Exam #1 Notes and Potential Questions

1/18/24, 1:07 PM Psyc 2360 exam #1 prep - All units to study for the first exam (1/4) for
) for brain …
Cell structure labeled
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1/18/24, 1:07 PM Psyc 2360 exam #1 prep - All units to study for the first exam (1/4) for brain …
Sensory neuron: transmits sensory information to the central

nervous system.
Motor neuron: controls the contraction of a muscle or the

secretion of a gland.
Interneuron: located entirely within the central nervous system.
Detailed cell parts and functions
Cytoplasm: The viscous, semi-liquid substance inside the cell.
Membrane: A structure consisting primarily of lipid (fat-like)

molecules that makes up the outer boundary of a cell.
Nucleus: Contains all of the genetic material that the neuron needs
to function (chromosomes)
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Mitochondria: Double membrane. Contain their own DNA and

replicate independently of cells. Converts nutrients into ATP.
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP): The cell’s primary energy

source.
Endoplasmic reticulum: storage reservoir and channel for

transporting chemicals through the cytoplasm appears in two
forms…
Rough: Produces proteins that are either transported out of the

cell (attached) or distributed around cytoplasm (free-floating).
Smooth: lipids produced here.
Lysosome: An organelle surrounded by membrane; contains

enzymes that break down waste products.
Golgi apparatus: Generates and secretes neurochemicals

(exocytosis). Wrapping and packing.
Cytoskeleton: Matrix of protein strands that give the neuron its

shape.
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Microtubule: A long strand of bundles of protein filaments

arranged around a hollow core; part of the cytoskeleton and
involved in transporting substances from place to place within
the cell.
Anterograde: In a direction along an axon from the cell body to

the terminal buttons. Fast (500 mm/day)
Retrograde: In a direction along an axon from the terminal

buttons toward the cell body. Slower (half as fast)
Axoplasmic transport: An active process by which substances

are propelled along microtubules that run the length of the axon.
Kinesin: Kinesin molecules “walk” like an inchworm down a

microtubule, carrying their cargo from the soma to the terminal
buttons.
Glia
• modify chemical milieu.
• guide neurons to final site during development.
• remove dead neurons after damage.
• Phagocytosis – eat them up and get them out.
• serve some nutritive needs.
• maintain the blood – brain barrier.
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• astrocytes – surround neurons and contact blood vessels via

end-feet.
• allow transmission of ions across vascular wall and forms
blood-brain barrier.
• provides physical support.
• provide nourishment.
• maintain chemical milieu surrounding neurons
• Oligodendrocytes: produce myelin, the fatty sheath that
covers the axon – can myelinate multiple axons in Central
Nervous System.
• Can produce up to 50 segments of myelin.
• Schwann cells – involved in production of myelin in
peripheral nervous system – only myelinates a single nerve.
• also digest dead axons and provide process for regrowth.
• Microglia: damaged neural tissue is invaded by microglia
which then remove dead cells
• protect the brain from invading micro-organisms
❑ Electrical Potentials of Axons

1. Action potential: The brief electrical impulse that provides
the basis for conduction of information along an axon.
1. How the membrane potential can change:
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1. Hyperpolarization: An increase in the membrane

potential of a cell, relative to the normal resting
potential.
2. Depolarization: Reduction (toward zero) of the

membrane potential of a cell from its normal resting
potential.
1. Threshold of excitation: The value of the membrane

potential that must be reached to produce an action
potential.
• when an ion channel opens Na+ rushes into the cell and K+
goes out changing the potential.
• with enough stimulation of this kind the resting potential
passes a threshold (≈ –55 mV) and the cell ‘fires’.
• sodium channels only open briefly and then cannot

open for some period of time (absolute refractory
period).
Saltatory conduction: Conduction of action potentials by

myelinated axons. The action potential appears to jump from
one Node of Ranvier to the next.
• rejuvenated at the nodes of Ranvier
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Action potentials generated (or re-generated) at the Nodes of

Ranvier.
Spacing of the nodes is optimized according to axon length and

diameter.
• myelin confers two main advantages
• conservation of energy & speed of conduction
Apoptosis – programmed cell death
Resting potential ≈ -70 mV

2. Threshold ≈ -55 mV
3. Action Potential ≈ +40 mV and Hyperpolarization ≈ -90 mV
Oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells

