DIGESTION

The set of biochemical reactions that convert food macronutrients into biosynthetic
building blocks or biologically usefulenergy

I MOUTH
Mechanicallymixed teeth
Digestionbegins chemically mixed saliva
inthemouth
FFsawafwaatfekt.ci
amaingkansetens

ATP ADP
Ht
1 yk
Enzymethatcleavestheoligopepte
pH wz

lowpHdenaturesprole
makingthemeasierto
ds hydrolyze
highssofuttion's

wherethey
canmoreeasily
bedigested
Bile
Proteases proteins
Lipases lipids
Bolus
Increases WH
thepHof
thehomogenate

Releasedfrom I
Cholecystokinin
smallintestine
whenlowpHis
sensedCfoodbolus

GASTRICANDPANCREATIC MOGENS
preenzyme

proteolytic enzymes that ship

proteins
PEPSINOGEN PEPSIN hangsout in zymogenform untilfoodarrives decreasing pH which
convertsfrominactive active

TRYPSIN0GEN TRYPSIN Trypsinogon has intrinsic proteolyticactivity will spontaneously

convert totrypsin Trypsin then acts on otherTrypsinogen
molecules in turn

Trypsin converts the rest of thezymogens into their activeforms

Why are enzymes not just synthesized in their activeforms They could
chew up proteins in the pancreas
DIGESTION ANDABSORPTION OF PROTEINS

Blood
smallintestine
a
Antiport

qq.ua µ ya.µ
ma
thispoint
Bigger

I 1
UPTAKEOFMONOSACCHARIDES
J
symport
DIGESTION OF LIPIDS
starts with bile
solubilize the lipids
Bile salts act like
detehelpgents
to homogenize
and dispersefats

Most lipids in the firm of triacylglycerol

Theseform fat droplets
Bile salts disperse the lipids so that lipases can get to them
Diets high in fiber tend to pull bile out
cholesterol is a precursor to this bile salt
derivedfrom
High Fiber diets lower cholesterol
cholesterol
PANCREATIC LIPASES In small intestine

dispersed
by bile salts 4
formsmicelles

INTRO TO METABOLISM Energy metabolism Catabolism

Digestion largemolecules broken down

Forming acetylCoA

convert molecules to energy

REGULATION METABOLICPATHWAYS
1 Amount ofenzyme present at level of genetranscription
2 Catalytic activity of enzymes allosteric or covalentmodification
3 Accessibility of substrates

Energy is required to meet 3 fundamental needs

1 Power muscle contraction
2 Active
transport of molecules
3 Biosynthesis

Phototrophs obtain energy from sunlight

Chemotrophs obtain energy through the oxidation of carbon fuels
 control flow of energy and matter
series of enzymatically chemical reactions
around
controlled
wayto move energy
ex Nat K pumpcoupled with ATP hydrolysis

ADP t Pi E ATP I Foenddaensation

Hydrolysis
Addition1elimination
Isomerization
Tpyruvate
Byenzymes ST IEnzymes type
ofenzyme allosteric effectseffectors

subunits G coupled receptors

metabolic Pathways are divided into 2 types
1 CATABOLIC Combust carbon fuels to synthesize ATP Orion gradients
pontaneous catabolism
que coz µ O t Energy ATPsynthesis
carbohydrates fat
2 ANABOLIC Use ATP and reducingpower to synthesize large
biomolecules
spontaneous anabolism
non ATP Energy complex molecules
precursors
Although anabolic and catabolicpathways have reactions in common the
regulated irreversible reactions are always distinct

thermodynamically unfavorable reactions can be coupled and driven

a favorable reaction
by
A B t C AG 21 KYmoi non spontaneous
B F D AG 34 KTmol spontaneous
A f Ct D AG 13 KJImo spontaneous

ATPHydrolysis is exergonic
ATP t HO F ADP t Pi AG 30.5 Mmol

ATP t Heo F AMP 1 Ppi DG 45.6 KI mo I

I
 Structures
3P 2P Phosphoryl transfer
potential
Standard tree energy
phospho of hydrolysis Means
anhydride of comparing the
bond
tendency of organic
IP molecules to transfer
0 a phosphorylgroup to
11 an acceptormolecule
HO P O
Hao
b0H O
ATP has a high phosphoryl transfer potential
1 Charge repulsion many negative charges close to each other
2 Resonancestabilization Pi has more resonance
3 Increase in entropy multiple molecules made
4 Stabilization by hydration Pi as well

Various phosphoryl potentials

EXERCISE

ATP can only powermuscles for less than a second

Next creatine phosphate can regenerate ATP
substrate level
creatinekinase phosphorylation
creatine phosphate 1 ADP ATP creatine
Then ATP must be generated by metabolic pathways
 ATP ADPCYCLE ATP is limited ATP must be constantly recycled
Motion
ActiveTransport
Biosynthesis
SignalAmplification v
ATP ADP leaftated most
Oxidationof carbon
fuelnongtecules oyinge oxidate
photosynthesis
s molecule single
Carbo
molecul

glucose
both of these fragmentshave

i
17

REGENERATING ATP EXAMPLE

ACTIVATEDCARRIERS

1 carriers are kineticallystable in the absence of specific catalysts

highactivationenergy
2 The metabolism of activatedgroups is accomplished with a small
number of carriers

