ch1 Unlocked

‫ لبنى سليمان بن طاهر‬.
‫ أ‬:‫استاذ المقرر‬ Environmental Engineering II CE455
CE 455 Environmental
Engineering II
(PREREQUISITES: CE 346)
Course content
 Types of sewers.
 Waste Water forecast.
 Factors affecting amount of domestic sewage.
 Hydraulics of sewers.
 Design of sanitary, storm and combined sewers.
 Sewer appurtenances.
 Pumping of sewage.
REFERENCE
“Water Supply and Sanitation”: Ahmed and Rahman, 2nd
ed./reprint, ITN-Bangladesh, 2005
“Environmental Engineering” by Peavy, Rowe and
Tchobanoglous, Int’l edition, McGraw-Hill,
1991.
“Wastewater Engineering” Metcaff and Eddy
Notes and Handouts provided in Class
‫ لبنى سليمان بن طاهر‬.‫ أ‬:‫استاذ المقرر‬ Environmental Engineering II CE455

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CHAPTER 1
Types of sewers, and Sewer appurtenances.

Terms and definitions:
Sanitary sewage: It is the wastewater generated from the lavatory basins, urinals and water
closets of residential buildings, office building, theatre and other institutions. It is also
referred as domestic wastewater.
Sewer: It is an underground conduit or drain through which sewage is carried to a point of
discharge or disposal.
Sewerage: The term sewerage refers the infrastructure which includes device, equipment
and appurtenances for the collection, transportation and pumping of sewage, but excluding
works for the treatment of sewage.
Wastewater: The term wastewater includes both organic and inorganic constituents, in
soluble or suspended form, and mineral content of liquid waste carried through liquid media.
Sewage is a term used to describe wastewater that contains human and household
waste, as well as other pollutants. The sources of sewage can vary depending on the
location and type of community, but some common sources include:
1. Residential areas: Sewage from homes and apartments is a major source of

wastewater. This includes water from toilets, sinks, showers, and washing
machines.
2. Commercial areas: Sewage from businesses such as restaurants, hotels, and
hospitals can also contribute to the wastewater stream. This can include food
waste, cleaning chemicals, and medical waste.
3. Industrial areas: Industrial facilities such as factories and power plants can
generate large amounts of wastewater that may contain chemicals and other
pollutants.
4. Storm water runoff: During heavy rain events, stormwater runoff can enter the
sewer system and contribute to the wastewater stream. This can include pollutants
such as oil and grease from roads and parking lots.
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5. Infiltration and inflow: In some cases, groundwater and surface water can enter the
sewer system through cracks and leaks in pipes. This can increase the volume of
wastewater and cause problems for treatment plants.
Fig. sources of sewage .
WASTEWATER CHARACTERISTICS
1. Physical Characteristics of Wastewater
 Color: typical wastewater is gray and has a cloudy appearance or black color.
 Odor: Fresh domestic wastewater has a musty odor. If the wastewater is allowed to
go septic, this odor will significantly change to a rotten egg odor associated with the
production of hydrogen sulfide (H2S).
 Temperature: The temperature of wastewater is commonly higher than that of the
water supply because of the addition of warm water from households and industrial
plants.

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 Solids: All the materials in the liquid except water are called as solids. Solids are
classified into three main types: total solids, suspended solids, sludge. Fixed solids
are usually inorganic in nature and may be composed of grit, clay, salts, and metals.
 Turbidity: Turbidity is a measure of water clarity how much the material suspended
in water decreases the passage of light through the water.
2. Chemical Characteristics of Wastewater

 pH: pH is expressed on a scale of 1 to 14. For proper treatment, wastewater pH
should normally be in the range of 6.5 to 9.0. The determination of pH value of
sewage is important, because of the fact that efficiency of certain treatment methods
depends upon the availability of a suitable pH value.
 Gases: These are gases that are dissolved in wastewater. The specific gases and
normal concentrations are based upon the composition of the wastewater.
 Inorganic Matter: The main inorganic materials of concern in wastewater are
chloride, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, toxic inorganic compounds, and heavy metals.
 Organic Matter: Organic matter consists of Carbohydrates such as cellulose, cotton,
fiber, starch, sugar, etc. Fats and oils received from kitchens, laundries, garages,
shops, etc. Nitrogenous compounds like proteins and their decomposed products.
 Oxygen Demand: There are three ways of expressing oxygen demand as like as
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD),
Theoretical Oxygen Demand (ThOD).
3. Biological Characteristics of Wastewater

 BACTERIA
Bacteria is a single celled organism which can be found on most materials and surfaces
and exist as single cell, in pair, chains or cluster. They are very small in size and need
a microscope to see.
Bacteria are classified into:
 Halophiles - Those which can survive in highly saline conditions.
 Thermophiles - Those which can resist high temperature.
 Acidophiles - Those which can tolerate low pH conditions.
 Neutrophiles - Those which require moderate conditions to survive.
 Mesophiles - Those which require moderate conditions to survive.
 Extremophiles - Those which can survive in extreme conditions.
 Alkaliphiles - Those which can tolerate high pH conditions.
 Psychrophilic bacteria - Those which can survive extremely cold conditions.
 Osmophiles - Those which can survive in high sugar osmotic conditions.