• myelin sheath (tubular) is not continuous along the axon
(sections of ≈ 1-2µm)
• gaps in the myelin sheath are known as Nodes of Ranvier –
unmyelinated
areas of axon
Blood-Brain Barrier
• Regulates the chemicals that can enter the CNS from the
blood. Prevents many low-life forms, such as toxins, that
make it into the blood stream from infecting the brain.
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• Helps the CNS maintain the proper composition of fluids

inside and outside the neurons.
• selectively permeable – some things can get through.
• the chemical milieu inside and outside the neuron is delicate
– the blood brain barrier protects the balance of chemicals.
• not uniform throughout – area postrema maintains a weak
blood-brain barrier which allows for the detection of toxins in
the blood stream and triggers vomiting response.
Neurochemicals
• neurotransmitters - chemical substance released from the end
of a neuron during the propagation of a nerve impulse; it
relays information from one neuron to another.
•
• Neuromodulators – secreted in larger amounts and diffuse
further (composed of peptides).
•
• Hormones – produced in endocrine glands – released into
extracellular fluid to be taken up by specific target cells.
•
•
•
•
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• Binding
• chemical that attaches to a binding site is a
• chemical that attaches to a binding site is a ligand.
• neurotransmitters are naturally produced ligands.
Binding sites…
Axodendritic – synapse on the dendrite of the neuron
Axosomatic – on the soma
Axoaxonic – on the axon
Ionotropic receptors
• receptor site has its own ion channel.
• contain sodium channels.
• fast acting and short lasting.
Metabotropic receptors
• indirect method.
• located nearby G-proteins.
• G-proteins in turn activate an ion
channel.
• slower to begin and longer lasting.
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• G-proteins can also activate second messengers – enzymes that

in turn activate an ion channel.
Post synaptic potentials

• action potentials are always excitatory – post-
synaptic potentials can be either excitatory or
inhibitory.
Excitatory post synaptic potential inhibitory post synaptic potential action potential happening!
• excitatory PSP – typically related to sodium ion channels (rush of

Na+ into the cell makes it more positively charged).
•
• inhibitory PSP typically related to potassium ion channels (extra
K+ maintained inside cell by sodium-potassium pump leaks out
making the cell more negatively charged).
•
• action of Cl– channels depends on the state of the receiving
neuron – if depolarised Cl– will bring the cell back to a resting
state.
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Terminating the PSP (post synaptic potential)
• reuptake – rapid removal of neurotransmitter from the synaptic

cleft.
• SSRIs (selective seratonin reuptake inhibitors – e.g, Prozac)
prolong the PSP by inhibiting reuptake.
Spatial integration: equal excitatory and inhibitory input will cause

no change
Autorecepters !
• autoreceptors respond to neurotransmitters they produce.
•
• regulate synthesis and release of other transmitters.
•
• metabotropic
•
• usually inhibitory – may control amount of neurotransmitter
released.
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Inhibitory: rest and Stimulation: fight or
• meningitis – infection of the meninges

increases pressure on the brain.
• encephalitis – infection of the brain itself.
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The meninges
• outer covering of the brain
•
• duramater – Latin for “tough
mother”
• arachnoid layer – Greek for
“like a spider’s web”
• piamater – Latin for “soft
mother”
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What dose the Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) do?!
• Brain is surrounded by CSF.
• Ventricles (filled with CSF) are continuous with the outer supply
of CSF.
• CSF supports or ‘cushions’ the brain.
• Provides nutrients, removes waste, helps maintain the blood-

brain barrier.
Cranial nerves
1. 1.olfactory (smell)
2. 2.optic (vision)
3. 3.oculomotor (eye moves)
4. 4.trochlear (eye moves)
5. 5.trigeminal (chewing, touch,pain for
mouth)
6. 6.abducens (eye moves)
7. 7.Facial
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8. 8.vestibulocochlear (hearing, equilibrium)

9. 9.glossopharyngeal (taste, BP)
10. 10.vagus (heart rate, digestion)
11. 11.accessory (swallowing)
12. 12.hypoglossal (tongue moves)
13.
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What dose the Medulla

Oblongata do?
it reticular activating system –

arousal, attention and sleep-
wake cycle. !
controls reflexes, respiratory
pons
and heart rate. !
controls reflexes, respiratory
and heart rate.!
medulla
What dose the Pons do?

