18TH AND 19TH CENTURY BRITISH

HISTORY
(insérer le cours 1)

Sciences politiques : idée que toute décision politique n’est pas arbitraire mais fondée sur une raison objective
et rationnelle.

Walpole Robert regime : 1721 – 1742. Key actor in encountering and solving the effects of the South Sea
Bubble. His rise of power = extremely marked. Until him = the Office did not existed nor prime minister. When
Walpole became The Chancellor of the Exchequer = one of the most poweful men of the Office and
progressively became Prime Minister  referred as the First Prime Minister of the Office. Was a Whig.

BEGINNING OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION IN THE MID 18TH CENTURY?

Reasons why to consider it the beginning of the IR :

- Growth of industries in England which started to produce consumer goods (not necessary products
like textile or luxury products)  means that people had enough money to buy not necessary goods
bc price of food = relatively low

- Farming methods have improved  more efficient  more food produced

- The road system started to improve dramatically  better transport of goods  access to resources in
other parts of the country and improvement of trade  Turnpike System ( = péage) = had to pay to
use the road = money will go back to improving the roads + maritime routes also improving
dramatically

MERCANTILISM AND EMPIRE

Britain’s imperial network also changed. Colonies imports more materials but Britain also started to export
goods to the colonies (especially the Caribbeans) because there were more and more people. Colonies also
needed materials that they couldn’t produce (ex : iron)  exchange.

Colonies population weren’t always free people : prisoners, slaves. Slavery  part of mercantilism, bringing
wealth to the Empire.

Effects :

- development of major ports in Britain ( ex : Liverpool )

 - rise of mercantilism theory = in order for nations to be strong, they had to amass wealth within their
country based on gold standard. More gold = richer and powerful. Strong interventionist state in
trade.

Economists (like Adam Smith) were partisans of Free Trade (trade without limits)

THE ENLIGHTENMENT IN THE LONG-EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

Enlightenment = movement of which historians are still debating its meaning. Period where there was a
profound change in philosophical, religious, political and scientific domains. During the Enlight. The trust in
religion progressively gave way to more trust in science, in men’s capacity to reason, in rationalism.

Ideals of equality, social justice started to take shape  one of the characteristics of the 18th C was “write and
rebellion”.

Hypothesis : E. started from the Bill Of Rights (written by John Locke) : idea that the absolutism could not exist
and equality prevailed.

Freedom of press in mid-18th C.

REBELLION AND REVOLUTION IN THE 18 T H CENTURY

18th C called by historians = a century of discontent and rebellion. Ruling process criticized by the people.
Expression of discontent by art, press, painting, literature. Caricature = particular method of mocking the king.

LAW AND GOVERNMENT IN THE 18 T H CENTURY

In the 18th and today : no such thing as a written constitution as in France. Constitution = formal document,
piece of legislation which sets out the form of governance that the country will act. British system functions
according to a set of beliefs / assumptions, based on an equilibrium between the powers of the Monarch, the
House of Lords, and House of Commons. Governance rooted in a balance, based on principles :

- the Monarch had to be an Anglican protestant (no Catholic after 1701)

- only Anglicans could be appointed members of the government
- Monarchs had to convene (=rassembler, réunir) Parliament and obtain its consent if they wanted to
pass or amend particular laws
- Monarchs could discontinue / prorogue (=dissoudre) Parliament
- The Monarch would appoint leading members of Government: ministers (15 in the early 18 th)
- Monarch could dismiss the ministers without Parliament’s consent  Monarch = powerful. Ministers
(= the Cabinet ) & monarch worked together and policy decisions were made by the Cabinet,
submitted to the Monarch before presented to the Parliament. Cabinet = powerful executive body but
dependent of the Monarch’s decisions.
- The 15 ministers did not have one leader : they were equal. Today = Prime Minister. Contributes to the
equilibrium. They could disagree among themselves : became a saliant characteristic of the 18 th
century government.
- The majors tasks of the Government was to maintain domestic peace to avoid wars. If there were
wars, task was to find money to finance them
- No separation of powers as there is today. Members of Parliament could be members of Cabinet.
- Monarch = head of the Church. Not democratic as we define it today.
2 LEVELS IN GOVERNMENT :

- Central = Monarch Parliament and Cabinet : focus on maintaining peace and raising funds for war
- Local = county (set of multiple towns), town and parish (subdivision within the town, basic unit of local
government)

At the beginning of the century, the Whigs were in power and remain powerful until the end of the century.
After, the Torey were in power. With the Whigs In power, central gov became less concerned about local gov.
Separation between the 2, autonomy, minor form of devolution. Local government had little interference from
Central government.