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 VIRUS
A virus is a small parasite that cannot reproduce by itself. Once it infects a susceptible
cell, however, a virus can direct the cell machinery to produce more viruses.
 ALGAE
Algae are simple plants that can range from the microscopic (microalgae), to large
seaweeds (macro algae), such as giant kelp more than one hundred feet in length.
Algae cause eutrophication phenomena and useful in oxidation ponds.
 PROTOZOA
Protozoa is an informal term for single-celled eukaryotic organisms, either free-living or
parasitic, which feed on organic matter such as other microorganisms or organic
tissues and debris.
4. OXYGEN DEMAND
The amount of oxygen used by bacteria and other wastewater organisms as they feed
upon the organic solids in the wastewater.
There are three ways of expressing oxygen demand:
 Theoretical Oxygen Demand
Theoretical oxygen demand is the amount of oxygen required to oxidize the organic
fraction of the wastewater completely to carbon dioxide and water.
 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
Chemical oxygen demand (COD) is the amount of chemical oxidation required to
convert organic matter in water and wastewater to carbon dioxide.
 Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)
Biochemical oxygen demand is used as a measure of the quantity of oxygen required for
oxidation of biodegradable organic matter present in the wastewater by aerobic
biochemical action. The BOD value is most commonly expressed in milligrams of
oxygen consumed per liter of sample during 5 days of incubation at 20 °.
Sewerage system components:

The sewerage system is responsible for collecting and transporting wastewater from
homes, businesses, and other buildings to a treatment facility. The system is made up
of several key components, including:
1. Pipes: The pipes are the main component of the sewerage system. They are
typically made of PVC or concrete and are buried underground. The pipes
transport wastewater from homes and businesses to the treatment facility.

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2. Manholes: Manholes are access points to the sewerage system. They are typically
located at regular intervals along the sewer line and allow workers to inspect and
maintain the system.
3. Lift stations: Lift stations are used in areas where the sewer line needs to be lifted
to reach the treatment facility. They are typically located at low points in the sewer
line and use pumps to lift the wastewater to a higher elevation.
4. Treatment facility: The treatment facility is where the wastewater is treated before
it is released back into the environment. The facility typically includes several
stages of treatment, including primary treatment, secondary treatment, and
disinfection.
5. Outfall: The outfall is the point where the treated wastewater is released back into
the environment. The outfall is typically located in a river or other body of water.
Overall, the sewerage system is a complex network of pipes, manholes, lift stations,
treatment facilities, and outfalls that work together to collect and treat wastewater.
1- Gravity collection system.
2- Waste water pump station.
3- Force main or rising main.
Categories Of Sewers :
• Building sewers .
• Lateral sewers .
• Main sewers .
• Interceptor.

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Fig.2. Categories of Sewers.

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Primary Studies of Sewerage Systems

Before proceeding with the design of sewage networks, the following data and information
must be collected:
 Geographical maps of the area.

 Contour maps for the area.
 Detailed maps showing drainage exits from buildings.
 Detailed maps that include the locations of water, electricity, gas and telephone lines.
 Population density of the area.
 Information about the places of commercial and industrial areas in the region.
 Data on water consumption rates in the region.
 Longitudinal sectors showing the nature of the soil and the groundwater level.
Based on the preliminary studies, it is possible to visualize the most appropriate layout of the
network so that the path of the lines is free. And grid lines are drawn along the streets and
illustrated with arrows showing the direction of the flow, which is usually towards the direction
of the land. The vertical profile of each grid line is drawn based on the cadastral data. The
profile shall indicate all the information regarding the ground level, the locations of the
manholes, the type of bedding, the inclinations and the size of the pipes, and others.
Fig.3.Contour map and grid layout.

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Sewer systems
The sanitation of a town or city is done by two methods, which are:
1. Conservancy system.
2. Water- carriage system.
The waste water- carriage system is further classified into:

I. Separate system.
When the domestic and industrial sewage are taken in one set of sewers, whereas storm
and surface water are taken in another set of sewers, it is called separate system.
II. Combined system.
When only one set of sewers is laid for carrying both the sanitary sewage and storm
water, it is called combined system.

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Fig.4.combined and separate sewer system.
3- Pressurized Sewers:
Pressurized sewers are for collecting sewage from multiple sources to deliver to an
existing collection sewer, and/or to the STP and are not dependent on gravity and thus
topography is not a challenge.