• main connection between cortex and cerebellum.
• vestibular functions (e.g., balance).
• sleep and arousal.
• contains superior olive – point at which information from both
ears converges – important for localization of sounds.
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What dose the Cerebellum do? cerebral

cortex
• precise or fine motor control
• balance
• neuroimaging suggests a role for
the cerebellum in many cognitive
processes – a ‘mini-brain’?
• ipsilateral motor organization cerebellum
The Midbrain/ tectum.
Two important midbrain structures:

• superior colliculus
• (rapid eye movements)
• inferior colliculus
• (auditory equivalent of SC)
This area is also known as the tectum.
What is the Hypothalamus?\

• group of nuclei.
• maintain equilibrium or homeostasis.
• ventromedial lesions affect regulation of food
intake.
• regulate body temperature (anterior and
posterior nuclei).
• regulates hormones (involved in sexual
behaviour, biological rhythms, fight or flight
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responses, etc.).
What is the Thalamus?

• group of nuclei.
• sensory and motor relay centre.
• lateral geniculate nucleus – relays
information from the retina to visual
cortex.
• medial geniculate nucleus – relays
information from auditory pathway to
cortex.
What is the Basal Ganglia?

• group of nuclei – functionally related.
• primarily involved in motor control.
• Caudate nucleus, Globus pallidus, Putamen
Our Limbic System…what is it?
• Emotional regulation
• learning and memory
• emotional memories
• recognition of emotions in other people
• Structures are: Amygda, Hypothalamus, Cingulate cortex,

Anterior thalamus, Mammilliary bodies, Hippocampus.
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What are the Major subdivisions of the nervous system?!
Forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain!
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• Basic structures
• All vertebrates share the same CNS structures:
• Forebrain
• Brainstem (midbrain and hindbrain)
• Neural tube (spinal cord)
• In humans these structures are evident at 28 days gestation.
Growth and development of cells
• Cell birth (neurogenesis, gliogenesis)

• Cell migration
• Cell differentiation
• Cell maturation (axon and dendritic growth)
• Synaptogenesis (formation of synapses)
• Cell death – synaptic pruning
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What is Neural maturation?

• dendritic arborization (growing branches) and growth of
dendritic spines.
• axons grow faster (mm per day) than do dendrites (micrometers
per day) – so axons may play a role in dendritic differentiation as
they reach their target before the dendrites are fully formed.
The Neocortex - Gyri and Sulci.
• Gyri (plural: singular = gyrus) – convolution or bump –

protruding rounded surfaces (folds)
•
• Sulci (plural: singular = sulcus) – valley between gyri or
enfolded regions that appears as surface lines (gaps between
gyri)
•
• Fissure – very deep sulcus
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Lobes of cerebral cortex
Cortical layers
• Grey matter is made up of non-myelinated cells that have a
layered appearance in cross section according to different cell
types and groupings.
•
• 6 layers but size and shape of cells and thickness of layers differs
across brain regions.
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Defining the areas of the lobes
What is the Corpus Callosum?

• Thick band of nerve fibres that connect the left and right
hemispheres.
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Midline structures of the brain!
Brodman’s areas
• Cytoarchitectonically defined regions (assigned numbers).
• Cytoarchitectonics – cellular organization differs across regions.
•
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Retinotopy – mapping the visual world onto the visual cortex.
Visual defects
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Parietal Association Cortex

• integrates sensory information from multiple
modalities.
• goal directed actions.
• superior parietal cortex damage – optic ataxia,
Balint’s syndrome.
• left and right inferior parietal cortex play different roles.
• left inferior parietal damage – apraxia.
• right inferior parietal damage – hemispatial
neglect.
• Somatosensory cortex: concerned with the
conscious perception of touch, pressure, pain,
temperature, position, movement and vibration.
Hemispatial Neglect
•damage to the right parietal lobe often results in a failure to
attend to or represent information appearing on the left side of space
despite intact sensory processing and visual
acuity.
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What is the role of the Temporal Cortex?

