Professional Documents
Culture Documents
History Bule Hora Uni
History Bule Hora Uni
2022/2023
Bulehora
UNIT ONE
1.1 The Nature and Uses of History
A. Nature of History
History is derived from Greek word Istoria, means
“inquiry” or “an account of one’s inquiries.”
The term History is 1st used by ancient Greek historians,
Herodotus ( “father of history).
Ordinary usage, history means all things happened in the
human past.
Academically, history can be defined as an organized and
systematic study of the past. History is what actually
happened in the past;
it is endless process between past, present & future.
The study of human society & its interaction with the
natural environment is major concern of history.
* Gebre-Hiwot Baykedagn
Unlike chroniclers, these writers dealt with a range of topics from social
justice, administrative reform and economic analysis to history
• Taye & Fisseha-Giorgis wrote history of Ethiopia.
• Asme produced a similar work on the Oromo people.
• Afework wrote 1st Amharic novel, Tobiya
Gebre-Hiwot : Atse Menilekna Ityopia (Emperor Menilek
and Ethiopia) & Mengistna Yehizb Astedader
(Government & Public Administration) to his name.
• The most prolific writer of the early 20th C was
Blatten Geta Hiruy Wolde-Selassie, Hiruy published
four major works namely; * Ethiopiana Metema
(Ethiopia and Metema), * Wazema(Eve)
* Yehiwot Tarik (A Biographical Dictionary) and
* Yeityopia Tarik (A History of Ethiopia)
Tekle-Tsadik Mekuria formed a bridge between writers
in pre-1935 and Ethiopia professional historians who
came after him
• Another work of importance in this period is
Yilma Deressa’s Ye Ityopiya Tarik Be’asra Sidistegnaw
Kifle Zemenb (A History of Ethiopia in 16th C). This book
addresses the Oromo population movement & wars
between the Christian kingdom & Muslim sultanates as
its main subjects.
Blatten Geta Mahteme-Selassie Wolde-Meskel :-wrote
Zikre Neger. Zikre Neger is a comprehensive account of
Ethiopia’s prewar land tenure systems & taxation
• Dejazmach Kebede Tesema. Kebede wrote memoir of
imperial period or Yetarik Mastawesha in 1962 E.C
• The 1960s was a crucial decade and turning ponit in the
development of Ethiopian historiography for it was in
this period that history emerged as an academic
discipline.
• The pursuit of historical studies as a full-time occupation
began with the opening of Department of History in 1963
at the Haile Selassie I University (HSIU)
• The production of BA theses began towards the end of
the decade.
• The Department launched its MA and PhD programs in
1979 and 1990 respectively
• Institute of Ethiopian Studies (IES) :- institutional home of
professional historiography of Ethiopia. IES was founded in 1963
• Richard Pankhurst is the first Director founding member of IES.
• IES has been publishing Journal of Ethiopian Studies for
dissemination of historical research.
• Professionalization of history is post-colonial phenomenon.
Africans begun the works in this era with new methodology.
Key Elements to Study History:-
Critical Evaluation of Sources:- Primary and secondary
Objectivity writing without bias, for/against
Chronology
Interpretation careful analysis, checking the reliability ,
authenticity .
Avoiding interpretation / wrong/
Avoiding Subjectivity (Siding)
1.4. The Geographical Context
The term “Ethiopia and the Horn” refers to that
part of Northeast Africa, which contains the
countries : -
* Djibouti * Eritrea,
* Ethiopia, and * Somalia
• Diversity of the terrain led to regional variations
in climate, natural vegetation, soil composition, &
settlement patterns of the horn
• Regions’ Geography has impact on the way
people live & organize themselves into societies.
• Spatial location in relationship to other spaces &
locations in the world is one geographical factor
• Ethiopia & Horn lies between the Red Sea, Gulf of Aden
and Indian Ocean.
• Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden linked Northeast Africa to
the Eastern Mediterranean,
• Indian Ocean has linked East Africa to the Near and
Middle East, India and the Far East
• Drainage system Another element of geography factor
that had profound impact on human history
• . Ethiopia and the Horn has five principal drainage
systems:-
• These are : - Nile River, * Gibe/Omo–Gojeb,
* Genale/Jubba-Shebele, * Awash River,and
* Ethiopian Rift Valley
• Drainage systems facilitated the movement of peoples
and goods across diverse environments,
• results in the exchange of ideas, technology, knowledge,
cultural expressions, and beliefs.
• Ethiopia and the Horn can be divided into three major
distinct environmental zones
• Eastern lowland covers the narrow coastal strip of
northeastern Eritrea
• include much of lowland Eritrea, the Sahel, the Danakil
Depression, the lower Awash valley
• highland massif starts from northern Eritrea & continues
all the way to southern Ethiopia.