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Fig5. Pressurized Sewers.
4- Vacuum Sewer System

The vacuum sewer collects sewage from multiple sources and conveys it to the STP. As the
name suggests, a vacuum is maintained in the collection system and when a house sewer is
opened to atmospheric pressure, sewage and air are pulled into the sewer, whereby the air
forms a “plug” in the line, and air pressure pushes the sewage toward the vacuum station.
Fig.6.Vacuum Sewer System.

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SEWAGE COLLECTION PATTERNS

 The network of sewers consists of house sewers discharging the sewage to laterals.
 The lateral discharges the sewage into branch sewers or sub-mains and sub-mains
discharge it into main sewer or trunk sewer.
 The trunk sewer carries sewage to the common point where adequate treatment is given
to the sewage and then it is discharged.
The patterns of collection system depend upon:

1. The topographical and hydrological features of the area.
2. The location and methods of treatment and disposal works.
3. The type of sewerage system employed, and
4. Extent of area to be served.
Patterns of collection system are:

1. Perpendicular pattern
 The shortest possible path is maintained for the rains carrying storm water and
sewage.
 It is suitable for separate system and partially separate system for storm water drains.
 This pattern is not suitable for combined system, because treatment plant is required
to be installed at many places;
 Otherwise it will pollute the water body where the sewage is discharged.

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2. Interceptor pattern
 Sewers are intercepted with large size sewers.
 Interceptor carries sewage to a common point, where it can be disposed of with or
without treatment.
 Overflows should be provided to handle very large flow.
3. Radial pattern
 It is suitable for land disposal.
 In this pattern sewers are laid radial outwards from the center, hence this pattern is called
as radial pattern.
 The drawback in this pattern is more number of disposal works are required.

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4. Fan pattern
 This pattern is suitable for a city situated at one side of the natural water body, such as
river.
 The entire sewage flows to a common point where one treatment plant is located.
 In this number of converging main sewers and sub-mains are used forming a fan shape.
 Single treatment plant is required in this pattern.
 The drawback in this pattern is that larger diameter sewer is required near to the
treatment plant as entire sewage is collected at a common point.
 In addition, with new development of the city the load on existing treatment plant
increases.
5. Zone pattern
 More numbers of interceptors are provided in this pattern.
 This pattern is suitable for sloping area than flat areas.

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Sewer Appurtenances
The structures, which are constructed at suitable intervals along the sewerage system to
help its efficient operation and maintenance, are called as sewer appurtenances. These
include:
(1) Manholes, (2) Drop manholes, (3) Lamp holes, (4) Clean-outs, (5) Street inlets called
Gullies, (6) Catch basins, (7) Flushing Tanks, (8) Grease & Oil traps, (9) Inverted
Siphons, (10) Storm Regulators.
Table 1 Spacing of Manholes
Table 2 The minimum internal dimensions for manhole chambers.

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TYPES OF BRICKWORK MANHOLES

1. RCC AND COMBINATION MANHOLES
 RCC Manholes: RCC stands for Reinforced Cement Concrete. RCC manholes are
made of concrete that is reinforced with steel bars or mesh. These manholes are
strong and durable, making them ideal for use in areas with heavy traffic or where
the ground is unstable. RCC manholes are also resistant to corrosion and can
withstand exposure to chemicals and other harsh substances.
 Combination Manholes: Combination manholes are designed to provide access to
both sanitary and stormwater sewers. These manholes typically have two or more
openings, each leading to a different sewer line. Combination manholes are often
used in areas where space is limited or where it is not practical to install separate
manholes for each type of sewer line.
 Maintenance: Both RCC and combination manholes require regular maintenance to
ensure they function properly. This includes cleaning out debris and sediment that
can accumulate in the manhole, inspecting the structure for cracks or other
damage, and repairing any issues that are identified. Proper maintenance is
essential to ensure the manhole remains structurally sound and does not become a
safety hazard.
 Safety: Manholes can be dangerous, especially if they are not properly secured or
maintained. It is important to follow proper safety procedures when working
around manholes, including wearing appropriate personal protective equipment
and using caution when entering or exiting the manhole. Additionally, manholes
should be properly marked and secured to prevent unauthorized access.
Two types of RCC manholes can be used :

• Manholes with vertical shaft in RCC and the corbelled cone portion in brickwork
• Entire manhole in RCC and corbelled cone portion separately precast and jointed

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2. HDPE MANHOLES
 HDPE Manholes: HDPE stands for High-Density Polyethylene. HDPE

manholes are made of a thermoplastic material that is lightweight, durable, and
resistant to corrosion. They are often used in areas where traditional concrete
manholes are not practical, such as in areas with high groundwater or where the
soil is unstable.
 Advantages: HDPE manholes have several advantages over traditional concrete
manholes. They are lightweight, making them easier to install and transport.
They are also resistant to corrosion and chemicals, making them ideal for use
in areas with harsh environmental conditions. Additionally, HDPE manholes
are designed to be watertight, which helps prevent infiltration and exfiltration
of groundwater.

