Element of Mechanical

Engineering

By
Dr Virendra Balon

Dr Virendra Balon NICMAR University, Pune

 SI Units
Force= mass x acceleration
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 ∗ 𝑎
𝑚
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝐾𝑔 ∗ 2 = 𝑁𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛 = 𝑁
𝑠
Work or energy= Force x Displacement
𝑚 2
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝐾𝑔 ∗ = 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒
𝑠
𝑚
𝐾𝑔 ∗ 2 ∗ 𝑚 = 𝑁 − 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒
𝑠
𝑁
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 2 ∗ 𝑚3 = 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙 ∗ 𝑚3 = 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡 ∗ 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
𝑚
Power = rate of doing work or Work/time
𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒 𝐽
= = = 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡
𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑠
𝑁
𝑃𝑎𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 2
𝑚
Dr Virendra Balon NICMAR University, Pune 2
 SI Units

• Pressure=Force/area
𝑁 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒
• 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑒 = =
𝑚2 𝑚3
• 𝐵𝑎𝑟 = 105 𝑃𝑎 = 100𝐾𝑃𝑎
• 1 atm=1.013 bar= 1.013 105 Pa
• psi= pounds of force per square inch
• 1 atm=14.696psi

Dr Virendra Balon NICMAR University, Pune 3

 Electric work

Ohm's law states that the current through an ohmic conductor or circuit between
points is directly proportional to the voltage across the two points.
The proportionality constant is called the resistance of the conductor or in the
circuit.
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
Voltage is measured in Volt (V)
Current is measured in Ampere (A)
Resistance is measured in Ohms (Ω)

Temperature
𝐶 𝐹 − 32 𝐾 − 32
= =
5 9 5

Dr Virendra Balon NICMAR University, Pune 4

 Enthalpy

Enthalpy is the measurement of energy in a thermodynamic system. The

quantity of enthalpy equals to the total content of heat of a system,
equivalent to the system's internal energy plus the product of volume and
pressure.
The enthalpy H of a thermodynamic system is defined as the sum of its
internal energy and the product of its pressure and volume:
H=U+pV Joule or kJ
where
U is the internal energy, (Joule)
p is pressure, in bar
V is the volume of the system m 3

Dr Virendra Balon NICMAR University, Pune 5

 Entropy

The measure of a system's thermal energy per unit temperature that is

unavailable for doing useful work
𝑄2 𝑄1
∆𝑆 = − J/K
𝑇2 𝑇1

1 1
∆𝑆 = ∆𝑄 ∗ −
𝑇2 𝑇1

Dr Virendra Balon NICMAR University, Pune 6

 Thermodynamic processes

• Isothermal process=
• An isothermal process is a thermodynamic process that takes place at a
constant temperature. It means that an isothermal process occurs in a system
where the temperature remains constant. However, to keep the temperature
of the system constant, heat must be transferred into the system or shifted out
of the system.
T = constant
This implies, the change in temperature will be zero i.e.,
ΔT=0
or
dT=0
• Isobaric process
• An isobaric process has the word ‘bar’, where the bar is the unit of pressure.
Another three letters added ‘iso’ make a process called the isobaric process.
An isobaric process is a process that takes place under constant pressure.

Dr Virendra Balon NICMAR University, Pune 7

 Thermodynamic processes

Isobaric process
• An isobaric process has the word ‘bar’, where the bar is the unit of
pressure. Another three letters added ‘iso’ make a process called the
isobaric process. An isobaric process is a process that takes place
under constant pressure.
• Isochoric Process
• The word ‘choric’ in isochoric stands for volume and the word ‘iso’
stands for equal. An isochoric process is one that takes place at a
constant volume. It is also known as isometric process or constant-
volume process.
work done, i.e., W = PΔV
Adiabatic Process = pvγ=C