Even though Central Gov did not check, people who are in charge of counties (called Lord Lieutenant) were
appointed by the King. System called patronage. Always a peer : certain social hierarchy also in place. Lord
Lieutenant also had deputies who were appointed by Lord Lieutenant. No room for differing opinions. Deputies
appoint justices of the peace  system of appointment which locked certain places in the government. System
would ensure the working of “poor relief” (= aide aux pauvres), that there was reasonable food supplies for
the population, fix prices of certain goods and making sure that public morality was maintained, in charge of
the maintenance of the road. Power on the everyday life of the population.

Office of mayors : same functions as Lord Lieutenant but at level of town

In parish : The Church Wardens (priests) and his people are in charge of the parish.

In the 18th century : British government = decentralized, few national institutions which were the Treasury, the
Navy, the Post Office board, the Board of Trade and the Home Office.

British System in 18th century was extremely free compared to absolutist structures in countries like France.

Ways that the laws were made : in spite of not having had a revolution, Britain managed to put into effect
“Enlightenment Ideals”.

“English laws are the best framed, best compacted body of laws now extant (=existing) in the world”

Rule of Law (= Etat de Droit) : even those in power have to obey to the same laws as everyone else = concept of
John Locke.

Common Law = croyance du passé sur lequel tout ce qui était jugé était jugé selon les coutumes et les usages
(en plus des lois). The idea was that the ordinary people who were involved in the administration of the justice,
gradually became separated from administration of justice (because they did not understand the customs &
excise).

Private judgement : growing discontent amongst the people. Parliamentary interference in the form of more
and more laws started to trickle down in the counties  discontent and protests. Trust in Parliamentary
process broke
House of Commons were voting more and more laws  members of Parliament were not always competent to
decide whether the law was good or not  voted in favor of it anyways.
Whigs = in power  Torey = wanted to bring back power

Social division in the second half of 18th century.

Middle class people were those who made up the polite classes. Protests.
EMPIRE IN THE 18 T H CENTURY

Early modern rulers often made claims to a “headship” over territories under their rule. These places would
come under their rule, united and described as composite monarchy. Today, it would be what we call a federal
conception of imperialism (federal system = different territories with their own ruler which, when together,
form a single territory with one big ruler).

The language of Empire : two main concepts = colony and imperialism.

Civilization mission = duty of the head to educate and “civilize the barbarians”.
Other goal = to counter overpopulation if there were too much misery at home, justified going abroad to live
and search food and work (conception of Thomas Moore)

Empire had to had this commercially expanding idea.

The idea is that it would be dynastic : there wouldn’t be wars, it would just be annexed thanks to peaceful
alliances and marriages.

Another mode of annexation : conquest, violence, and force.

 principal mode of taking territories overseas = conquest.

Long 18th Century = 18th + 1st half of 19th

1707 Act of Union

In 1800 : Active Union with Ireland too

Britain = considered as being one of the most liberal nations in Europe ( no absolute power )  franchise (=
right to vote) reserved to wealthy people who owned land = not as democratic as today but still more
democratic than in other countries. Landowners were in charge.

Changes that were going to contribute to the Industrial Revolution occurred between 1750s to 1850s.
Economic growth = result of these conditions : relative political stability. First census (recensement) occurred in
1801  gave an idea of what the pop of Britain was at that time. Britain had the fastest rate of pop growth in
Europe. Most urbanized country in Europe as well : 30% living in towns and cities.

Agricultural innovation in Britain = also contributed to economic growth and industrial rev. (Enclosure)
 People were not only growing food for themselves but also for others (sell)

Progressively, there were more developed banking systems with more money circulating + scientific
innovations notably in textile production (production of cloth)  new steaming machines, cotton mills

Coal mining  power the steam engines and the trains  train network growing contributing to the upgrade
of the road / transport system.

Social consequences : workers stopped working at home (harvesting cotton at home) and moved in towns to
work in cotton mills but treated harshly and were in terrible conditions + working children. Those who
remained in farms and who did not moved in towns were destitute with no money.

