Napoleonic Wars in Hungary

Restoring Estate Dualism (=Ruler+ estates govern together)

 Joseph II died in 1790
 Leopold II (1790-92)
o had to make peace with the nobility hurt by Joseph II
- They wanted: independence
o Ignited peasant, minority movements
- Landowners could only get help from the ruler, were willing to compromise
o Gave up governing by decrees and restored estate dualism
- In exchange, nobility gave up their independence

Nationalism
 Joseph II’s policy:
o Goal: Unification of the empire
o BUT backfired-> result: emergence of nationalism
 Meaning of Hungarian:
o Previously: nobility
o Change: Hungarian-speaking people
 Mother tongue culture became very significant -> language reform: (1790-1820, broadly
1770-1872)
 Nationalism of the minorities (weak)
o Creation of origin theories (quiestionable)
- Romanians: Dacians, Slovakians: Moravians

Jacobine conspiracy
 French revolution (1789-1799)
o Original goal: restricting the ruler -> welcomed by nobility, but after the
radicalization of the revolution(Jacobine dictatorship), turned against the revolution
 New king: Francis I (1792-1835)
o Afraid of the export of the revolution -> rejected changes
o Some noblemen were disappointed
- started a secret movement against him in 1794
- led by: Ignác Martinovics
- exposed in 1795 -> 5 leaders executed
- result: Francis I rejected reforms even more

Napoleonic Wars
 After the nobility turned against French revolution-> supported the Habsburgs against
Napoleon w. taxes, soldiers
 Napoleon entered Hungary only once, 1809-> promised independence to Hungary if they
supported him
o Rejected by nobility -> Napoleon was a tyrant (=cruel, oppressive ruler) to them
 o Instead: Insurrection (=a violent uprising against a government) of the nobility
o Battle of Győr (1809) -> defeated by Napoleon

Economic effects of the war

 Hungary didn’t really get involved I Napoleonic wars
- demands of agricultural products grew
- prices grew
- even worse quality products could be sold -> economic prosperity
 after the war: prices fell + selling possibilities narrowed
- nobility wanted to maintain the standard living (which they acquired during
economic prosperity)
- only way to do this: innovations (which were rejected previously)

The aristocracy
 in law: every noblemen is equal
 in reality: huge differences
 ~5% of the society were noblemen
 Aristocracy:
o Narrow layer (few 100 families)
o Huge lands (10,000+ acres)
o Many innovations were introduced on their lands
o Usually loyal to the ruler (exc. Ferenc Széchényi)

The Nobility
 Wealthy nobility:
o 1000-10,000 acres of land
o Controlling the nobiliary county
o Playing a big role in the diets -> their support of the reforms is very significant
 Lower nobility:
o A couple 100 acres of lands or none
o Either studying: intellectuals -> supporting reforms
o OR poverty -> easily influenced -> loyal to the Habsburgs

The Bourgeoise and the Peasantry

 Population growth -> Significance of towns grew
o By 19th c. 14% of pop. lived in towns
 Bourgeoisie jobs: merchants, guild workers, honoratiors (intellectuals of non-noble origins)
 Peasantry: very layered -> population growth -> fragmentation of serfs’ plots
o Less serfs with full plots, more with half or less then 1/8 of a plot
o Number oof cottars without a house also grew -> hard to survive -> tension
Beginning of the Age of Reform
István Széchenyi and Miklós Wesselényi
 Father: Ferenc Széchényi (1754-1820)
o Founder of the: National Museum, National Library (1802)
o Josephinist aristocrat, but resigned when he did not like Joseph II’s reforms
 István Széchenyi (1791-1860)
o Started his career in the army
o Quit, travelled all over Europe to study
 Miklós Wesselényi (1796-1850)
o Transylvanian aristocrat
o Széchenyi’s friend, travelled together
o They realized the backwardness of Hungary