Dr Virendra Balon NICMAR University, Pune 8

 Difference between Enthalpy and Entropy
Enthalpy
Enthalpy is a kind of energy.
It is the sum of the internal energy
and the flow of energy
It is denoted by the symbol H
It was termed by a scientist named
Heike Kamerlingh Onnes.
It is applicable to related standard
conditions.
Dr Virendra Balon NICMAR University, Pune
Entropy
Entropy is a property.
It is the measurement of the
randomness of molecules.
It is denoted by the symbol S
It was termed by a scientist named
Rudolf Clausius.
It does not have any limits or
conditions.
9
 Law of Conservation of Energy

The first law of thermodynamics states that energy can be

converted from one form to another, but cannot be created or
destroyed.
Energy entered in a system + Initial energy of the system
=Energy leaving from the system + Final energy of the system

Ein − Eout =Esystem

Dr Virendra Balon NICMAR University, Pune 10

 The First Law of Thermodynamics

When a closed system has passed through a cycle, the sum of the heat
energy taken in across the boundary from the surrounding is proportional
in the work delivered from the system to the surroundings.
• E2 - E1 = Q – W (non flow energy equation)
• where:
• E is the internal energy of a system
• Q is the heat transfer into a system
• W is the work done by a system

Dr Virendra Balon NICMAR University, Pune 11

 Reversible and Irreversible Processes

A collision between two billiard balls is reversible. Momentum is

conserved if time is run forward; momentum is still conserved if
time runs backwards

Dr Virendra Balon NICMAR University, Pune 12

 The Second Law of Thermodynamics (Entropy)
Second law of thermodynamics is the fundamental law of nature. The heat will
never transfer up the gradient of temperature of its own accord. External energy
is required to transfer heat from low temperature to high temperature.
dS = dQ/T kJ/K
where:
Q is the heat transfer into a system
S is the level of entropy
T is measure of temperature
There exists an extensive thermo-dynamic property called the entropy, S,
defined as follows:
dS = (dU + PdV)/T
• For any process dS ≥ dQ/T
• For an isolated system dS ≥ 0
• T must be absolute temperature
Dr Virendra Balon NICMAR University, Pune 13
 Kelvin Plank statement

• The heat can not be continuously and completely converted to work: A

fraction of the heat must be rejected to another reservoir at a low
temperature.
• Work can be continuously and completely converted into heat but not
vice versa.

Dr Virendra Balon NICMAR University, Pune 14

 Clausius Statement

• Heat never flows spontaneously from a colder body to a hotter body.

• Any process that involves dissipation of energy is not reversible.
• Any process that involves heat transfer from a hotter object to a colder
object is not reversible.

Dr Virendra Balon NICMAR University, Pune 15

 Example

• What is the change in the ice cube’s entropy for each 1.00 g of
ice that melts?
• To melt ice requires Q = mLf joules of heat. To melt one gram of ice
requires 333.7 J of energy.
𝑄
The entropy change =
𝑇

333,7
The entropy change =
273
1.22J/K

Dr Virendra Balon NICMAR University, Pune 16

 The Third Law of Thermodynamics

• The German chemist Hermann Walter Nernst devised the third law of
thermodynamics in 1905. The third law is a direct result of entropy. It
states that at the temperature of absolute zero (0 degrees Kelvin),
entropy will also approach zero
• lim T->0 S = 0
• where:
• S is the level of entropy
• T is measure of temperature

Dr Virendra Balon NICMAR University, Pune 17

 Zeroth law of thermodynamics

When a body, ‘A’, is in thermal equilibrium with another body, ‘b’, and also
separately in thermal equilibrium with a body ‘, C’, then body, ‘B’ and ‘C’,
will also be in thermal equilibrium with each other. This statement defines
the zeroth law of thermodynamics. The law is based on temperature
measurement.