Cotton  huge production with less workers in towns  export  huge industry (40% of British export)
Heavy industries like coal and iron  more efficient with the steam engines BUT people working in the mines
and factories were living in terrible conditions.

Factories, mines, and mills mostly situated in the North = industrial North. South was not as developed.
Industrial heart of Britain moved away from London which was the economic capital before the IR.

Development of port cities like Liverpool and Glasgow  started to grow too. Canal system also developed a
lot  pollution of the major urban centers where the canals were running (episodes of cholera etc)  Social
public health issues.

Landlords aristocrats investing in these trades to consolidate their wealth thanks to the industrial development.

Industrial growth at home + British Empire going to contribute to economic prosperity to the home country 
2 British Empires( = United States + Australia NZ etc ) and India referred as ‘the jewel on the crown’.
Biggest British textile market = India (biggest “client” of Britain). East India Company = private company created
in 1601 that sets up counters in the British Indian colonies. Point = to trade with India. Became the most
important organization of a private company that was given permission to trade = allowed to maintain an army
to fight off other European nations and guarantee monopoly + keep the Indians in order. 1857 = disappearance
because Indians rebelled against them  India became a Crown colony

Tea became English / British thanks to the trades between China and Britain. Sugar = another main commodity
shipped to Britain from the Caribbean Islands. Imperial trade network all over the world = unique compared to
other nations. One of the pillars of this economic prosperity was slave trade. Britain = engaged in slave trade =
key factor in British manufacturing success. Abolition of slave shipments in 1807. Slavery itself abolished in
1833.

Conclusion : up until mid 19th century, productivity and prosperity was rooted in textile and heavy industries
which emerged thanks to technology and improved organization + maritime networks and mobile labor force
(people moving from countryside to towns)  base of the industrial revolution. Terrible social consequences of
the Industrial Revolution in Britain + abolition of slavery in 1833.

Enlightenment = more focused on equal society and properly educated population  PROGRESS. If you are not
educated, you belong to the exploited category of people.

Event that fueled demands of political reforms = French Revolution. As FR would transform and became more
radical and extreme, the ruling classes started to recoil from these demands because the FRev became very
violent and going against what initially was the FRev. 1793 : execution of the French King  War broke out with
Britain. In br : if you publicly express favor for the FRev = considered as betrayal, as be seditious (trahison).

Torey Gov : had a more tempered reaction to demands and reforms  going to hold the process of reform in
Britain. One of the ways that Toreys held up those demands = Combination Acts (1800). Laws = amended later
on. Any protest, gathering of workers were considered as illegal. As far as the franchise was concerned, those
who were in favor of the reform belong to the middling classes (according to the gov). They were powerful
groups in industries. These people were interested in extending the franchise. They wanted a limited expansion
of the electorate (the people who vote, meaning only the wealthy. Middling classes could not vote so they
wanted to have the right to vote as well). By 1820s, this need of political representation system = seen as
requiring change.

1832 : First Reform Act signed by the Gov in response of these demands by the middling classes. Context :
there was a radical demand for a better franchise. Demands for improvement of conditions for workers. In
1840s, there was no real organization to represent these demands (a Party for example)
Industrial Revolution = development of industries but did not prevent economic downturns : high
unemployment and agricultural sectors were also experiencing depression. Workers who lived in already
terrible conditions saw their wages decrease, making the conditions worse.

Corn Laws, 1815 : prevent the importation of foreign wheat. No competition : could not buy food except as a
government fixed price.

New feature = organization of public meetings

Whigs opponents started to accept that a reform might be a good idea.

Chartism = national movement that emerged as a result of the passing of the Reform Act. Lasted for a decade.
Considered as being a popular political movement that is going to have effect on British political organization.
Popular in the North of England, where the working population lived in severe conditions. London also
contributed to a lesser extent.
Objective: improve the lot (destiny) of working men with their conditions and to admit these people into the
political system.

They were set out in the People’s Charter :

- Suffrage : men could have the right to vote
- Secret ballot : to protect the people
- Abolition of the property qualification (obligation to own property to vote)
- Equal electoral districts : wanted constituencies of equal size
- Annual Parliaments : elections every year (no time for people to get used to their privileges)

 pointing in one direction : “just equal representation of the people of Great Britain in the House of
Commons”

People gained knowledge by the newspapers, the engravings (print culture becoming more prevalent),
meetings held in public squares, villages, towns in order to publicize the plans for more equal representation.
Took place in big cities (Glasgow, Birmingham for ex) North = hot bath for Chartism.

