoretical and practical implications.
 Problems to avoid:
 Do not waste entire sentences restating your results. If you need to
remind the reader of the finding to be discussed, use "bridge sentences"
that relate the result to the interpretation.
Example: In the case of available housing to single women with
children in rural areas of Texas, the findings suggest that... [then move
to the interpretation of this finding].
 Recommendations for further research can be included in either the
discussion or conclusion of your paper but do not repeat your
recommendations in the both sections.
 Do not introduce new results in the discussion.
 Use of the first person is acceptable, but too much use of the first person
may actually distract the reader from the main points
 Discussing your results …

 Talk about findings generally in the PAST TENSE:

“The first set of questions aimed to …”

 Discuss findings generally in the PRESENT TENSE:

“The results of this study show/indicate that …”

“This finding supports previous research into ….”
 2.6. The Conclusion section

 The abstract, the introduction and the conclusion

deserve special attention.

 A well-written conclusion provides you with important

opportunities to demonstrate to the reader your overall
understanding of the research problem.

Fuster-Márquez, M., & Gregori-Signes, C. 2016. 'Last but not Least'. Writing the conclusion of your paper In M.L. Pérez Cañado & B. Pennock-Speck
(eds). "Writing and Presenting a Dissertation on Linguistics, Applied Linguistics and Culture Studies for Undergraduates and Graduates in Spain."
pp.93-106
 Conclusion
 Presenting the last word on the issues you raised in your paper.
The conclusion offers a chance to leave a lasting impression.
 Summarizing your thoughts and conveying the larger
significance of your study. The conclusion is an opportunity to
succinctly answer the “So what?”.
 Demonstrating the importance of your ideas. Opportunity to
elaborate on the impact of your findings.
 Introducing possible new or expanded ways of thinking about
the research problem.
 Conclusion

 “The conclusion is often what a reader remembers best”

(Leo, 2004: 1)

 “The conclusion ties everything together and leaves the

audience with the sense that a valid argument has been
presented and supported by relevant research” (Odak, 2015)
 Conclusion: functions
 Norgaard (1994):

o to highlight the most relevant points raised in the analysis

o to evaluate the research project’s findings

 To restate the main argument, i.e.,

o the strengths of your main argument(s) and

o reiterate the most important evidence supporting those
arguments.
 Conclusion: what to avoid …

 Failure to reveal problems and negative results:

• Negative aspects of the research process should never be

ignored; they must be reported.

• Use your summary of the negative results to introduce

future research.
 Conclusion: what to avoid …

 Failure to provide a clear summary of what was learned:

• How it contributes to new knowledge or a new

understanding about the research problem (most often
only a few lines long).
 Conclusion: Do not …

 Introduce new material or evidence in the form of ideas,

topics, or statistics in the conclusion.
 Write a conclusion which does not match what you said in
the introduction.
 Make claims which have not been backed up by evidence
(Corbett, 2007: 24).
 Conclusion: Do not …

 Apologize for your view by saying such things as “I may not

be an expert” or “At least this is my opinion”.
 Attempt to make up for an incomplete structure: if you say
you will discuss four books and only attempt a complete
discussion of two books, do not try to cover the remaining
texts in the concluding paragraph.
 Leave your readers with the feeling that they’ve been in
the company of someone who knows what he/she is doing.
 Conclusion: basic elements

 Look back at the goals set at your introduction

 Summarize your achievements by synthesizing.
 Evaluate the significance of your achievements.
 Mention the limitations of the scope of your research.
 Refer to the implications and recommendations which arise
from your results.
 Recommend future reserarch: these take your findings as a
starting point.
 2.8. The Abstract

“an abstract is a miniversion of the paper”; it should

provide “a brief summary of each of the main sections
of the paper: Introduction, Materials and Methods,
Results, and Discussion.”
(Day, 1988)
 Abstract

“a brief but accurate representation of the contents of a

document.”
(Lancaster, 1991)
 Abstract

“An abstract ... is a description or factual summary

of the much longer report, and is meant to give the
reader an exact and concise knowledge of the full
article.”
(Bhatia, 1993)
 Abstract
An abstract summarizes, usually in one paragraph of 200-300 words or
less, the major aspects of the entire paper in a prescribed sequence
that includes:

B = some background information

P = the principal activity (or purpose) of the study and its scope
M = some information about the methodology used in the study
R = the most important results of the study
C = a statement of conclusion or recommendation
(Weissberg and Buker, 1990)
 Abstract

Last section you write but very IMPORTANT because:

 Busy readers may only read the abstract.

 It is the first thing readers look at when searching for
bibliographic material.
 Greater visibility in online publications and searches.
 Abstract
 Use the past tense to describe methods or measurements taken.

 Use the present when discussing results or conclusions, but do

not use future tense.

 Do not use abbreviations, even if they’re used in the paper.