A B

Dr Virendra Balon NICMAR University, Pune 18

 Gas Law and Properties

• Boyle’s Law
• Charle’s Law
• Vander waal’s Equation

Dr Virendra Balon NICMAR University, Pune 19

 Specific heat

• The specific heat capacity of a substance may be defined as the

quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass of the
substance by one degree. The unit of specific heat is J/kg-K
Specific heat of water
• The quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of water
by 10C or 1K is approximately 4.19 kJ. So, the specific heat of water is
4.19 kJ/kg-0C or 4.19 kJ/kg-K

Dr Virendra Balon NICMAR University, Pune 20

 Point and Path Function

• A Path function is a function whose value

depends on the path followed by the
thermodynamic process irrespective of the initial
and final states of the process.
• An example of path function is work done in a
thermodynamic process.
• Work done in a thermodynamic process is
dependent on the path followed by the process.
• In the P-V diagram given above we can easily
see that for the same initial and final states of the For process A work done is b2A1a
system, work done in all the three process is For process B work done is b2B1a
different. For process C work done is b2C1a

Another example of path function is heat

Dr Virendra Balon NICMAR University, Pune 21
 Thermodynamic Processes

• Constant volume process or isochoric process

• Constant pressure process or isobaric process
• Constant temperature process isothermal process
• Adiabatic process or isentropic process
• Polytropic process

Dr Virendra Balon NICMAR University, Pune 22

 Expansion and compression of gases

Process 1-2 W
• Pressure P=W/A Cylinder
2
• W=P*A
d W
• Work done =
• Force * Distance moved P P ,V 1
1 1
• =W*d P1
• =P*(A*d)
• =P(V2-V1) Heat
𝑉2 P2,V2
• 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = ‫𝑣𝑑𝑃 𝑉׬‬ P2
1
V
V1 V2
Dr Virendra Balon NICMAR University, Pune 23
 Constant volume process

• Work done during the process P 2

P1
• dw=0
𝑉
• 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = ‫ 𝑉׬‬2 𝑃𝑑𝑣 = 0
1
• Relation between P, V, and T P2
𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑃2 𝑉2 1 V
= ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑉1 = 𝑉2
𝑇1 𝑇2 V1=V2
𝑃1 𝑃2
=
𝑇1 𝑇2 T
• Change in internal energy and heat transferred
2
𝑇2
T2
Q = න 𝑚 ∗ 𝐶𝑣 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
𝑇1 1
𝑇
Change in enthalpy= = ‫ 𝑇׬‬2 𝑚 ∗ 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
1
𝑇
Change in entropy= 𝑆2 − 𝑆1 = 𝐶𝑣 log 𝑒 𝑇2 T1
1
S
S1 S2
Dr Virendra Balon NICMAR University, Pune 24
 Constant pressure process

𝑉2
• W𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = ‫𝑣𝑑𝑃 𝑉׬‬ = 𝑃(𝑉2 − 𝑉1) Joule P
1
P1= P2 1 2
• Relation between P, T and V
𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑃2𝑉2
= ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑃1 = 𝑃2
𝑇1 𝑇2
𝑉1 𝑉2 V
= V1 V2
𝑇1 𝑇2
• Change in internal energy and heat transferred T
𝑇2
Q = න 𝑚 ∗ 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) T2 2
𝑇1
𝑇 1
Change in enthalpy= = ‫ 𝑇׬‬2 𝑚 ∗ 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) T1
1
𝑇2
Change in entropy= 𝑆2 − 𝑆1 = 𝐶𝑣 log𝑒
𝑇1

S2 S
S1
Dr Virendra Balon NICMAR University, Pune 25
 Constant temperature

𝑉2 𝐶 P
W𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = ‫ = 𝑣𝑑𝑃 𝑉׬‬ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑃𝑉 = 𝐶 𝑜𝑟 𝑃 = 𝑉 P1
1
𝑉2 𝐶 𝑉2 𝑑𝑉 𝑉2
W𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = ‫𝑉 𝑉׬‬ ∗ 𝑑𝑉= C‫𝑉 𝑉׬‬ = 𝐶 log 𝑒 𝑉
1 1 1
P2
Relation between P, T and V
𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2 ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑇1 = 𝑇2 V
T2 V1 V2
Change in internal energy and heat transferred dT=0
𝑇2 T
Change in enthalpy= 𝐻2 − 𝐻1 = ‫𝑚 𝑇׬‬ ∗ 𝐶𝑝 𝑇2 − 𝑇1 = 0
1 T2 1 2
𝑉2 𝑃2
Change in entropy= 𝑆2 − 𝑆1 = 𝐶𝑝 log 𝑒 + 𝐶𝑣 log 𝑒
𝑉1 𝑃1