Once people were aware, there had to be a strategy to bring these strategies to the attention of the
Government (MPs) : means = national conventions, writing of petitions (document on which are written
political rights, signed by all the people that are for these ideas / positions). Petition set to government to put
pressure to accept more reform. 1st petition written in 1838. Other petitions in 42 and 48. All of them failed 
no reaction from the government but carried a symbolic ideological way.

The leaders could not decide on what strategy to use. 2 factions within Chartism : some thought the only
means are achieving your aim is through violence (petitions which were a pacific way failed), the others were
totally against. Fergus O’Connor elected as leader in 1840 (after the failure of 1 st petition). Former MP. Created
a newspaper called “The Northern Star”, prophesizing his ideas and beliefs. He was charismatic : advantage to
vehiculate his ideas and to be listened to  success. Second national convention in 1842 organized by him.
Second petition : failed  riots broke out all over the North, especially in the Midlands.

Authorities’ reaction : people arrested and transported to prison  repressive reaction of the government.
Reacted to violence by violence.

1840s : economic climate improved. Economics improved  less discontent, Chartism lost its fervor and
movement declined.

1848s : revolution all over Europe, rising up against absolutism and undemocratic regimes. Impact of this
European revolutions = riots, rallies all over Britain. Many Irish immigrants to Scotland and England = they led
the riots because of their terrible treatments.  Petitions in 1839 : 1.3mill people signed a petition // 1842 :
3.3mill signatures // 1848 : 6mill signatures  all failed. But this decade marked a turning point in terms of
working class political organization.

Chartism emerged in a time of depression and dwindled when the economy arose. Terrible working condition,
hunger  factors that contributed to activism of working class.

Chartism = supported by working class, most of it being skilled workers who feared of losing their jobs because
of the new machinery and innovations (technical). Many women were going to become fervent supporters of
Chartism even though Chartism did not militate for them. After the Chartists came radical liberalism, trade
unions created more and more, premises of labor movement were born.

Pacific side of Chartism who became the Liberals. Workers become Labor Party, more in favor of violence as a
response to political passivity of action  rearrangement of the political picture of Britain.

Anti-Corn-Law League : created in 1838. National organization, based in Manchester. Wanted the government
to get rid of the Corn Law. Members were more middle class and less violent in their strategy  more wealthy
base in terms of members fighting against the Corn Laws and for free trade. Sent petitions to government,
published articles in newspapers : idea = the interest of this Middle Class = working interest of the nation as a
whole.

Against them, there were the Protectionists : they were Gentlemen, members of the church / clergy.
Aristocratic groups.

Corn Law repealed in 1846 : trade was improving, economy was doing well.

19th C = period of political change and pressure groups emerging to make their voice heard through different
tactics  impact on the political picture of Britain.

VOTE IN A LAW / VOTE IN A PIECE OF LEGISLATION

19th century : not all positive; Rise of Britain as a power. People changing. Rise of social pressure through
politics : Corn Laws, Penal Laws.

Laboring population : this group was working for the wealth and power of GB but those masses of people spent
their life in factories and mines, working many long hours in harsh conditions. Lack of education in this group
 SOCIAL PROBLEMS. Census of 1851 : recorded 50% British population lived in town = 1 st time happening in
the world + unprecedented social misery. 1st half of 19th century : Government realized that these problems
were emerging. Resort to intervention or laisser-faire ideology : debate. Even though the ideological debate,
the government had to intervene, otherwise the population was going to suffer more.