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 Maintenance: HDPE manholes require minimal maintenance compared to

traditional concrete manholes. They are resistant to corrosion and chemicals,
which means they do not need to be coated or lined like concrete manholes.
However, they still require regular cleaning to prevent the buildup of debris
and sediment.
 Safety: HDPE manholes are designed to be safe and easy to access. They are
typically equipped with ladder rungs or steps to allow workers to safely enter
and exit the manhole. Additionally, HDPE manholes are designed to be
watertight, which helps prevent the buildup of dangerous gases inside the
manhole.
 Overall, HDPE manholes are a durable and cost-effective alternative to
traditional concrete manholes. They are ideal for use in areas with harsh
environmental conditions or where traditional manholes are not practical.
3. DROP MANHOLES
 Drop Manholes: Drop manholes are a type of manhole that is designed to provide a
vertical drop from one sewer line to another. They are typically used in areas
where the elevation of the sewer line changes, such as in hilly or mountainous
areas.
 Function: The primary function of a drop manhole is to provide a vertical drop
from one sewer line to another. This helps maintain the flow of wastewater and

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prevents backups or overflows. Drop manholes are typically designed with a

vertical pipe or chute that connects the two sewer lines.
 Design: Drop manholes are typically designed with a vertical pipe or chute that
connects the two sewer lines. The pipe or chute is typically made of concrete or
PVC and is reinforced with steel bars or mesh. The manhole itself is typically
made of concrete or brick and is designed to be watertight to prevent infiltration
and exfiltration of groundwater.
 Maintenance: Drop manholes require regular maintenance to ensure they function
properly. This includes cleaning out debris and sediment that can accumulate in the
manhole, inspecting the structure for cracks or other damage, and repairing any
issues that are identified. Proper maintenance is essential to ensure the manhole
remains structurally sound and does not become a safety hazard.
 Safety: Drop manholes can be dangerous, especially if they are not properly
secured or maintained. It is important to follow proper safety procedures when
working around drop manholes, including wearing appropriate personal protective
equipment and using caution when entering or exiting the manhole. Additionally,
drop manholes should be properly marked and secured to prevent unauthorized
access.
.

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4. JUNCTION MANHOLES
 Junction Manholes: Junction manholes are a type of manhole that is designed to
provide access to multiple sewer lines that converge at a single point. They are
typically used in areas where multiple sewer lines need to be connected, such as in
urban areas or industrial zones.
 Function: The primary function of a junction manhole is to provide access to
multiple sewer lines that converge at a single point. This helps maintain the flow of
wastewater and prevents backups or overflows. Junction manholes are typically
designed with multiple openings, each leading to a different sewer line.
 Design: Junction manholes are typically designed with multiple openings, each
leading to a different sewer line. The manhole itself is typically made of concrete
or brick and is designed to be watertight to prevent infiltration and exfiltration of
groundwater. The openings are typically equipped with pipes or chutes that
connect to the sewer lines.
 Maintenance: Junction manholes require regular maintenance to ensure they
function properly. This includes cleaning out debris and sediment that can
accumulate in the manhole, inspecting the structure for cracks or other damage,
and repairing any issues that are identified. Proper maintenance is essential to
ensure the manhole remains structurally sound and does not become a safety
hazard.
 Safety: Junction manholes can be dangerous, especially if they are not properly
working around junction manholes, including wearing appropriate personal
protective equipment and using caution when entering or exiting the manhole.
Additionally, junction manholes should be properly marked and secured to prevent
unauthorized access.
5. SIDE ENTRANCE MANHOLES
 Side Entrance Manholes: Side entrance manholes are a type of manhole that is
designed to provide access to a sewer line from the side. They are typically used in
areas where it is not practical to install a manhole directly over the sewer line, such
as in areas with limited space or where the sewer line is located under a building or
other structure.
 Function: The primary function of a side entrance manhole is to provide access to a
sewer line from the side. This helps maintain the flow of wastewater and allows
workers to inspect and maintain the sewer line without having to excavate the area
above the line.
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 Design: Side entrance manholes are typically designed with a vertical pipe or chute
that connects to the sewer line. The manhole itself is typically made of concrete or
brick and is designed to be watertight to prevent infiltration and exfiltration of
groundwater. The side entrance is typically equipped with a cover or hatch that can
be removed to provide access to the sewer line.
 Maintenance: Side entrance manholes require regular maintenance to ensure they
accumulate in the manhole, inspecting the structure for cracks or other damage,
ensure the manhole remains structurally sound and does not become a safety
hazard.
 Safety: Side entrance manholes can be dangerous, especially if they are not
properly secured or maintained. It is important to follow proper safety procedures
when working around side entrance manholes, including wearing appropriate
personal protective equipment and using caution when entering or exiting the
manhole. Additionally, side entrance manholes should be properly marked and
secured to prevent unauthorized access.
Classification of Manholes
Depending upon the depth the manholes can be classified as:
(a) Shallow Manholes.
(b) Normal Manholes
(c) Deep Manholes.
Shallow Manholes: These are 0.7 to 0.9 m depth, constructed at the start of the branch
sewer or at a place not subjected to heavy traffic conditions. These are provided with
light cover at top and called inspection chamber.