 The abstract just reports what is in the paper – do not add

further ideas, evaluations or justifications that are not already in
the paper.
 Abstract: example 1
The Location of Foreign Direct Investment for
U.S. Real Estate: An Empirical Analysis
(from an Economics research paper)

ABSTRACT Bhatia Weissberg &

(1993): Buker (1990):
Based on site characteristics, this study examines the (B)
location preferences of investors from Canada, Japan, and purpose P
the United Kingdom for U.S. real estate. The analysis uses
the state as the unit of observation for the 1980-1989
period. Using a random effects model that pools time series methodology M
and cross-sectional data, we identify important factors that
explain foreign investors' real property location choice in
the U.S. Foreigners prefer states with large, developed. and results R
active economies. Interestingly, a broad measure of the
state taxation variable is found to be negative and
significant, suggesting that taxation is a deterrent to foreign conclusion C
investors.
 Abstract: example 2
Examined Florence Nightingale's early years as Examined (subjectless
P
a child and their influence on her adult sentence)
behavior. Data were collected from biographies M
of Nightingale and her personal letters. The ... were collected
dynamics of Nightingale's family had several ... biographies, letters
disturbing features: a domineering and
ambitious mother, a weak father, intense
sibling rivalry, and divided loyalty.
Nightingale's acquisition of masculine list of main findings:
characteristics, including a man's education, FN’s personal
R
may have been caused by a sense of inadequacy characteristics are
stemming from her awareness that her parents
listed
wished for a son. She was full of self-doubt,
manifesting low self-esteem, self-depreciation,
and a sense of guilt. She also displayed
narcissistic and obsessive-compulsive
tendencies, and suffered from tormenting
depression, religious hallucinations, and
suicidal despair. Nightingale was an artful
manipulator of people, and many of her concluding sentence
C
achievements were only won through threats and (often a suggestion or
subduing people to her will. a recommendation)
 Abstract: example 3
Background
Hedging is ... (def.)
... hedges are also ...
Purpose/M(?)
This study demonstrates ... / popular
scientific articles
Results
Hedging ... may be used ...
Conclusion
... should receive more emphasis ...
Applied linguistics Abstract
Hedging, the expression of tentativeness and possibility by
means of epistemic devices, is often held to be a central
feature of more technical ESP texts such as scientific
specialist-to specialist research articles. Furthermore, hedges
are also seen as characteristic of medical discourse. This
study demonstrates that in medical discourse hedging can
also be applied frequently in less specialized ESP texts such
as popular scientific articles, but in different communicative
functions than in specialist discourse. Hedging, an indication
of textual precision and interpersonal negative politeness in
scholarly peer communication, may be used as a textual tool
for both imprecision and precision as well as a feature of
interpersonal positive politeness in popularised
communication between specialist writers and non-specialist
readers. The impositions of such functional diversity of
hedging should receive more emphasis in the teaching and
research of ESP.
 2.9. The Title

A good research paper title:

 Condenses the paper’s content in a few words

 Captures the readers’ attention
 Differentiates the paper from other papers of the same
subject area
 The Title
Keep it simple, brief and attractive:

 Use active verbs instead of complex noun-based phrases, and avoid

unnecessary details.

 Length: 10 to 12 words long.

• Avoid: Drug XYZ has an effect of muscular contraction for an

hour in snails of Achatina fulcia species.
• Better: Drug XYZ induces muscular contraction in Achatina fulcia
snails.
 The Title
Use appropriate descriptive words:

 It should contain key words used in the manuscript and define the nature of
the study.

 Include in the title terms people would use to search for your study.
• Avoid: Effects of drug A on schizophrenia patients: study of a multicenter
mixed group
• Better: Psychosocial effects of drug A on schizophrenia patients: a
multicenter randomized controlled trial

http://www.editage.com/insights/3-basic-tips-on-writing-a-good-research-paper-title
 The Title

Tips to use keywords prominently:

Make use of colons (:) and dashes (-) to separate keywords.

X - Effects of added calcium on salinity tolerance of tomato

 Calcium addition improves salinity tolerance of tomato
Calcium addition: effects on salinity tolerance of tomato
 The Title

Avoid abbreviations and jargon:

 Known abbreviations such as AIDS and NATO can be used in the title.
Other lesser-known or specific abbreviations and jargon should be left
out.
 Always write down the hypothesis and then take into consideration these
simple tips. This would help you in composing the best title for your
research paper.
Bibliography

Bailey, S. (2006). Academic Writing. A Handbook for International Students, 2nd ed. London: Routledge.
Cargill, M. & O’Connor, P. (2009). Writing scientific research articles. Strategy and steps. Oxford: Wiley
Blackwell.
Fortanet Gómez, I. (coord.) (2002). Cómo escribir un artículo de investigación en inglés. Madrid: Alianza
Editorial.
Hamp-Lyons, L. & Heasley, B. (2006). Study writing, 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Labaree, R. V. (ed.) (2017). Organizing your social sciences research. University of Southern California.
<http://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide /purpose> [Retrieved 12/03/2016]
Lester, J. D. & Lester, J. D. (2015). Writing research papers, 15th ed. England: Pearson.
Pérez Cañado, M. L. & Pennock-Speck, B. (eds.) (2015). Writing and presenting a dissertation on
linguistics, applied linguistics and culture studies for undergraduates and graduates in Spain. Valencia:
PUV.