Diets in the early 19th century

 Held in Bratislava
 1802, 1805, 1807, 1808 -> most important events
o 1802: foundation of National Museum
o 1808: Ludovica Academy
 1812: No diets until 1825
o Francis I tried to introduce absolutism
o BUT revolutionary movements in Europe in the 1820s -> decided to summon the
diet once again in order to avoid conflicts

Diets of 1825-27 and 1830

 Problems discussed: tariffs, feudal relationships, Hungarian language
 The diet of 1825-27:
o only issue of language was discussed
o Széchenyi offered his yearly income to create an institution improving Hungarian
language
o Hungarian Learned Society 1825
o Later: Hungarian Academy of Sciences
 Diet of 1830:
o short BUT Széchenyi’s Hitel is written this year
o -> Start of the Age of Reform
Széchenyi’s program
 Goal: bourgeoisie society instead of feudalism
 1830, Hitel: hard to get loans -> lack of capital and credit
 1831, Világ: reaction to the conservative criticism of Hitel
 1933, Stádium:
o Published too late due to censorship
o political program for the diet of 1832-36
 Abolition of serfdom, feudal duties (outdated)
  Abolition of entailment -> making it possible to get loans
 Equity before the law
 Hungarian as the official state language
- Slow but steady reforms
- Motto:” motherland and progress”
- Wanted to avoid confrontation with the Habsburgs
- Leader of reforms: aristocracy

Wesselényi’s program
 He discussed his programs in his works entitled Balítéletekről
o Written in 1831
o Published in 1833, bc. of Habsburg censorship
 His main goal: bourgeoisie society instead of feudalism (same as Széchenyi’s)
o Methods are different: he would confront with the Habsburgs
 His reform ideas, methods were taken over by Lajos Kossuth later
o Széchenyi’s slow and steady reform ideas were not convincing -> people wanted
quick reforms
o Supported Wesselényi, later Kossuth

Széchenyi’s practical activity

 By the 1840s, Széchenyi was famous bc. of his practical activity, not his political views
o Role model in his practical activity: England
 Social life: casino in Pest, horse races
 River regulations (Tisza, Iron gates)
 Steamships (Balaton & ship factory in Óbuda)
 Bridges (Chain Bridge, 1849)
 Supporting railways (Pest-Vác,1846 + Pest-Szolnok, 1847)
 Industrial development (stock companies)

The development of Pest-Buda

 Pest-Buda became the political, economic, and cultural center of Hungary
o Good location, historic past
o Palatine Joseph, younger brother of Francis I moved here -> suitable capital
 The development fastened after the 1838 flood
o Lots of money was spent on renovations
 Chain bridge instead of pontoon bridge
 Steam shipping -> ship factory
 Railway
 Banks appeared in the city -> loans were needed for progress
Lajos Kossuth
The cholera revolt
 1830: cholera epidemic in Upper Hungary
 Thousands died
 Fear of death + social tension between serfs & nobility
o Cholera revolt 1831: serfs believed that they were poisoned by the noblemen
o Suppressed by the army -> retaliation(=counter attack): executions and
imprisonments
o BUT: the revolt showed the nobility the dissatisfaction of serfs -> something must be
done with this situation

The diet of 1832-36

 Important representatives: Ferenc Kölcsey, Ferenc Deák + supporters in the Upper House:
Széchenyi, Wesselényi
 Sth. needs to be done with the situation of the serfs
o Union interest + idea for the liberation of serfs: optional redemption
o Serfs could pay the noblemen for their freedom + they would get the serfs’ plot as
well
 Other reform ideas: abolition of entailment, toll on the later bridge
 The only accepted idea: everybody (even noblemen) will have to pay a toll on the later
bridge (chain bridge)
o By the time it was finished (1849), there was general taxation
 Rejected ideas: abolition of entailment + allowing peasants to have lands
 Optional redemption: possibility to lease-work and the improvement of agriculture
o First: accepted, BUT Francis I did not ratify(=give consent) it
o Instead: sent it back and bribed many noblemen
o Change in the directives: optional redemption was rejected

