Re-manufacturing for reuse of steel structures

Bachelor’s thesis

construction engineering

2020

Sicong GE
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ABSTRACT

construction engineering

Author Sicong Ge Year 2020

Subject Re-manufacturing for reuse of steel structures

Supervisor(s) Zhongcheng Ma

ABSTRACT

Re-use is an alternative solution to recycling and remanufacturing,

exploits the potential of existing technologies and services, but also
introduces new business opportunities for existing and newly emerging
companies. The goal of re-use is to support such recovery processes that
result in the same grade of product， Some remanufacturing may be
required even in the case of re-use, but the cost should be generally less
when compared to recycling and it is more environment friendly.

Keywords Re-manufacturing for steel structure. Re-used building.

Pages 52 pages
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CONTENTS

1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................... 3

2 RE-USED PROJECT ........................................................................................................ 4

3 RE-USE STRUCTURE ELEMENTS. .................................................................................. 5

4 RE-USEING FOR STEEL STRUCTURE ............................................................................. 5

4.1 The Barrier of re-using steel. ............................................................................... 7
4.2 Cost implications for structural steel reuse ........................................................ 8

5 RE-MANURFACTURING FOR STEEL STRUCTURE .......................................................... 8

5.1 Identify source building....................................................................................... 9
5.2 Design of Deconstruction .................................................................................... 9
5.3 Design around available stock to minimize overuse. ........................................ 10
5.4 Recondition/Certification .................................................................................. 10
5.5 Re-manufacturing.............................................................................................. 11
5.6 Assembly. .......................................................................................................... 23
5.7 Construction. ..................................................................................................... 24
5.8 Save information. .............................................................................................. 25

6 THE CASE OF RE-MANUFACTING FOR RE-USED STRUCTURE IN EURPE. ................... 25

6.1 Provisions for a Greater Reuse of Steel Structures. .......................................... 26
6.2 NTS building, Thirsk, UK. ................................................................................... 28

7 THE RE-MANUFACTING FOR RE-USED STRUCTURE IN FINLAND............................... 45

7.1 Challenge and opportunities of Remanufacturing of Finnish Reuse Structures in
Finland: ....................................................................................................................... 45
7.2 S-Market, Urjala, Finland: ................................................................................. 46

REFERENCES.................................................................................................................... 51
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1 INTRODUCTION

Soon after humans invented ironmaking, they learned to make steel.

Because steel has better physical, chemical, and mechanical properties
than the original pig iron, it has quickly been widely used. However, due
to technical constraints, the application of steel has always been
restricted by the output of steel. It was not until the industrial revolution
in the eighteenth century that the application of steel developed by leaps
and bounds. Nowadays, the steel is used as building material and widely
used all around the world. Steel is also a well-known recyclable material.
Compared with traditional concrete buildings, steel structure buildings
use steel plates or section steel instead of reinforced concrete, which has
higher strength and better seismic resistance. And because the
components can be manufactured in factories and installed on site, the
construction period is greatly reduced. Steel frames are cost-effective.
Products of specific lengths can be purchased to minimize on-site waste.
The steel does not twist, warp, or crack, so there is no need to select
inferior products, saving time and money. At present, the application of
steel structure buildings in high-rise and super high-rise buildings is
becoming more and more mature, and it has gradually become the
mainstream construction technology, which is the development direction
of future buildings. This thesis discusses the way of reusing steel material
from an old steel structure to factory and re-progress those steel
materials to a new steel structure. And here we especially discuss the re-
manufacturing technology for the reuse of steel structures in Europe.
Traditionally method of recycled steel structure is reheating. However,
Re-heating is cause huge amount of energy waste and unfriendly to
environment. If compare with tradition re-heating method to re-used
steel structure, Re-manufacturing method is environment friendly. There
are a few European companies already apply re-manufacturing in
construction site. For example: 1.NTS building, Thirst, UK. 2.SEGRO
warehouse, Slough 3. HIDROTM office, Timisoara, Romania 4. RWTH
seminar building Aachen, Germany 5. Bus station Schiphol Nord,
Amsterdam, The Netherlands’. Here there is also a re-used building which
was built by re-manufacturing steel structure where is S-Market, Urjala
and located in Tampere.
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2 RE-USED PROJECT

The European Parliament and Council published the revised directive on

waste in 2008, Measures to prevent the negative effects of waste
generation and develop general rules for waste management are
specified. Waste in the directive is defined as "any substance or article
discarded by the holder or intended or required to be discarded".
According to the directive, reuse refers to "any operation that reuses
non-wasteful products or components for its intended purpose.".
Preparing for reuse refers to "inspection, cleaning, or repair and recycling
operations, through which products or product components that have
become waste are prepared so that they can be reused without any other
pretreatment." The definition of "reuse" in the directive is very narrow.
The definition does not cover components that are not wasted but are
used for different purposes. In the first case (the object becomes waste),
the end-of-waste criteria must be met to be successfully reused,
especially “(a) the substance or object is usually used for a specific
purpose, (b) the market or (c) the substance or object Meet technical
requirements for specific purposes and comply with existing laws and
standards applicable to products; (d) The use of the substance or object
will not have an overall adverse effect on the environment or human
health."