S2 S
S1
Dr Virendra Balon NICMAR University, Pune 26
 Ideal gas equation

𝑷ഥ ഥ𝑻
𝒗=𝑹 𝑪𝒑 − 𝑪𝒗 =R
8.3143𝐽
• Where 𝑅ത 𝑖𝑠 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐾
𝑚3 𝑪𝒑
𝑣ҧ = 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒, 𝜸=
𝑔𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑪𝒗
• If the equation divide by molecular weight (𝜇)
𝑃𝑣 = 𝑅𝑇
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑣 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑚 3/𝐾𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑅ത 𝐽
𝑅 = 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 R =
𝜇 𝐾𝑔 𝐾
ത
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛 𝑅𝑇
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇
Where n is the number of moles and m is the mass of the gas in Kg

Dr Virendra Balon NICMAR University, Pune 27

 Example 1

500 g of water is heated from 30°C to 60°C. Ignoring the slight expansion of
water, calculate the change in internal energy of the water? (specific heat of
water 4184 J/kg-K)
Water is heated from 30°C to 60°C,there is only a slight change in its
volume. In an isochoric process the work done by the system is zero.
• ∆U = Q = mCv∆T
• 𝑄 = 0.5 ∗ 4184∗(60−30)
• 62.76 KJ

Dr Virendra Balon NICMAR University, Pune 28

 Adiabatic process

𝑉2 𝛾 𝐶𝑝 P
W𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = ‫𝑣𝑑𝑃 𝑉׬‬ = ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑃𝑉 = 𝐶 𝑜𝑟 𝛾 = P1
1 𝐶𝑣
𝑃2𝑉2 − 𝑃1𝑉1
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = or 𝐶𝑣 (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )
𝛾−1
𝑉2 𝐶 𝑉2 𝑑𝑉 𝑉2 P2
W𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = ‫𝑉׬‬ ∗ 𝑑𝑉= C‫𝑉׬‬ = 𝐶 log𝑒
1 𝑉 1 𝑉 𝑉1
Relation between P, T and V V
𝛾−1 V1 V2
𝛾
PV 𝑇2 𝑉2
𝑃𝑉 = 𝐶 and = C, = T
T 𝑇1 𝑉1
Change in internal energy = mCv(T 2-T1) T1 1
Heat transferred dQ=0
Change in enthalpy= 𝐻2 − 𝐻1 = 𝑚 ∗ 𝐶𝑝 𝑇2 − 𝑇1 T2
Change in entropy= 𝑆2 − 𝑆1 = 0 2
S
S1
Dr Virendra Balon NICMAR University, Pune 29
 Class Exercise 1

1 kg of air at 350 kN/m 2 and occupying 0.35m 3 is heated at constant

volume until the temperature has risen to 3160C Calculate
1. Initial temperature of air
2. The final pressure of air
3. Heat added
4. Gain of internal energy per Kg and
5. Gain of enthalpy per Kg
Cp=1.005kJ/Kg K, Cv=0.710kJ/Kg-K