• auditory processing
• language – Wernicke’s area
• object and facial recognition (agnosia and prosopagnosia)
• Memory
• emotional processing – the limbic system
Primary auditory cortex: The region of the superior temporal lobe

whose primary input is from the auditory system.
Insular cortex: A sunken region of the cerebral cortex that is

normally covered by the rostral superior temporal lobe and caudal
inferior frontal lobe.
Primary motor cortex: The region of the posterior frontal lobe

that contains neurons that control movements of skeletal muscle.
Association Cortex
Sensory association cortex: Those regions of the cerebral

cortex that receive information from regions of the primary
sensory cortex.
Motor association cortex: The region of the frontal lobe rostral

to the primary cortex; also known as the premotor cortex.
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What is the role of the Frontal Cortex
• executive control – planning and guiding behaviour, judgement.

•
• damage can lead to personality changes, disorganized behaviour,
disinhibition and inappropriate social behaviour, rigidity in
thought, emotional lability (inappropriate laughing or crying).
•
• not fully developed until late teens/early twenties.
Textbook questions chapter 2,3
CHAPTER 2 TEXTBOOK QUIZ QUESTIONS
Why does synaptic transmission involve the release of chemicals? Direct

electrical communication between neurons is far simpler, so why do our neurons
not use it more extensively? (A tiny percentage of synaptic connections in the
human brain do use electrical synapses.) What do you think the advantages of
chemical communication are?!
You reach out and touch a piece of cloth, feeling its texture. The cells that gather
this sensory information are part of the _________________ nervous system.!
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A. Peripheral
A neuron first receives a message in a(n) _______. The message is then passed
along a thin, long portion of the cell called the _____.!
B. dendrite; axon
"____________ are supporting cells that can provide myelination to multiple

axons at once.!
D. Oligodendrocytes
___________ are glial cells that participate in phagocytosis, provide lactate for
cells, and structurally support neurons in the brain.!
D. Astrocytes
The purpose of the blood-brain barrier is to:!

C. block the entrance of some substances into the brain.
As you study for your neuroscience exam, you feel a tickle on your arm. You
look and see a large spider, and you jerk your arm automatically. What might be
the neural path for this action?!
C. Sensory neuron– interneuron–motor neuron– muscle
The resting membrane potential is:!

A. -70 mV.
When students enter a classroom, they tend to spread themselves out, provided
that there are enough desks to do so. In biological terms, this effect would be
called:!
B. diffusion.
For Na+ ions, _______________ push(es) them into a cell.!

A. both electrostatic pressure and diffusion
Which statement is true with respect to saltatory conduction?!

A. Saltatory conduction occurs only along myelinated axons.
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Small synaptic vesicles contain ___________, whereas large synaptic vesicles

contain!
B. neurotransmitters; peptides
If a cell fires at an extremely high rate, the cell will release neurotransmitter from
the:!
B. release-ready, recycling pool, and reserve pool vesicles
In comparison to ionotropic receptors, metabotropic receptors:!

D. have effects that last longer.
Influx of ____ or _____ ions result in EPSPs!

D. Na+; Ca2+"
After release of the neurotransmitter serotonin, the neurotransmitter is

transported back into the cell to be reused. This process is called:!
C. reuptake.
Sally’s stomach begins to rumble, reminding her that she skipped breakfast this
morning. This hunger signal is sent to the brain, which is part of the __________
nervous system.!
B. central
When substances are transported from the terminal buttons at the end of the
axon back to the soma, this process is called _____ axoplasmic transport.!
D. retrograde"!
In order to cross the synapse between two cells, a substance called a

___________ is released from the presynaptic cell to activate or inhibit the
postsynaptic cell.!
C.neurotransmitter
Experiences such as feeling hungry or seeing color in the environment are made
possible by the:!
C. sensory neurons.
A scan shows that a particular substance has spread throughout the body via
the bloodstream but has not entered the brain. This finding demonstrates the
existence of:!
D. the blood-brain barrier.
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Susie takes a huge drink of her coffee, assuming that the temperature is
tolerable, and the heat sears her mouth. Although the pain is so great that her
reflex is to spit out the coffee, she does not do so. The reflex to spit out the
coffee is inhibited at the:.!
C. motor neuron.
If the inner voltage of a cell is -70 mV and application of stimulation results in a

-95 mV charge, the stimulation had a ____________ effect. On the other hand, a
resultant charge of +40 mV would reflect a ___________ effect.!
B. hyperpolarizing; depolarizing
A cation would be attracted to:!