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Shallow manhole.
Normal Manholes: These manholes are 1.5 m deep with dimensions 1.0 m x 1.0 m
square or rectangular with 1.2 m x 0.9 m. These are provided with heavy cover at its top
to support the anticipated traffic load.
Rectangular manhole for depth 0.9 m to 2.5 m.

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Deep Manholes: The depth of these manholes is more than 1.5 m. The section of such
manhole is not uniform throughout. The size in upper portion is reduced by providing an
offset. Steps are provided in such manholes for descending into the manhole. These are
provided with heavy cover at its top to support the traffic load.
(a) Rectangular and (b) Circular deep manhole.

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INVERTEDSIPHONS:-
 Inverted Siphons: Inverted siphons are a type of sewer line that is designed to
pass under an obstacle, such as a river or highway. They are typically used in
areas where it is not practical to install a sewer line above ground or where the
sewer line would be obstructed by the obstacle.
 Function: The primary function of an inverted siphon is to allow a sewer line to
pass under an obstacle. The siphon is typically designed with a downward
slope that allows wastewater to flow through the line by gravity. The siphon is
typically made of concrete or PVC and is reinforced with steel bars or mesh.
 Design: Inverted siphons are typically designed with a downward slope that
allows wastewater to flow through the line by gravity. The siphon is typically
made of concrete or PVC and is reinforced with steel bars or mesh. The siphon
is typically installed using a trenchless method, such as horizontal directional
drilling or microtunneling.
 Maintenance: Inverted siphons require regular maintenance to ensure they
accumulate in the siphon, inspecting the structure for cracks or other damage,
ensure the siphon remains structurally sound and does not become a safety
hazard.
 Safety: Inverted siphons can be dangerous, especially if they are not properly
working around inverted siphons, including wearing appropriate personal
protective equipment and using caution when entering or exiting the siphon.
Additionally, inverted siphons should be properly marked and secured to
prevent unauthorized access.

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STORM WATER INLETS

Storm water inlets are provided to admit the surface runoff to the sewers. These are
classified in three major groups. curb inlets, gutter inlets, and combined inlets. They are
provided either depressed or flush with respect to the elevation of the pavement surface.
The structure of the inlet is constructed with brickwork with cast iron grating at the
opening, the clear opening shall not be more than 25 mm. The connecting pipe from the
street inlet to the sewer should be minimum of 200 mm diameter and laid with sufficient
slope. A maximum spacing of 30 m is recommended between the inlets, which depends
upon the road surface, size and type of inlet and rainfall.
Curb Inlet: These are vertical opening in the road curbs through which stormwater flow
enters the stormwater drains. These are preferred where heavy traffic is anticipated .
Gutter Inlets: These are horizontal openings in the gutter which is covered by one or
more grating through which storm water is admitted .

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Combined Inlets: In this, the curb and gutter inlet both are provided to act as a single
unit. The gutter inlet is normally placed right in front of the curb inlets.
CATCH BASINS
 Catch Basins: Catch basins are a type of drainage structure that is designed to
collect and remove surface water from roads, parking lots, and other paved
surfaces. They are typically installed at low points in the pavement where water
tends to accumulate.
 Function: The primary function of a catch basin is to collect and remove
surface water from paved surfaces. The basin is typically designed with a grate
or other opening that allows water to flow into the basin. The basin is typically
connected to an underground pipe that carries the water away from the area.
 Design: Catch basins are typically made of concrete or precast concrete and are
designed to be watertight to prevent infiltration and exfiltration of
groundwater. The basin is typically equipped with a grate or other opening that
allows water to flow into the basin. The basin is typically connected to an
underground pipe that carries the water away from the area.