Area of factory legislation : factories only emerged thanks to innovations, creatin of cotton mills etc.
Legislation concerning factories was not existing = no rules concerning safety, no legislation regulating the
employment on children (no limits on age) and on the number of working hours. No standards on health,
diseases emerging in the society from mines and textile factories. Owners took advantage of this lack of
legislation –> abuse of employees by employers, being more interested in competitiveness rather than the
well-being of their workers. 1st piece of legislation = government vote in a law in 1833 : The Factory Act =
children under 9 could not be employed. Employers had to provide at least 2 hours of education / day for
adolescents that they employ. 1st approach to counter the effects of industrialization. Extended to other
branches of industry : the Mines Act passed in 1842 = disallowed the employment of women and children in
mines. Boys could not be employed in mines under the age of 10. Emergence of State regulation in industries.
1832 : as a result of overcrowding in housing and factories, cholera became one of the most fatal diseases,
sweeping through the British pop. The whole of Europe was touched, principally the urban areas. Other
epidemic broke out in 1848  recurring event. Groups of Irish emigrants coming in England : added to the
overcrowd. Not enough housing for everyone : slums became characteristic of large cities. Slums = often right
in the center of the city, characteristic of British urbanization. Other factor = no sanitation : no toilets, no
sewage, no running water  propagation of diseases due to lack of hygiene. Streets used as sanitary rooms.
Polluted water used to wash. Effected the working population the most. Often only 1 member working in family
so when they died, the whole family was left with no money at all. Bad health would become worse. Public
Health Act voted in 1848 = result of these harsh conditions. It was a response to Edwin Chadwick’s report (he
was evolved in trying to improve working and health conditions) : established a central board of health = it
allowed local authorities to set up local boards of health, but did not forced it  ineffective. 1847 : Medical
Officers post created : they would oversee public health in particular cities. Go around and visit all the slums,
and they decided if they should be cleared or not. Made sure there was access to clean water, check proper
sewers. Publication of reports had an impact on the government’s policy. Widespread poverty = considered as
a normal situation for the laboring force. Poor Laws = helped people through poverty  relief would be
provided to the poor by the parish (paroisse) : payments in kind (clothes, food, medicine) = outdoor relief //if
very poor, you could live in an institution called Workhouse (terrible place, no comfort) = indoor relief

Poor Law amendment act : outdoor relief was additional to Workhouse to increase the possibility of entry to a
wider number of people. But it was so horrible that nobody wanted to go. System = representative of the
Victorian thinking of poverty “if you are poor its your fault” “help yourself”.

No national education system, not compulsory : only way = Churches & associations creating schools.
Government provided funds to authorities who wanted to set up schools.

PROSPERITY AND EMPIRE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

The economy can experience downturns and there can be periods of depression : the 40s have been
characterized by economic depression  agricultural catastrophes, economic depressions

policy that Peel would decide on to try to combat this downturn  based on free trade. According to him,
tariffs (taxes) held the prosperity of trade.

Taxes were lifted and the policy of laisser-faire came into place. By 50s : no more tariffs. This policy of laisser-
faire worked because from the 50s onwards, Britain entered a period of economic prosperity and stability

1851 : census showed that for the 1st time, more people lived in towns than in the countryside. Pop = 21 million
—> 26 million. Large scale of emigration towards Australia and New Zealand for Gold Rush. In spite of this
emigration, the birth rate was increasing so the population was still growing.

Immense extension of the railway network from the 50s onward : sign of economic growth and stability. Most
remote villages were accessible by train. Tracks were crisscrossing the country. 1871 : 322 million passengers
carried on these railways.

Creation of sea sign resorts in Britain : create jobs and money etc

Steam power used more and more along with better technologies : ships.

High farming : improvement of farming methods and techniques. Britain started to excel on the production on
perishable goods (butter etc), that could not be transported (no refrigerators).

During the 19th century : Britain became the most powerful trading nation in the world. Crystal Palace = first of
its kind in the world, made of iron and glass, to present every success of industry in Britain. This grat exhibition
became the symbol of Britain’s greatness in the marketplace of the world and also in terms of national identity,
achievement, and technologies. Sense of patriotism.

In terms of politics, impacts :

- Repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846

- The Torey = split and lost its power (disagreements over Peel’s policies)
- Coalitions between various groups of each Parties

Middle class values : economy (not spending money on futile things), hard work, self-reliance

Labor classes had access to bank accounts (post office accounts)

Britain was building and expanding and consolidating its empire. British empires presented as a strong union, to
be reckon with. There was nevertheless a challenge by the people from the colonies.
The abolition of slavery in 1847 was going to have consequences on the functioning of the Empire. There will
be rebellions in the colonies  economic aspects of the Empire would be impacted.

Indians were part of the armies rebelling in 1857 because they were extremely badly treated. There was a
massacre, 100s of people being massacred during the rebellion.
 Result : India became a Crown colony.

A special minister for India : they created a ministerial role for the control of India. He had a special council
(Council of India) and there was a depute monarch in India. Viceroy put in position in India. Indian Civil Service
created by the Crown. “We are going to educate them, and take them out of savagery, to give them more
autonomy” attitude.