• consists the Arsi, Bale and Hararghe plateau
• Rift valley is the major divide between the western
and eastern parts of this zone
• The major physiographic features of the zone are
complex of mountains, deep valleys, and extensive
plateaus.
• Countries of Horn of Africa are, for the most part,
linguistically and ethnically linked together.
THE END!
UNIT TWO
PEOPLES & CULTURES IN ETHIOPIA & HORN
Ethiopia & Horn region is referred as cradle of humankind and
where civilization, food producing, making tools & religious
practices started. It is also regions of diversity : diverse people,
cultures, languages , religion , customs and economies.
A. Biological Evolution
Evolution is a process & gradual change in species over time
which passed through genes.
Mammal primates developed into Pongidae (such as gorilla,
chimpanzee, etc.). Others evolved into Hominidae (human
ancestors) through natural process after 170 million years.
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2.1. Human Evolution
East African Rift Valley is regarded as a cradle of humanity.
Various archaeological evidences proof this argument. Examples
of fossils discovered in Ethiopia (name of the fossil, age, place &
age of discovery):-
i. Chororapithecus- 10 million., Anchar/West Hararghe, 2007.
ii. Ardipithicus ramidus- 4. 2 mill B.P., Aramis in Afar, 1994.
iii. Australopithecus afarensis, Selam- 3.3 million years B.P,
Dikika, Mille (Afar),2000.
iv. Australopithecus Afarnesis (Lucy/Dinkinesh)- c. 3.18 mill
years B. P.), Hadar (Afar) in 1974 A. D. Lucy was bipedal.
v. Australopithecus garhi-2.5 million B.P., at Bouri, Middle
Awash B/N 1996 and 1999.
vi. Australopithecus anamensis :-discovered on Lake Turkana. 25
Genus Homo- (Homo Habilis , Erectus , Sapiens)
- Result of the development of human brain. Emerged 2-2.5
million years B.P. Fossils found in Ethiopia & Horn
include:-
i. Homo Habilis :- skillful use of hands & oldest.
- dated 1.9 ml years B. P. Found in Lower Omo.
ii. Homo erectus- walking upright, dated 1.6 million years
B. P. They invented fire & started burials.
Fossils discovered at Melka Kunture, Konso, Gardula &
Gadeb.
Originated in Africa; then spread out to the world.
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iii. Homo sapiens - knowledgeable human being
Archaic Homo Sapiens dated 400, 000 years B.P.).
Homo sapiens idaltu- 160, 000 years B.P
Homo Sapiens Sapiens- 100, 000 years B.P.
Major centers of human evolution in Ethiopia :- Lower Omo
and Middle Awash valleys.
B. Cultural Evolution
Technological changes that brought socio-economic
transformation on human life.
Ages:- Stone Age, Bronze Age and Iron Age.
Stone tools were first technologies developed.
27
Stone tools grouped in to three:-
a. Mode I (Olduwan)-were crude and mono-facial.
made and used by homo habilis.
produced by the direct percussion. Dated 2.52 mill years
b. Mode II (Acheulean): were bifacial. Invented by homo erectus
• Dated back to 1.7.million years B.P.
• Produced by indirect percussion, hammering.
c. Mode III (Sangoon): flexible and finest tools.
produced by homo sapiens.
Sangoon (named after Sango Bay in Uganda).
Stone Age divided into : Paleolithic, Mesolithic & Neolithic.
i. Paleolithic (Old Stone Age)-3.4 million to 11, 000 B. P.
Humans developed language
sheltered in cave
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used stone, bone, wood, furs, & skin materials to prepare
food & clothing.
Labor Division was begun. :- able-bodied males as hunters
of fauna ; children and females as gatherers of flora.
ii. Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age )-11, 000-10,000 B. P.
Transition between Paleolithic and Neolithic.
Oldest evidence of stone tool in world) was found at
Dikika
iii. Neolithic (New Stone Age) Neolithic Revolution.
Humans Shifted from Hunting-Gathering to
domestication plants & animals.
Domestication of plants and animals was major feature.
Sedentary way of life & mobile settlement was ended
Agriculture was started. People invented tools.
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Neolithic revolution in Ethiopia:-
• Many flora (plants) and fauna(animals) were
domesticated. The 1st domesticated plants;- in Ethiopia.
Example:- Teff, dagussa , nug , enset … etc
• Manifestations: Many material remains ;- polished axes,
ceramics , grinding stones, remains of animals(cattle &
camel)
Sites (places) of domestication of plants and animals in
Africa Horn include:- Emba-Fakeda in Tigray
Aqordat and Barentu in Eritrea ; Gobedra near Aksum
- Lalibela Cave on Lake Tana ; Laga Oda near Charchar
- Lake Basaqa near Matahara
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2.3 The Peopling of the Region
2.3.1. Languages and Linguistic Processes
Ethiopia & Horn is marked by ethnic & linguistic diversity
& unity. Languages of Ethiopia & Horn :- Afro-Asiatic
and Nilo-Saharan language super families.