Dr Virendra Balon NICMAR University, Pune 30

 Solution
Given P=350kN/m 2, m=1 Kg, V=0.35m3 R=(Cp-Cv=0.295kJ/kg K
Initial pressure
• PV=mRT
• 350 ∗ 103 ∗ 0.35 = 1 ∗ 0.295 ∗ 103 ∗ 𝑇
350 ∗ 103 ∗ 0.35
𝑇= 3 = 415𝐾
0.295 ∗ 10
𝑃2 𝑇2 𝑇2
𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = = = 𝑃2 = 𝑃1 ∗
𝑃1 𝑇1 𝑇1
350000 ∗ (589)
= 496747𝑁/𝑚2
415
Heat Added 𝑚𝐶𝑣 𝑇2 − 𝑇1 = 1 ∗ 0.710 ∗ 316 − 142 = 123.54𝑘𝐽
Gain of internal energy= 𝑚𝐶𝑣 𝑇2 − 𝑇1 = 1 ∗ 0.710 ∗ 316 − 142 = 123.54𝑘𝐽
Gain of Enthalpy= 𝑚𝐶𝑃 𝑇2 − 𝑇1 = 1 ∗ 1.005 ∗ 316 − 142 = 174.87𝑘𝐽

Dr Virendra Balon NICMAR University, Pune 31

 Example 2

A gas whose pressure, volume and temperature are 500kN/m2 0.23m 3 and 1850C
respectively has its state changed at constant pressure until its temperature
becomes 700C. Calculate
• Heat transferred from the gas
• Work done and
• The change in internal energy at the end of the pressure
• Take Cp=1.005kJ/kg-K and R=0.29kJ/kg-K
• m=0.866kg
• Heat transferred -100.09 kJ
• V2=0.172 m 3
• Work done=-29kJ
• Change in internal energy = -71.207kJ

Dr Virendra Balon NICMAR University, Pune 32

 Gas Power Cycles

Dr Virendra Balon NICMAR University, Pune

 Multi-Cylinder Spark Ignition Engine

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 Power Cycles

• Ideal Cycles, Internal Combustion

• Otto cycle, spark ignition
• Diesel cycle, compression ignition
• Brayton cycles
• Combined cycle

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 Ideal Cycles Assumptions

• Air is the working fluid, circulated in a closed loop, is an ideal gas

• exhaust and air intake are substituted with heat transfer from the
system to the surroundings
• combustion is replaced by heat transfer from an external source
to the system
• all processes are internally reversible.
• gas specific heat is constant
• Cycle does not involve any friction
• Pipes connecting components have no heat loss
• Neglecting changes in kinetic and potential energy

Dr Virendra Balon NICMAR University, Pune 36

 Otto Cycle

Nicolaus August Otto the inventor of

the four-stroke cycle was born on
14th June 1831 in Germany. In
1862 he began first experiments with
four-strokes engines. The first four-
stroke engines is shown. He died on
26th January 1891 in Cologne

Dr Virendra Balon NICMAR University, Pune 37

 Engine Terms

• Bottom-dead center (BDC) –

• piston position where volume is maximum
• Top-dead center (TDC) –
• piston position where volume is minimum
• Clearance volume –
• minimum cylinder volume (VTDC = V2)
• Compression ratio (r)
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑉𝐵𝐷𝐶 𝑉1 𝑣1
𝑟= = = =
𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑇𝐷𝐶 𝑉2 𝑣2
• Displacement volume 𝑉𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝 = 𝑉𝐵𝐷𝐶 − 𝑉𝑇𝐷𝐶 = 𝑉1 − 𝑉2

Dr Virendra Balon NICMAR University, Pune 38

 Mean effective pressure (MEP)

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑀𝐸𝑃 × 𝑃𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 × 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑘𝑒

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑀𝐸𝑃 × 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡
𝑀𝐸𝑃 = (𝑘𝑃𝑎)
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛

Dr Virendra Balon NICMAR University, Pune 39

 Processes of Otto Cycle

Four internally reversible processes

• 1-2 Isentropic compression
• 2-3 Constant-volume heat addition
• 3-4 Isentropic expansion
• 4-1 Constant-volume heat rejection

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 Otto Cycle

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 Ideal Otto Cycle

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 Ideal Otto Cycle (cont.)