The early career of Kossuth

 Born in a noble family (1802)
 Studied law -> intellectual
 Diet of 1832-36: representative of an aristocrat who could not be present
o Took part but could not vote BUT wrote the Dietal Reports (handwritten)
 After the diet: Municipal Reports (illegal)
o BUT he became very popular

Tension with the Viennese court

 1835: death of Francis I
 Ferdinand V (1835-48)
o Believed to be weak-minded
 Real political power: chancellor Matternich
 o Wanted to silence the Hungarian reformers -> imprisoned many noblemen
o Baron Miklós Wesselényi: arrested for a speech at a county assembly – convicted
with treason(=betraying one’s country) -> jail
 Problems with his eyes -> freed -> went blind later
o Lajos Kossuth: arrested in 1837 bc. of the Municipal Reports
 spent 3 years in prison
 Read classics of politics, economy and learnt English

The diet of 1839-40

 When Wesselényi, Kossuth and other noblemen were imprisoned-> violation of the freedom
of speech
 Cooperation of the two houses: they refused to discuss matters until this issue was resolved
 Accomplishments:
o Amnesty(=official pardon, elengedik a bűntetést)
o Laws supporting capitalist transformation (freedom of trade, freedom of the
foundation of factories)
o Optional redemption was accepted > not very significant: only 1% of serfs

Political journalism
 After the diet of 1839-40: Kossuth was offered the editor’s job at the new newspaper, Pesti
Hírlap (1841) by Lajos Landerer
 Expectations of Vienna: censorship’s control + Kossuth’s radicalism would split the
opposition
o Instead, Kossuth started a new type of political journalism: The articles pointed out
necessity of the reforms + these were further strengthened by his editorals
(vezércikk)

Political program
 Key: union of interest
 Compulsory liberation of serfs: ownership of land for serfs + compensation of landlords by
the state
o Equity before the law -> legal emancipation (liberation)
 Other key points of his program:
o Abolition of entailment -> capitalism
o General taxation (of nobility)
o Union with Transylvania
 His views resulted in a debate between Kossuth and Széchenyi

The debate between Széchenyi and Kossuth

István Széchenyi Lajos Kossuth
Moderate: slow, steady – avoid confrontation More radical: quick – accepts confrontation
‘Motherland and Progress’
Leader of the reform: aristocracy Nobility
Only economic reforms with the consent of Self-determination: Economic and political
Vienna independence
Within the Habsburg Empire
 Kelet Népe: Kossuth’s radical reforms are Felet: Széchenyi is the ‘Greatest Hungarian’ but
dangerous -> possibility of a revolution self-determination is a must to reach capitalism

The consequences of the debate

 Széchenyi’s slow and steady reforms became unpopular
o His views were defeated by Kossuth
 Kossuth’s more radical reforms became popular
o He became one of the most influential leaders of the reformers

Nationalism in the Age of Reform

Bourgeoisie national identity
 The term, Nation:
o Previously: the layer of noblemen exclusively
o Age of Reform: a legally equal nation, where your wealth does not grant you legal
privileges
 Hungarians also started to research origin theories (like other neighbouring nations)

A single political nation

 Political nation: not based on language but on history
o Only those nations were political nations that had noble social layers
 In Hungary: Hungarians & Croatians
 Within these political nations, many nationalities lived: Slovakians, Serbians,
Rusnys
 Goal of the 19th c. in Europe: to create nation states
o Hungary also wanted to do this
o Problem: 18th c. migration
o Hungary was a multi-ethnic state
o Hungarians wanted to overcome this with the idea of a unified, single political nation

The methods of assimilation

 Reformers believed that the nationalities will be thankful for the Hungarians for the
liberation of serfs and legal emancipation
o They will join the Hungarian nation: they will assimilate into the Hungarian nation
 Forced emancipation: forcing the use of Hungarian language (schools)
o Resistance of the nationalities
 Assimilation only happened in the towns and cities: among the German and Jewish people