Afro-Asiatic: divided into Cushitic, Semitic and Omotic
language families. Nilo-Saharan :-Chari-Nile & Koman
1.Cushitic :- North, Central, Eastern & Southern Cushitic.
i. Northen Cushitic: Beja(Ertrean)
ii. Central Cushitic:- Agaw(Qimant, Hamtang, Bilen …)
iii.Eastern:- the most diversified. Oromo,Sidama, Somali,
Kambata, Ale, Arbore, Bayiso , Burji , Darashe, Dasanache,
Gedeo, Hadiya, Halaba, Konso, Libido, Mosiye, Saho
iv. Southern Cushitic:- Dhalo(Kenya) & Nbugua(Tanzania.
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2. Semitic: is divided as North & south Semitic.
• North Semetic:- Ge'ez, Rashaida (spoken at Eritrea-
Sudanese border); Tigre (Eritrean ; Tigrigna (highland
Eritrea & Tigray).
South:- (Outer South Semitic & Transverse South Semitic.)
i. Transverse:- Amharic Argoba, Harari, Silti, Wolane & Zay
ii. Outer: Gafat (extinct), Gurage & Mesmes (endangered).
• 3. Omotic: Anfillo, Ari, Banna, Basketo, Bench, Boro-
Shinasha, Chara, Dawuro, Dime, Dizi, Gamo, Gofa, Hamer,
Karo, Keficho, Konta, Korete, Male, Melo, Oyda, Sezo,
Shekkacho, Sheko, Wolayta, Yem, Zayse etc.
• Why Language status & classification did not remain
static ? b/c affected by factors like population movements,
warfare, trade, religious & territorial expansion,
urbanization etc. Then have affected languages (some died
out or in danger of extinction, others thrived). 32
2.3.2. Settlement Patterns
Environmental, socio-economic, and political processes
shaped Settlement pattern.
Cushites- :- largest linguistic group in the region. They
spread over wide areas from Sudan to Tanzania.
Semites-settled in the northern, north central,
northeastern, south central and eastern part.
Omotic Peoples- majority south western Ethiopia along
Omo River except Shinasha & Anfillo.
Nilotes- mainly found along Ethio-Sudanese border.
2.3.3. Economic Formations
• Domestication of plants & animals gave humanity
interdependent modes of life: agriculture and
pastoralism.
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• Other economic activities:- Fishing, handicraft, trade, etc.
• Highland area :- sedentary agriculture or mixed farming.
Practiced by the Cushites, Semites and Omotic people.
Eastern lowland:- mainly pastoralism
Western lowlands:- pastoralism, shifting
agriculture, fishing, apiculture and hunting.
2.4 Religion and Religious Processes
2.4.1. Indigenous Religion
• Indigenous religious :- beliefs and practices, native to the
region & practiced since ancient times.
• A distinctive mark of indigenous religion is: belief in one
Supreme Being & special power to natural phenomena.
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1. Waqeffanna of the Oromo :
based on existence of one Supreme Being called Waqa.
• Waqa's power is manifested by spirits called Ayyana.
• Major spirits based on Waqeffanna:-
• Abdar/Dache (soil fertility spirit) - Atete (fertility spirit)
• Balas (victory spirit)
• Chato/Dora (wild animals defender)
Ekera: a belief that the dead exist in the form of a ghost
Irrecha :- thanks giving festival ,besides New Year (Birbo) rite.
Qallu & Qallitti (female):maintained link b/n Ayyana & believers.
Galma:- Qallu ritual house
Jila/Makkala (delegated messengers) : make pilgrimage to get
consecration of senior qallu (Abba Muda). Abba Muda had
turban surrirufa of tri-colors: black at top, red at center and white
at bottom.
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2. Hadya: Supreme Being is known as Waa, whose eyes are
represented by elincho (sun) & agana (moon).
Spirits :- Jara (male’s protector), Idota (female’s guard)
attracted prayers sacrifices at Shonkolla and Kallalamo
mountains.
Itto and Albaja :- well-known spiritual leaders credited to
introduce Fandancho.
3. Kambata:
Negita or Aricho Magano/Sky God.
Magnancho :Religious officials
4. Gedeo:- Mageno(Supreme Being),
- Deraro:- thanks giving ceremony.
5. Konso religion worship Waqa/ Wakh
Waaq/Wakh36
6. Gojjam Agew
Diban:- Supreme Being / Sky God.
7. Gurage:- Waq/Goita (Supreme Being),
Bozha (thunder deity) & Damwamwit (health goddess).
Gurage & Yem had a common deity known as Abba at
Enar (Henar).