3 Activated carriers
metabolism exemplify the modular design economy of
CARRIERS IN ACTION
carrier
d

carrier coenzymeKosubstrate
free Pin solution
I not ATP

oxidized reduced
form form
redox
enzyme
NADIP Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate
nicotinamide
secondnucleotide ring
derivedto Nicotinamide can be derived
Niacin from diet or thebody can
11331
synthesize from tryptophan

ntiursuteotiaeTarYmPmtooPahEina.i offcoesmseenstina'm

the diet as well

I Fanoffpisaatanabsolin

if this is OH NAD0
2 0
if this is Poy NADP

Reduction of NAD Active site is nicotinamide portion

H anion
0
solutio
yin
reduced
oxidized

di
 FAD Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide
Derivative of Riboflavin CBD
Becomes FADHz

Basey Cosubstrate

Ruined

timonosphate
FAD FADHz
gthydrogens

COA or HSCoA coenzyme A

vitamin135 Transfer of
acyl group is
551
a
7
exergonic
because the
thioester is
Adenosine Diphosphate Unstable

Carrier of acyl groups i e acetylgroup E cuz

E r

Acetyl CoA has a high acetyl group transfer potential

d
Some activated carriers in metabolism
we will be seeing
more ofthese later

MANY derivedfrom
vitamins
Benzymes function as
coenzymes
A C D E and K
play variety of roles
a
but do not serve as
coenzymes

The B Vitamins

Don't need to memorize

butgood to know

Noncoenzyme vitamins
GLYCOLYSIS

OVERVIEW
Bigidea glucose pyruvate

Redox RXh
In cytosol

10reactions
5energyinvested
5energyreleased
d ketoacid

citricacidcycle

Enzyme Function
EnzymeName
bstrate name

Glucose enters the cell

via the GLUTtransporter
I 1 Glucose is phosphorylated
I can'tleavecell anymore trapped
is setsthe molecule upto besplit
s into 2 molecules phosphorylation
createsmolecules with higher
Phosphoryltransferpotential

isomerization

I
 ENERGYGENERATIONPHASE

WAY
carbon
3 the
alldown

STEP1 HEXOKINASE

GLUTTransporterdoes
not recognize G GP
once glucose is converted
it can no longer leave
the cell

HexokinaseInduced fit

Protects the active

site from water
Enzyme
Water can hydrolyze
Active the ATP before it can
site wraps
around getthe chance to
donate a 10043 to
itself
glucose
 e
Gretgy Investment
Isomerase
PHASE I

Step2 phosphoglucose
Aldehyde Ketone

sets molecule upto be

cleared in 2

Ringopening of these
sugars happensnormally

step 3 phosphotructo kinase

Big negative SG
major regulatory
enzymeforglycolysis
Allosteric
ATP coupled
step 4 Aldolase
Cleaves 6 C sugar into 2

Reversible reaction
Driven either
conditions
way based on cellular

step5 Triose Phosphate Isomerase

This van pushed forward by
the disappearance of GAP
is consumed in the next step

DHAP GAP
Lnergy Generation PHASE 2
Step6 GAP dehydrogenase reaction
Redoxreaction

2 oxidize GAP to 1,3 BPG

Energy gained from oxidation will be used to add a phosphate from

solution onto 3C molecule
2Steps

etaerfgitga.eu

Step7 phosphoglycerate kinase

substrate level
z
phosphorylation
2 Energy of oxidation o
carbon atom is
used to form ATP

1,3 BPG hasgreater phosphoryl transfer potential than ADP Thus

it can be coupled to power the synthesis of ATP
step 8,9 10 phosphoglycerate Mutase Enchase Pyruvate kinase
Z

2
Elimintation
today
04
PEP H
3 LDehydration Highphostransferpot
compound
NET REACTION GLYCOLYSIS

Glucose 2 Pio t 2 ADP 2N AD

2 Pyruvate 2 AT P 2 NA DH t
2h 2h20

Reactions ofGlycolysis
FATEOF PYRUVATE pyruvate dehydrogenase complex

ANAEROBIC AEROBIC Oz is present

pyruvate
CO2
V
Acetaldehyde
NADH
Ts
Acetyl
CO2
CoA
µap
Acidcycle
ffitric
NADH
lactate lectronTransportchain
NAD V
Oxidative Phosphorylate
Furtheroxidation keyi
Ethanol CAC ETC Ox phos

yeast certain Animals

bacteria Goal is to replenish stores of NAD
ALCOHOL FERMENTATION reduced
oxidized
µ
t
step 6 of glycolysis
uses NAD

we'll
0 famish
02isthefinale acceptor r

Glycolysis can occur without 02 present but the ETE and Ox phoseanno
These would normally regenerate NADE but without 02present the cell
turns to anaerobicfermentation

Glucose 2Pi ZAPP 2140 2 ethanol 202 2 ATP 121 120

LACTICACID FERMENTATION

Happens in you when muscles are lacking

in energy
Oxidative ATP generation takes longer so the
body defaults to this for quick ATP generation
Ultimate e donor bothtypes G3P
UH et acceptor lactic acid pyruvate Lactic Acid
0
Ult e acceptor alcohol Acetaldehyde Ethanol

Glucose t 2 Pit 2ADP

y
Fermentation
step 2 Lactate 12ATP 21420
HEXOSES OTHERTHAN GLUCOSE
Regulatory point CPFKstep
is regulated by ATPneeds of
multi
step
the cell
Fructose enters pathway
pastregulatory point
This means that Fructose
Pyruvate even when the cell
main doesn't need pyruvate at that
regulatory time
step Excess pyruvate is converted into
PFK Acetyl CoA
Acetyl CoA will not enter the
CAC if the celldoesn't need energ
Will pileup as fatty acids and
mostfructose be stored as triglycerides
entershere
EXCESSFRUCTOSE OBESITY
FATTY LIVER
Just don't consume highfructose cornsyrup please f TYPE2 DIABET