The nationalism of the ethnic minorities

 Leaders: intellectuals of the churches
  Goals: more rights + national institutions
o Ultimate goal: autonomy (=the right or condition of self-government)
 The ethnic minorities opposed the Hungarian, BUT the Hungarians neglected them

The situation of Jews

 Came to Hungary in the 18th c.
 The number if Jewish people grew in the 18th c.
 Worked as merchants, artisans (trade or handicraft)
 Many assimilated
o Emancipation of Jewish people was among the ideas of the reformers
Culture in the Age of Reform
 Starts with Széchenyi’s Hitel
 Buildings: classicism, literature + arts: romanticism
o Emphasized the national identity and the love for your own nation
 Kölcsey: Himnusz
 Vörösmarty: Szózat, Erkel’s operas (Bánk Bán)
 First theatre = Nemzeti Színház
o Built in Pest (near Astoria)
o In 1837
o Culture was not financed by the state
o Individuals donated for culture

The issue of Hungarian language

 After Joseph II’ language decree (1784):
o The issue of Hungarian language became more and more important
 In the late 18th – early 19th c.:
o Language reform led by Ferenc Kazinczy
o Simplifying the language + creating new words
 Diet of 1844: Hungarian became the official state language (instead of latin)
Political Movements in the Age of Reform
Védegylet
 October, 1844: Kossuth founded it, became its director
 Members agreed to buy Hungarian products only, for 6 years
o to support the Hungarian industry
 roles:
o propaganda of the reforms
o better organization of the reformers : but NOT a political party
o Kossuth could only unfold his political activity

The ‘cautious progressives’

 =Neo(=new) conservatives
 :A conservative group of politicians
o Led by: Aurél Dessewffy
o Found the reform ideas radical
o Wanted more cautious reforms that protect the aristocracy
 Did not reject every reform
o Supported: optional redemption (=Serfs could pay the noblemen for their freedom +
they would get the serfs’ plot as well)
o BUT instead of a bourgeoisie society:
 Goal: strengthening the old, feudal system

The Conservative Party

 1846: uprising of the noblemen in Galicia (Poland)
o Subdued by the Habsburgs with the help of the peasants
o The conservatives warned that the same thing might happen in Hungary too if quick
reforms are carried out without the consent of the Habsburgs
 They felt that the need for slow and cautious reforms were justified
o To be more effective in politics, they founded the first Hungarian party in 1846:
 Conservative party

The centralists
 Narrow layer of reformers
o Led by: József Eötvös, László Szalay
 o 1844: Pesti Hírlap was taken away from Kossuth (-1841) and given to László Szalay
 Goal: strong, centralized bourgeoisie state, based on the French state
 Supporting the idea of a strong, central government responsible to the parliament

The liberals
 Most of them want comprehensive, quick reforms (except: Széchenyi)
o Leader: Lajos Kossuth
 Goal: transformation from feudal society to bourgeoisie / capitalist society
 Reform ideas: mostly Kossuth’s ideas:
o Union of interest
o Compulsory liberation of serfs
o General taxation (nobility)

The Opposition Party

 Explained the Polish events (1846) in the opposite way as the conservatives
o Show the need for quick reforms to prevent the same thing from happening
 Answer to the foundation of the conservative party
o 1847: Opposition Party was founded
o It’s president: Count Lajos Batthyány

The Opposition Manifest

 Opposition Party created a program in 1847:
o Opposition Manifest
o Written by: Ferenc Deák
 Key points of the program:
o Compulsory liberation of serfs + compensation by the state
o Parliament based on popular representation + government responsible to the
parliament
o Freedom rights
o Equity before the law
o General taxation + abolition of privileges
o Constitution (for Austria as well)

Young Hungary movement

 By the second half of 1840s:
o New wave of reformers:
o Grew up during the Age of Reform
o Founded the Young Hungary movement:
 Members: Sándor Petőfi, Mór Jókai…
 Meeting place: café Pilvax
 Instead of slow reforms:
o Goal: radical revolutionary changes
 Example: compulsory liberation without compensation, complete
independence from the Habsburgs
o They worked together with the liberals