• 1st law for this cycle:

• 𝑊 = 𝑄𝐻 − 𝑄𝐿
• energy conversion efficiency is
useful work 𝑊 𝑄𝐻 − 𝑄𝐿
= = =
heat input 𝑄𝐻 𝑄𝐻

𝑄𝐿 𝑚𝐶𝑣 𝑇4 − 𝑇1
𝜂=1− =1−
𝑄𝐻 𝑚𝐶𝑣 𝑇3 − 𝑇2

𝛾−1
𝑇1 (𝑇4 /𝑇1 − 1) 𝑉2
𝜂 =1− =1−
𝑇2 (𝑇3/𝑇2 − 1) 𝑉1

Dr Virendra Balon NICMAR University, Pune 43

 Ideal Otto Cycle (cont.)

• For an isentropic process:

• 𝑃𝑣 𝑘 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡
• 𝑃1𝑣1 𝑘 = 𝑃2𝑣2 𝑘
• in case of an ideal gas:
𝑇2 𝑉1 𝑘−1 𝑉4 𝑘−1 𝑇3 𝑇3 𝑇4
• = = = and =
𝑇1 𝑉2 𝑉3 𝑇4 𝑇2 𝑇1
• Compression ratio
𝑇1 𝑉1 1−𝑘 1−𝑘
•𝜂 = 1− = 1− = 1 − 𝑟𝑣
𝑇2 𝑉2

Dr Virendra Balon NICMAR University, Pune 44

 Ideal Otto Cycle (cont.)

Thermal efficiency %
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 5 10 15 20
Compression ratio rv

Dr Virendra Balon NICMAR University, Pune 45

 Ideal Otto Cycle (cont.)

1
𝜂 =1− 𝑘−1
𝑟𝑣
Dr Virendra Balon NICMAR University, Pune 46
 Example 1

• An ideal Otto Cycle has a compression ratio of 8. At the beginning the

compression process, air at 100 kPa and 170C, and 800 kJ/Kg of heat
is transferred to air during the constant-volume heat addition process.
Accounting for the variation of specific heats of air with temperature,
determine
• (a) the maximum temperature and pressure and occur during the cycle,
• (b) the thermal efficiency and
• (c) Mean effective pressure (MEP)

Dr Virendra Balon NICMAR University, Pune 47

 Example: Otto Cycle
An Otto cycle with a compression ratio of CR = 9 : 1. The intake air is at
100 kPa = 1 bar, 20 °C, and the chamber volume is 500 cm³ before the
compression stroke. The temperature at the end of an adiabatic expansion
is T4 = 800 K.
• Specific heat capacity at a constant air pressure at atmospheric pressure
and room temperature: cp = 1.01 kJ/kgK.
• Specific heat capacity at constant air volume at atmospheric pressure and
room temperature: cv = 0.718 kJ/kgK. 𝜸 = cp/cv = 1.4
Calculate:
• the mass of intake air
• the temperature T3
• the pressure p3
• the amount of heat added by burning of fuel-air mixture
• the thermal efficiency of this cycle
• the MEP
Dr Virendra Balon NICMAR University, Pune 48
 Solution

Given:
𝑉1 9 𝑉4
= =
𝑉2 1 𝑉3
𝑉1 = 𝑉4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉2 = 𝑉3 ,
=𝑉1 = 500 𝑐𝑚 3 = 500 × 10−6
=𝑇1 = 20°𝐶 = 293𝐾
𝑃1 = 1 bar or 100 kPa or 100000 Pa
=𝑇4 = 800 𝐾
𝐶𝑝 = 1.01 kJ/kgK. and 𝐶𝑣 = 0.718 kJ/kgK.
𝑅 = 𝐶𝑝 − 𝐶𝑣 = 1.01 − .0718 = 0.292kJ/kgK

Dr Virendra Balon NICMAR University, Pune 49

 The mass of intake air

the mass of intake air

𝑃𝑉 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇
𝑃1 𝑉1 100000×500×10−6
𝑚= = =0.594
𝑅𝑇1 287×293

m = p1V1/RspecificT1 = (100000 × 500×10-6 )/(287.1 × 293) = 5.95×10-4 kg

In this problem all volumes are known:

• V1 = V4 = Vmax = 500×10-6 m 3 (0.5l)
• V2 = V3 = Vmin = Vmax / CR = 55.56 ×10-6 m 3

Dr Virendra Balon NICMAR University, Pune 50

 The temperature T3 and P3

The temperature T3
Since the process is adiabatic, we can use the following p, V, T relation for
adiabatic processes:
𝑘
𝑘
𝑉4 𝑇3 𝑘−1
=
𝑉3 𝑇4
• thus
• T3 = T 4 . CRκ – 1 = 800 . 90.4 = 1926 K
The pressure p3
• Again, we can use the ideal gas law to find the pressure at the beginning of
the power stroke as:
• p3 = mRspecificT3 / V3 = 5.95×10-4 x 287.1 x 1926 / 55.56 ×10-6 = 5920000 Pa =
59.2 bar

Dr Virendra Balon NICMAR University, Pune 51

 The amount of heat added

• To calculate the amount of heat added by burning of fuel-air mixture,

Qadd, we have to use the first law of thermodynamics for isochoric
process, which states the Qadd = ∆U, therefore:
• Qadd = mcv (T 3 – T 2)
• The temperature at the end of the compression stroke can be
determined using the p, V, T relation for adiabatic processes between
points 1 → 2.
𝑘
𝑘
𝑉2 𝑇1 𝑘−1
=
𝑉1 𝑇2
• T 2 = T1 . CRκ – 1 = 293 . 90.4 = 706 K
• then
• Qadd = mcv (T3 – T2) = 5.95×10-4 x 718 x 1220 = 521.2 J
Dr Virendra Balon NICMAR University, Pune 52
 The thermal efficiency

• Thermal efficiency for an Otto cycle:

• As was derived in the previous section, the thermal efficiency of an Otto
cycle is a function of compression ratio and κ:

1 1
𝑛 𝑂𝑡𝑡𝑜 = 1 − 𝑘−1
= 1 − 0.4
𝐶𝑅 9
0.5847

Dr Virendra Balon NICMAR University, Pune 53

 MEP

• the mean effective pressure

• The MEP was defined as
𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒
𝑀𝐸𝑃 =
Displacememt Volume
• Wnet = Qadd . ηOtto = 521.2 x 0.5847 = 304.7 J
•
MEP = 304.7 / (500×10-6 – 55.56 ×10-6) = 685.6 kPa = 6.856 bar

Dr Virendra Balon NICMAR University, Pune 54

 Carnot cycle

• Idealized thermodynamic cycle consisting of four reversible processes

(working fluid can be any substance):
• The four steps for a Carnot Heat Engine are:
➢ Reversible isothermal expansion (1-2, TH= constant)
➢ Reversible adiabatic expansion (2-3, Q = 0, TH→TL)
➢ Reversible isothermal compression (3-4, TL=constant)
➢ Reversible adiabatic compression (4-1, Q=0, TL→TH)

Dr Virendra Balon NICMAR University, Pune 55

 Carnot Cycle

P
1

4
3

Dr Virendra Balon NICMAR University, Pune 56

 The Carnot Cycle (cont’d)
1
Work done by the gas =  PdV, i.e. area 2
under the process curve 1-2-3.
dV>0 from 1-2-3 3
PdV>0

1
Work done on gas = PdV, area subtract 1
Net work
under the process curve 3-4-1 2
2
Since dV<0 3
4 3
PdV<0

Dr Virendra Balon NICMAR University, Pune

 Carnot Cycle

Dr Virendra Balon NICMAR University, Pune 58

 Diesel Cycle

P T
P constant
2 < 3
3

Isentropic
<
2

Isentropic
4 4

V constant

<
<
1
1
V S

Dr Virendra Balon NICMAR University, Pune 59

 Work Done and heat transferred
• Process 1-2 Isentropic
work output= Cv(T2-T1)
P
• Heat Transferred =0 2
P constant
<
3
• Process 2-3 Constant Pressure
• Heat supply= Cp(T3-T2)
• Work=R(T3-T2)
• Process 3-4 Isentropic 4