D. an anion.
The Na+/K+ pump removes ______ Na+ ions and adds _______ K+ ions.!
A. 3; 2
If a bowling ball fell on your foot, the action potentials would differ from a feather
falling on your foot. The action potentials for the bowling ball would be:!
B. the same size as for the feather, but they would be faster in occurrence.
Which choice correctly orders the three pools of synaptic vesicles, from MOST
common to LEAST common?!
A. release-ready, recycling, reserve
With respect to the four main types of neurotransmitter-dependent ion channels

in the postsynaptic membrane, _____ channels are to EPSPs as ______ channels
are to IPSPs.!
B. sodium; potassium
Autoreceptors are located on the:!

B. presynaptic cell
______________ is the process whereby EPSPs and IPSPs interact to yield a net
result of either excitation or inhibition.!
D. Integration
Hormones and neuromodulators differ from neurotransmitters in that:!

D. they disperse more widely than neurotransmitters.
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CHAPTER 3 TEXTBOOK QUIZ QUESTIONS
Etymology describes the origins of words. Investigate and report on the

etymology of three neuroanatomical terms from this chapter. Does this
knowledge of the terms contribute to your understanding of neuroanatomy, and,
if so, how?!
Using anatomical terms, the nose is ___________ whereas the back of the head
is __________.!
A. rostral; caudal
In anatomical terms, the parietal lobe is considered ____________ to the

temporal lobe.!
D. dorsal
A neuroscientist cuts a brain in half, along the division between the

hemispheres. This cut is called a _____________ cut.!
A. midsagittal
The order of the meningeal layers from the surface of the brain outward is:!
D. pia, arachnoid, dura.
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) does NOT serve to:!

A. circulate chemical messengers throughout the brain.
The limbic system does NOT include the:!

D. cerebellum.
With respect to its location, the telencephalon is ____________ to the

diencephalon.!
C. dorsal
The division of the brain that surrounds the cerebral aqueduct is the:!
D.mesencephalon
After a motor vehicle accident, Alex has difficulty walking. He feels unbalanced
and his movements are poorly coordinated. He MOST likely sustained damage
to the:!
D. cerebellum.
With respect to the regions of the vertebral column, chest is to neck as ______ is
to _____.!
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B. thoracic; cervical
Information from the fingertips is sent to the spinal cord via ___________ axons.!
C. afferent
Austin has a terrible fear of public speaking. When he gets up to speak, his heart
races. Afterwards, he calms down quickly. These contrasting reactions are
regulated by the _____________ nervous system.!
B. autonomic
John has a severe snake phobia. He experiences a fight, flight, or freeze

response when he sees one. This reaction is caused by the ____________
nervous system.!
C. sympathetic
The cell bodies of sympathetic motor neurons are located in the gray matter of
the _____ regions of the spinal cord.
A. thoracic and lumbar!
With respect to the peripheral nervous system, several cranial nerves contain the
cell bodies for the preganglionic neurons of:!
A. the parasympathetic nervous system, but not the sympathetic nervous
system.!
The right half of the brain controls the left half of the body. In other words, motor
control is:!
D. contralateral.
The ___________ layer(s) is/are missing from the meninges in the peripheral
nervous system.!
B. arachnoid
The largest ventricle(s) is/are:!

A.the lateral ventricles.
Which lobe is responsible for your ability to see objects in the world?!
A. occipital
Parkinson’s disease results from the degeneration of midbrain neurons that send
axons to a collection of nuclei in the forebrain called the:!
D. basal ganglia.
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The thalamus and hypothalamus belong to the:!

B. diencephalon.
The __________ governs visual reflexes, reactions to moving stimuli, sleep and
arousal, and attention.!
A. mesencephalon
The hindbrain is to the ______ as the midbrain is to the _____.!

B. mesencephalon; metencephalon
The _____ is part of the myelencephalon.!

D. medulla oblongata
The primary functions of the ______ are to distribute motor fibers to the glands
and to collect somatosensory information.!
C. spinal cord
The ___________ nerves serve sensory and motor functions of the eye muscles,
the nose and tongue, and the muscles of mastication.!
B. cranial
A fly is buzzing around Jack’s face. He swats at it. The message to move his
hand was sent from the brain via ___________ axons.!
C. efferent!
With respect to the spinal nerves, afferent is to efferent as _____ is to _____.!