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 Maintenance: Catch basins require regular maintenance to ensure they function

properly. This includes cleaning out debris and sediment that can accumulate in
the basin, inspecting the structure for cracks or other damage, and repairing any
issues that are identified. Proper maintenance is essential to ensure the catch
basin remains structurally sound and does not become a safety hazard.
 Safety: Catch basins can be dangerous, especially if they are not properly
working around catch basins, including wearing appropriate personal protective
equipment and using caution when entering or exiting the basin. Additionally,
catch basins should be properly marked and secured to prevent unauthorized
access.
FLUSHING TANKS:
 Flushing tanks are provided to flush the sewers.
 They are seldom used.
 At such places where self cleansing.
 Velocity is not developed or when the ground is flat and it is not possible to lay the
sewer lines at designed gradients, flushing tanks required to flush the sewer line.
 They are installed at suitable intervals to clean the sewers of choking and
obstructions.

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GREASE AND OIL TRAPS

1. Grease and Oil Traps: Grease and oil traps are a type of plumbing fixture that is
designed to capture and remove grease, oil, and other fats from wastewater before
it enters the sewer system. They are typically installed in commercial kitchens,
restaurants, and other food service establishments.
2. Function: The primary function of a grease and oil trap is to capture and remove
grease, oil, and other fats from wastewater before it enters the sewer system. The
trap is typically designed with a series of baffles or screens that allow the
wastewater to flow through while capturing the grease and oil.
3. Design: Grease and oil traps are typically made of metal or plastic and are
designed to be watertight to prevent infiltration and exfiltration of groundwater.
The trap is typically installed in the plumbing system between the sink or
dishwasher and the sewer line. The trap is typically cleaned out on a regular basis
to remove the accumulated grease and oil.
4. Maintenance: Grease and oil traps require regular maintenance to ensure they
function properly. This includes cleaning out the accumulated grease and oil on a
regular basis, inspecting the structure for cracks or other damage, and repairing
any issues that are identified. Proper maintenance is essential to ensure the trap
remains structurally sound and does not become a safety hazard.
5. Safety: Grease and oil traps can be dangerous, especially if they are not properly

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working around grease and oil traps, including wearing appropriate personal
protective equipment and using caution when cleaning out the trap. Additionally,
grease and oil traps should be properly marked and secured to prevent
unauthorized access.
Materials, shapes and sizes of sewers

1. ASBESTOS CEMENT SEWERS:
 Asbestos Cement (AC) Sewers are manufactured from a mixture of cement and
asbestos fiber.
 Asbestos Cement (AC) Sewers are suitable for carrying domestic sanitary sewage.
 Asbestos fibers are thoroughly mixed with cement to act as reinforcement.
 These pipes are available in size 10 to 100 cm internal diameter and length up to
4.0m.
 These pipes can be easily assembled without skilled labour with the help of special
coupling, called ‘Ring Tie Coupling’ or Simplex joint.
 The pipe and joints are resistant to corrosion.

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 These pipes are used for vertical transport of water. For example, transport of
rainwater from roofs in multistoried buildings, for transport of sewage to grounds, and
for transport of less foul sullage i.e., wastewater from kitchen and bathroom.
2. BRICK SEWERS:
 Brick Sewers are made at site and used for construction large size sewer.
 Brick Sewers are very useful for construction of storm sewer or combined sewer.
 Nowadays brick sewers are replaced by concrete sewer.
 Brick sewers my get deformed and leakage may take place.
 A lot of labour work is required.
 To avoid leakage the brick sewer should be plastered.
 This material is used for construction of large size combined sewer or particularly
for storm water drains.
 The pipes are plastered from outside to avoid entry of tree roots and ground water
through brick joints.
 Lining also make the pipe resistant to corrosion.
3. CEMENT CONCRETE SEWERS:

 PCC - for dia up to 60 cm
 Suitable for small storm drains.
 Not durable.
 RCC - for dia > 60 cm
 They may be cast in situ or precast, resistant to heavy loads, corrosion and high
pressure.
 These are very heavy and difficult to transport.
 These pipes can be cast in situ or precast pipes.
 Precast pipes are better in quality than the cast in situ pipes.

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4. CAST IRON (C.I) SEWERS:

 These types of sewer are High strength and durability water tight.
 Cast Iron sewers can withstand high internal pressure and can bear external load.
 These pipes are stronger and capable to withstand greater tensile, compressive, as
well as bending stresses.
 However, these are costly.
 Cast iron pipes are used for outfall sewers, rising mains of pumping stations, and
inverted siphons, where pipes are running under pressure.
 These are also suitable for sewers under heavy traffic load, such as sewers below
railways and highways.
 They are used for carried over piers in case of low-lying areas.
 They form 100% leak proof sewer line to avoid ground water contamination.
 They are less resistant to corrosion; hence, generally lined from inside with
cement concrete, coal tar paint, epoxy, etc.
 These are joined together by bell and spigot joint.
 Cast Iron sewers are suitable for the following conditions:
 When the sewage is conveyed under high pressure.
 When there is considerable difference in temperature.
5. STEEL SEWERS:
 Steel sewers are Impervious, light, resistant to high pressure, flexible.
 They are generally used for outfall and trunk sewers.
 These are used under the situations such as pressure main sewers, under water
crossing, bridge crossing, necessary connections for pumping stations, laying
pipes over self-supporting spans, railway crossings, etc.
 They can withstand internal pressure, impact load and vibrations much better than
CI pipes.
 They are more ductile and can withstand water hammer pressure better.
32
 These pipes cannot withstand high external load and these pipes may collapse
when negative pressure is developed in pipes.
 They are susceptible to corrosion and are not generally used for partially flowing
sewers.
 They are protected internally and externally against the action of corrosion.
6. PLASTIC SEWERS:
 Nowadays PVC sewers are used for carrying sewage.
 Plastic sewers are resistant to corrosion.
 These are available in sizes 75 to 315 mm external diameter and used in drainage
works.
 The additional advantages they offer are resistant to corrosion, light weight of pipe,
economical in laying, jointing and maintenance, the pipe is tough and rigid, and ease in
fabrication and transport of these pipes.
 They are not brittle like AC pipes and other pipes and hence hard fall during loading,
unloading and handling do not cause any damage to the pipes.
7. VITRIFIED CLAY OR STONEWARE SEWERS:

 These pipes are used for house connections as well as lateral sewers.
 The size of the pipe available is 5 cm to 30 cm internal diameter with length 0.9 to
1.2 m.
 These pipes are rarely manufactured for diameter greater than 90 cm.
 These are joined by bell and spigot flexible compression joints.
 Resistant to corrosion, hence fit for carrying polluted water such as sewage.
 Interior surface is smooth and is hydraulically efficient.
 The pipes are highly impervious.
 Strong in compression.
 These pipes are durable and economical for small diameters.
33
 The pipe material does not absorb water more than 5% of their own weight, when
immersed in water for 24 h.
8. LEAD SEWERS:
 They are smooth, soft and can take odd shapes.
 This pipe has an ability to resist sulphide corrosion.
 However, these pipes are very costly.
 These are used in house connection.
Types of sewers material:

Sewer type Diameter (mm)
Glass vitrified clay G.V.C 175 – 900
U.P.V.C 200 – 700
Polly ethylene high density 200 - 700
G.R.P 200 - 2800
Ductile cast iron 200 – 900
Pre-cast concrete 600 - 3000

34
Shapes of sewers
1. Circular sewer section
2. Non circular sewer section
Non-circular sewer sections:

1. Standard egg shape
 It is preferred for combined sewers.
 Its advantage over circular shape is that it gives higher velocity during low flow of same
capacity.
 It is difficult to construct and less stable.
 It requires additional bedding of brick masonry or concrete to make it stable.
2. Horse shoe shaped sewer:

 This may be used for large sewers with heavy discharges.
 Such sewer is suitable when headroom for the construction of sewer is limited.
 The invert of this section may be flat, parabolic or circular.
 Its height is more than its width.
 Its wall most inclined with semicircular arch at top.

35
3. Parabolic shaped sewer:

 The upper arch of the sewer forms the shape of parabola.
 This may be used for carrying comparatively small quantities of sewage.
 The invert may be elliptical or parabolic.
 It is found to be economic in construction.
4. Semi elliptical shaped sewer:

 It may be used for soil i.e. soft soil as it is more stable.
 It is useful only for carrying large number or amounts of sewage.
o It is adopted when sewers are greater than 1.8m in diameter.
5. Rectangular shaped sewer:

 Generally, it is used for covered storm water drains.
 It is stable and easy to construct.
o Sometimes it is used to work as a storage tank.

36
6. U shaped sewer:
 U-Shape can be set up in the large section.
 That trench is known as cunette.
 Such type of sewer used for combined sewer having maximum flow of storm water.
 It is used for longer sewers and especially in open cuts.
7. Semi circular shaped sewer:

 This section gives a wider base at bottom and hence it becomes suitable for
constructing large sewers with less available headroom.
8.Basket handle shaped sewer:

 In this type of sewer, the upper portion of sewer has got the shape of a basket- handle.
 The bottom portion is narrower in width than the upper portion.
 It carries small discharge through the bottom narrow portion and during monsoon it runs
full.

37
Factors considered while selecting material for sewer

 Resistance to corrosion .
 Resistance to abrasion .
 Strength and durability .
o Weight of the material.
 Imperviousness .
 Economy and cost .
o Hydraulically efficient..

38

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‫ لبنى سليمان بن طاهر‬.

‫ أ‬:‫استاذ المقرر‬ Environmental Engineering II CE455

‫ لبنى سليمان بن طاهر‬.‫ أ‬:‫استاذ المقرر‬ Environmental Engineering II CE455

Types of sewers, and Sewer appurtenances.

1. Residential areas: Sewage from homes and apartments is a major source of

Fig. sources of sewage .