8. Yem :- Ha’o (Sky God).
So’ala clan was considered as the top in religious duties
9. Konta’s :- Docho (spirit-cult).
10. Wolayta :-
Tosa (Xoossaa)- God Tosa & Ayyana (spirit)
• Sawuna (justice spirit), Wombo (rain spirit),
• Micho (goat spirit), Kuchuruwa (emergency spirit). 37
• Dufuwa (grave) was abode of Moytiliya (father’s spirit).
• Mita: Sacred place of annual worship of spirits
• sacrifice of the first fruits called Teramo or Pageta
(Dubusha) offered there.
• Chaganna (prohibited days to work). Beka:- chose and
kept dark brown heifer . (Literally, ritual cattle) as birthday
fate.
• Sharechuwa :- Religious practitioners
• Becha or Kra Eza Keta (ritual house).
11. Keficho’s :-
Yero:- Supreme Being. Eqo :- the spirit.
Alamo/ eke-Ayano : A person who hosts.
Father of all spirits dochi sat at Adiyo.
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• Damochechi of Channa, yaferochi of Sharada &
wogidochi of Adio :- local spirits . Dugo clan led spiritual
services.
12. Boro-Shinasha
Iqa: super natural power. Rituals performed through
slaughtering animals.
Gure Shuka :- public prayer rituals.
13. Nuer : Kuoth Nhial (God in Heaven).
• Rain, lightning thunder, rainbow, sun, moon and other
entities are manifestations or signs of God.
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Indigenous religion elements:-
prescribe praying for the prevention of:
• drought, flooding, erosion,
• disease & starvation within community
• Rituals are led by recognized elders, their pray and
bless are trusted to reach God.
• Practices & beliefs of indigenous religion are fused
with Christianity & Islam.
• Syncretism:- mixing of religions
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2.4.2. Judaism
Judaism in Ethiopia & Horn noticed in the 4th c AD, when
Bete-Israel refused to be converted to Christianity.
• Bete-Israel practiced Haymanot that differs from Rabbinic
Judaism.
• Dan tribe migrated to Ethiopia at Exodus after death of
King Solomon .
• Menilek I, believed to be son of Solomon & Makeda,
Queen of Saba.
• 6th C, Jews led by Azonos & Phinhas, to Ethiopia.
• They intermarried with Agaws & known as Bete-Israel.
• They lived in northern & northwestern Ethiopia
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2.4.3. Christianity
Before Christianity, northern part of Ethiopia were
Polytheists (worship many gods):-
• Ares (Hariman/Maharram/war god),
• Arwe (serpent-python god),
• Bahir (sea god) and Midir (earth god)
Aedesius and Frementius :- Syrian brothers, converted
King Ezana (r. 320-360) into Christianity.
Christianity became state religion in 334 A.D.
• Atnatewos of Alexandria (328-373) consecrated
Frementius as the first Bishop of Ethiopian Orthodox
Church (EOC).
• Abune Baslios (1959): 1st Ethiopian Patriarch anointed.
42
Nine Saints who came from Mediterranean world spread
Christianity to the interior.
Nine Saints translated the bible into Geez and founded
monasteries.
Expansion continued in Zagwe period (1150-1270).
It got fresh momentum during the Medieval Period
(1270-1527)
Churches and monasteries served as repositories of
manuscripts and precious objects of art.
Later, Jesuits (Society of Jesus or catholic missionaries)
tried to convert Monophysite(only one nature) EOC to
Dyophysite (2 nature- divine & human)Catholic. This
brought religious controversies in EOC.
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Both Catholic & Protestant missionaries preached
their respective treaties in Ethiopia and the Horn.
Protestants, were systematic in preaching their faith
in the region. Protestants adopted old names for
Supreme Being and used them as equivalent to God.
They established schools open to all children of
chiefs & farmers.
2.3.4. Islam
Prophet Mohammed preached Islam in Mecca since
610 AD.
Prophet faced opposition from Quraysh rulers.
He sent some of his early followers to Aksum
44
• Armah Ella Seham (Ahmed al-Nejash), gave the
refugees asylum from 615-628 A.D.
Islam spread to Horn of Africa by peaceful ways:-trade.
Muslims settled on the Red Sea coasts.
Islam spread among communities of the interior, largely
through the agency of preachers and merchants.
Dahlak route played a role in introduction of Islam into
the interior.
Zeila port on coast of Gulf of Aden served as the most
important gateway.
45
• Sheikh Hussein (Muslim saint) of Bale spread Islam
into Bale, Arsi and other southeastern parts of Ethiopia
& Horn.
• Islam was introduced into Somali territories in the 8th c
AD. through Benadir coasts of Moqadishu, Brava &
Merca.
• Abu Bakr Ibn Fukura al Din Sahil set up Moqadishu
Minirate c.1269.
• Mosques, Islamic learning and pilgrimage centers have
been depositories of cultures, traditions & literature of
local Muslims.
Game 9-16