C. incoming; outgoing
Taking notes in class is regulated by the _____________ nervous system.!

C. somatic
Salivation, secretion of digestive juices, and blood flow to the gastrointestinal

tract are governed by the ___________ nervous system.!
D. parasympathetic
During the prenatal development of the nervous system, the center of the neural
tube becomes the ___________, whereas the outside tissue becomes the
___________.!
D. ventricles; brain tissue
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______________ allow newly formed neurons to migrate from the ventricular zone
to their final resting place.!
A. Radial glia
Seven weeks after conception, a period of symmetrical division takes place

during the prenatal development of the nervous system. During this period,
_______________ are produced.!
B. two new progenitor cells
The human brain continues developing until:!

Early adulthood, atleast.!
If a cat is raised in an environment consisting of vertical lines, its brain will

develop without the ability to process horizontal lines. This development shows
the role of ____________ in postnatal brain development.!
A. experience
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1/18/24, 1:07 PM Psyc 2360 exam #1 prep - All units to study for the first exam (1/4) for

Cell structure labeled

Sensory neuron: transmits sensory information to the central

Motor neuron: controls the contraction of a muscle or the

Interneuron: located entirely within the central nervous system.

Detailed cell parts and functions

Cytoplasm: The viscous, semi-liquid substance inside the cell.

Membrane: A structure consisting primarily of lipid (fat-like)

Mitochondria: Double membrane. Contain their own DNA and

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP): The cell’s primary energy

Endoplasmic reticulum: storage reservoir and channel for

Rough: Produces proteins that are either transported out of the

Smooth: lipids produced here.

Lysosome: An organelle surrounded by membrane; contains

Golgi apparatus: Generates and secretes neurochemicals

Cytoskeleton: Matrix of protein strands that give the neuron its

Microtubule: A long strand of bundles of protein filaments

Anterograde: In a direction along an axon from the cell body to

Retrograde: In a direction along an axon from the terminal

Axoplasmic transport: An active process by which substances

Kinesin: Kinesin molecules “walk” like an inchworm down a

• astrocytes – surround neurons and contact blood vessels via

❑ Electrical Potentials of Axons

1. Hyperpolarization: An increase in the membrane

2. Depolarization: Reduction (toward zero) of the

1. Threshold of excitation: The value of the membrane

• sodium channels only open briefly and then cannot

Saltatory conduction: Conduction of action potentials by

• rejuvenated at the nodes of Ranvier

Action potentials generated (or re-generated) at the Nodes of

Spacing of the nodes is optimized according to axon length and

Apoptosis – programmed cell death

Resting potential ≈ -70 mV

Oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells

• Helps the CNS maintain the proper composition of fluids

Axosomatic – on the soma

Axoaxonic – on the axon

• G-proteins can also activate second messengers – enzymes that

Post synaptic potentials

• excitatory PSP – typically related to sodium ion channels (rush of

Terminating the PSP (post synaptic potential)

• reuptake – rapid removal of neurotransmitter from the synaptic

Spatial integration: equal excitatory and inhibitory input will cause

Inhibitory: rest and Stimulation: fight or

• meningitis – infection of the meninges

What dose the Cerebrospinal ﬂuid (CSF) do?!

• Brain is surrounded by CSF.

• CSF supports or ‘cushions’ the brain.

• Provides nutrients, removes waste, helps maintain the blood-

8. 8.vestibulocochlear (hearing, equilibrium)

What dose the Medulla

it reticular activating system –

What dose the Pons do?

What dose the Cerebellum do? cerebral

The Midbrain/ tectum.

Two important midbrain structures:

What is the Hypothalamus?\

What is the Thalamus?

What is the Basal Ganglia?

Our Limbic System…what is it?

• Structures are: Amygda, Hypothalamus, Cingulate cortex,

What are the Major subdivisions of the nervous system?!

Forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain!

Inﬂux of or _ ions result in EPSPs!

The hindbrain is to the __ as the midbrain is to the _.!

With respect to the spinal nerves, aﬀerent is to eﬀerent as _ is to _.!