V constant
• Heat transfer =0
• Work Done Cv(T3-T4)

<
• Process 4-1 Constant volume 1
V
• Heat Transfer CV(T1-T4)
• Work done =0

Dr Virendra Balon NICMAR University, Pune 60

 Example: Diesel Cycle
Let us assume the Diesel cycle with a compression ratio of CR = 20 : 1 and cut-off ratio
α = 2. The air is at 100 kPa = 1 bar, 20 °C (293 K), and the chamber volume is 500 cm³
before the compression stroke.
• Specific heat capacity at a constant air pressure at atmospheric pressure and room
temperature: cp = 1.01 kJ/kgK.
• Specific heat capacity at constant air volume at atmospheric pressure and room
temperature: cv = 0.718 kJ/kgK and κ = cp/cv = 1.4 and For dry air Rspecific = 287.1
J.kg-1.K-1
• Calculate:
• the mass of intake air
• the temperature T2
• the pressure p2
• the temperature T3
• the amount of heat added by burning of fuel-air mixture
• the thermal efficiency of this cycle
• the MEP

Dr Virendra Balon NICMAR University, Pune 61

 The mass of intake air

m = p1V1/RspecificT1 =
(100000 × 500×10-6 )/(287.1 × 293) = 5.95×10-4 kg
In this problem all volumes are known:
V1 = V4 = Vmax = 500×10-6 m 3 (0.5l)
V2 = Vmin = Vmax / CR = 25 ×10-6 m 3
𝑘
𝑘
𝑉2 𝑇1 𝑘−1
=
𝑉1 𝑇2
𝑘
𝑘
𝑉4 𝑇3 𝑘−1
=
𝑉3 𝑇4
• T2 = T1 . CRκ – 1 = 293 . 200.4 = 971 K

Dr Virendra Balon NICMAR University, Pune 62

 The temperature T2 and pressure p2

• Again, we can use the ideal gas law to find the pressure at the end of
the compression stroke as:
• p2 = mRspecificT2 / V2 = 5.95×10-4 x 287.1 x 971 / 25 ×10-6 = 6635000 Pa
= 66.35 bar
• 4)
• Since process 2 → 3 occurs at constant pressure, the ideal gas
equation of state gives
• T3 = (V3/V2) x T2 = 1942 K
• To calculate the amount of heat added by burning of fuel-air mixture,
Qadd, we have to use the first law of thermodynamics for the isobaric
process, which states:
• Qadd = mcp (T3 – T2) = 5.95×10-4 x 1010 x 971 = 583.5 J

Dr Virendra Balon NICMAR University, Pune 63

 Thermal efficiency for this Diesel cycle:
• As was derived in the previous section, the thermal efficiency of the
Diesel cycle is a function of the compression ratio, the cut-off ratio, and
κ:
1 𝛼𝑘 − 1
𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑙 = 1 −
𝐶𝑅 𝑘−1 𝑘(𝛼 − 1)
• where
• ηDiesel is the maximum thermal efficiency of a Diesel cycle
• α is the cut-off ratio V3/V2 (i.e., the ratio of volumes at the end and start
of the combustion phase)
• CR is the compression ratio
• κ = cp/cv = 1.4
• ηDiesel = 0.6467 = 64.7%

Dr Virendra Balon NICMAR University, Pune 64

 MEP

• The MEP was defined as:

• It this equation the displacement volume is equal to Vmax – Vmin. The net
work for one cycle can be calculated using the heat added and the
thermal efficiency:
𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒
𝑀𝐸𝑃 =
Displacememt Volume
• Wnet = Qadd . ηOtto = 583.5 x 0.6467 = 377.3 J
• MEP = 377.3 / (500×10-6 – 25 ×10-6) = 794.3 kPa = 7.943 bar

Dr Virendra Balon NICMAR University, Pune 65