‫ لبنى سليمان بن طاهر‬.‫ أ‬:‫استاذ المقرر‬ Environmental Engineering II CE455

2. Chemical Characteristics of Wastewater

3. Biological Characteristics of Wastewater

‫ لبنى سليمان بن طاهر‬.‫ أ‬:‫استاذ المقرر‬ Environmental Engineering II CE455

Sewerage system components:

‫ لبنى سليمان بن طاهر‬.‫ أ‬:‫استاذ المقرر‬ Environmental Engineering II CE455

‫ لبنى سليمان بن طاهر‬.‫ أ‬:‫استاذ المقرر‬ Environmental Engineering II CE455

Fig.2. Categories of Sewers.

‫ لبنى سليمان بن طاهر‬.‫ أ‬:‫استاذ المقرر‬ Environmental Engineering II CE455

Primary Studies of Sewerage Systems

 Geographical maps of the area.

Fig.3.Contour map and grid layout.

The waste water- carriage system is further classified into:

‫ لبنى سليمان بن طاهر‬.‫ أ‬:‫استاذ المقرر‬ Environmental Engineering II CE455

Fig.4.combined and separate sewer system.

‫ لبنى سليمان بن طاهر‬.‫ أ‬:‫استاذ المقرر‬ Environmental Engineering II CE455

Fig5. Pressurized Sewers.

4- Vacuum Sewer System

Fig.6.Vacuum Sewer System.

‫ لبنى سليمان بن طاهر‬.‫ أ‬:‫استاذ المقرر‬ Environmental Engineering II CE455

SEWAGE COLLECTION PATTERNS

The patterns of collection system depend upon:

2. The location and methods of treatment and disposal works.

3. The type of sewerage system employed, and

4. Extent of area to be served.

Patterns of collection system are:

‫ لبنى سليمان بن طاهر‬.‫ أ‬:‫استاذ المقرر‬ Environmental Engineering II CE455

‫ لبنى سليمان بن طاهر‬.‫ أ‬:‫استاذ المقرر‬ Environmental Engineering II CE455

‫ لبنى سليمان بن طاهر‬.‫ أ‬:‫استاذ المقرر‬ Environmental Engineering II CE455

Table 1 Spacing of Manholes

Table 2 The minimum internal dimensions for manhole chambers.

‫ لبنى سليمان بن طاهر‬.‫ أ‬:‫استاذ المقرر‬ Environmental Engineering II CE455

TYPES OF BRICKWORK MANHOLES

Two types of RCC manholes can be used :

‫ لبنى سليمان بن طاهر‬.‫ أ‬:‫استاذ المقرر‬ Environmental Engineering II CE455

‫ لبنى سليمان بن طاهر‬.‫ أ‬:‫استاذ المقرر‬ Environmental Engineering II CE455

 HDPE Manholes: HDPE stands for High-Density Polyethylene. HDPE

‫ لبنى سليمان بن طاهر‬.‫ أ‬:‫استاذ المقرر‬ Environmental Engineering II CE455

 Maintenance: HDPE manholes require minimal maintenance compared to

‫ لبنى سليمان بن طاهر‬.‫ أ‬:‫استاذ المقرر‬ Environmental Engineering II CE455

prevents backups or overflows. Drop manholes are typically designed with a

‫ لبنى سليمان بن طاهر‬.‫ أ‬:‫استاذ المقرر‬ Environmental Engineering II CE455

‫ لبنى سليمان بن طاهر‬.‫ أ‬:‫استاذ المقرر‬ Environmental Engineering II CE455

Rectangular manhole for depth 0.9 m to 2.5 m.

‫ لبنى سليمان بن طاهر‬.‫ أ‬:‫استاذ المقرر‬ Environmental Engineering II CE455

(a) Rectangular and (b) Circular deep manhole.

‫ لبنى سليمان بن طاهر‬.‫ أ‬:‫استاذ المقرر‬ Environmental Engineering II CE455

‫ لبنى سليمان بن طاهر‬.‫ أ‬:‫استاذ المقرر‬ Environmental Engineering II CE455

STORM WATER INLETS

‫ لبنى سليمان بن طاهر‬.‫ أ‬:‫استاذ المقرر‬ Environmental Engineering II CE455

‫ لبنى سليمان بن طاهر‬.‫ أ‬:‫استاذ المقرر‬ Environmental Engineering II CE455

 Maintenance: Catch basins require regular maintenance to ensure they function

‫ لبنى سليمان بن طاهر‬.‫ أ‬:‫استاذ المقرر‬ Environmental Engineering II CE455

GREASE AND OIL TRAPS

‫ لبنى سليمان بن طاهر‬.‫ أ‬:‫استاذ المقرر‬ Environmental Engineering II CE455

Materials, shapes and sizes of sewers