Re-use is an alternative solution to recycling and remanufacturing,

exploits the potential of existing technologies and services but also
introduces new ones creating business opportunities for existing and
newly emerging companies. The goal of re-use is to support such
recovery processes that result in the same grade of the product; no
down-grading should occur, and the recovery should be as economical as
possible in terms of money and environmental impacts. Some
remanufacturing may be required even in the case of re-use, but the cost
should be generally much less when compared to recycling by e.g. re-
melting steel. For larger scale re-use to become feasible, consider the
whole life cycle of building elements. Therefore, current technological
and institutional factors as well as existing government interventions and
policies that either promote or (potentially) hinder the re-use of building
components are addressed within the project.

The Re-use project addresses the potential and challenges currently

facing the reuse of elements from existing buildings and design for re-use
in new buildings in order to support sustainable growth by reducing C&D
waste, pollution, natural resources consumption, and the costs of
manufacturing such elements.
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3 RE-USE STRUCTURE ELEMENTS

Returning the structural components back to service in the building

environment is a rather complex process affecting all the parties involved
in the life cycle. The process depends strongly on the size and complexity
of the element or structure that is being re-used. There five categories
from the smallest blocks (e.g. bricks and boards) to whole building
frames.

(Figure 1. The element of re-used)

Building elements of a higher category can usually be divided into several

elements of a lower category. Even though elements of higher categories
are usually more valuable than all their parts taken together, separation
makes sense, because finding the right application for elements of higher
categories can be more difficult. All possible reuse scenarios will have
different impacts on sustainability, meaning that society, environment,
and economy develop together.

4 RE-USEING FOR STEEL STRUCTURE

Contrary to the conventional practice of recycling scrap steel, the reuse

of structural steel in the end of life cycle has significant environmental
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benefits and potential cost savings. Steel has outstanding qualifications in

the circular economy, whether it is a durable material, multifunctional or
recyclable. As a structural frame system, it has the characteristics of
lightness, flexibility, adaptability, and reusability.

(Figure 2. Construction Site. From《A new protocol for reusing structural

steel》)

The process of salvaging steel structures for reuse in another structure

can be divided into several stages:

1. Provide a building for salvaging steel structures for reuse.

2. Establish a business case between shareholders and the company

responsible for demolition.

3. Record the details of the expected repairable steel, such as the service
life of the structure, the preliminary list of steel, whether the component
is damaged, obvious repair and preliminary inspection of obvious
corrosion.

4. The shareholders received the salvaged steel products, grouped them,

and listed them. Through the non-destructive testing of each component,
it can be determined that a single batch of components are taken from
the same original structure, have the same sequence size and structure
function, and have the same material grade. Grouping has a significant
impact on the range of tests required.

5. Check and test members. The test plan includes a combination of non-
destructive testing and optional destructive testing, while organically
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describing conservative assumptions arising from certain material

properties.

6. Sell the material and attach the material property statement of the
holder who keeps the inventory.

7. Completed the structural design and component verification and made

some modifications.

4.1 The Barrier of re-using steel

The reuse of steel building is not a new concept. Indeed, decades ago,
this was more common before it fell, in part because of the constraints of
new development plans and more stringent health and safety
requirements for demolition work, especially at height. Although it is
technically feasible to reuse steel, there are still many obstacles in the
adoption process, whether real or perceived. Based on SCI’s
consultations with the supply chain, the main obstacles to reuse are as
follows:

1. Availability of salvaged parts, especially the required size, volume, and

correct location of reused parts.

2. Issues related to the quality, traceability, and certification of the

regeneration area.

3. Additional costs associated with the use of the recycling section.

4. Lack of supply chain integration, especially through communication

and information sharing between supply chains and trust (and risk
sharing) between companies.

5. Additional time is required in the construction plan to allow the use of

reused steel; usually, additional time will result in additional costs.

6. Salvaging and reusing structural steel is a relatively uncommon

practice, and many organizations do not have the skills or experience to
do so at all.

7. It is considered that salvaged steel is not as good as new steel profile

to some extent.

BIM can overcome several of these barriers by providing certainty about

material properties, traceability, and provenance, and provide a more
cost-effective way to achieve future reuse.
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4.2 Cost implications for structural steel reuse

The cost of reusing steel is uncertain. The risk of delays in project

planning and construction may increase costs. If it can be planned as
early as possible, it will not have any impact on the project plan;
however, this will increase labor costs. Shot blasting of residual steel will
add more costs, which is almost equal to the cost of deconstruction
labor. This has resulted in about 25% higher prices for reuse alternatives,
which is a major obstacle to reuse. Overall, the specific cost should
consider the following aspects:

1. Transportation and handling.

2. Storage.

3. Price of steel element.

4. Premium on rare parts.

5. Connection design

6. remanufacturing operations

7. deconstruction

8. testing and certification

5 RE-MANURFACTURING FOR STEEL STRUCTURE

This part will specifically introduce the specific process of dismantling and
re-manufacturing steel structures. The dismantling and re-manufacturing
of steel structures and putting them into new buildings is a very
complicated process. Although the dismantling and re-manufacturing of
steel structures is not a new concept. Recycled materials are widely used
in the building neighborhoods, but the traditional steel structure
disassembly in the manufacturing method causes a lot of waste of
resources, this part focuses on the new steel structure remanufacturing
process. The process of re-used steel structure as illustration below:
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(Figure 3. Basic steps of re-process from Jonathan Cullen. (2016). 《Steel

reuse in construction》)

5.1 Identify source building

As the illustration of Figure 3, The first step is distinguishing what kind of

building or structure could be considered as source building. Usually, they
are steel frame, column, mechanical fasteners, and beam, etc. The
reusable single section steel either conforms to the specific section size
of the existing structural design or changes the design to accommodate
the available reusable section.

5.2 Design for Deconstruction

Deconstruction design. At present, how to carry out deconstruction

design is the key to circular economy. The key principles of
deconstruction design are as follows:

1. Simplicity: design easy-to-understand building systems and interfaces

and use a limited number of different material types and component
sizes.
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2. Standardization and normalization: design building systems and

materials like the whole building and arrange them in a regular and
repetitive pattern. Use standardized elements whenever possible.

3. Simplify and separate building systems: use a layered approach to

separate building elements with different life expectancy

4. Reduce the number of different types of materials and components;

fewer large components are more durable, easier to disassemble and
more likely to be reused

5. Use lightweight materials and components

6. Use reusable materials: select materials that are inherently durable

and reusable and retain their value through reuse.

7. Identify the remove / connect points and make sure they are still
accessible.

8. Simplify and standardize connection details: This allows efficient

construction and deconstruction and simplifies reuse without
modification.

9. Mechanical fasteners are preferable to chemicals such as sealants and

adhesives

10.Ensure that the structural element information is stored and accessed

safely

5.3 Design around available stock to minimize overuse

After the demolition of the project is completed, the engineer needs to

redesign the new structure obtained from the demolition of the original
building and then return it to the factory for modification. In the design
process, recycled parts should be fully used. Among them, it should be
considered: total planning drawings to make full use of parts and
components, the size of the new structure is best to be similar the old
components to reduce the parts modification procedures.

5.4 Recondition/Certification

If steel is to be reused, it must be the responsibility of someone to prove

its suitability. In some cases, the element may deform, deflect, and
corrode significantly, highlighting parts that are not suitable for reuse. If
good records and drawings show the use of the original steel, the grade
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of the steel can be known to facilitate reuse. If the steel grade is

unknown, the lowest steel grade can be used and the structure can be
designed accordingly, or the steel grade can be determined by tensile
test. The latter will enable the reuse of steel to be used more effectively,
thereby reducing the amount of excess steel added to the building.
Tensile tests require a small number of samples to be cut from the steel
to be reused; their yield strength will then be evaluated. Before
developing low-cost mobile testing, samples need to be sent to testing
organizations for testing in commercial testing organizations. The amount
of testing required is also controversial. If the steel comes from the same
building, the grade may be the same, so the selected samples can be
tested. If steel is purchased from a range of projects, then theoretically
one sample should be tested from each project, which will lead to
increased costs. In general, the contractor will require six samples per 20
tons of steel to be tested if the samples are from the same manufacturing
batch. However, different structural engineers may have different
requirements. Usually, When the steel surface has defects such as rust,
pitting or scratches, the depth shall not be greater than 1/2 of the
negative deviation value of the thickness of the steel, otherwise it shall
not be used.

5.5 Re-manufacturing process of steel structure.

This step is to send the zero construction of the steel structure after the
reassessment to the factory and use the steel structure to modify the size
and other aspects of the production process. The major processes include
thermal cutting with heating, mechanical cutting, and welding.

5.5.1 Flame cutting:

The main principle of thermal cutting is oxidation (combustion). In

flame cutting, the material reaches the ignition temperature by heating
and then burning in a stream of oxygen. During this process, the heating
flame maintains the melting temperature of steel on the top side of the
plate, and heat conduction and convection keep the melting temperature
below the top side of the plate. Heat or flame thermal cutting can be
used to remove or separate welded parts. Thermal cutting includes
oxyacetylene cutting or gouging, arc gouging, plasma and laser cutting.
Usually, when using flame cutting to correct steel structures the
temperature of flame correction should not exceed 650℃, and forced
cooling is strictly prohibited. There should be no obvious scratches on
the surface of the steel after rectification, and the scratch depth should
not be greater than 0. 5mm.

The thermal cutting equipment is a flame cutting machine, and flame

cutting machines are commonly used in several ways such as clamp type,
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backpack type and mount type. The clamp-type cylinder makes the
chucks of the clamping arms on both sides clamp the casting billet. The
backpack type relies on its own weight or the thrust of the cylinder to
directly press the clamping arm on the casting billet to achieve the
purpose of synchronization with the casting billet. It is suitable for wide
slabs and slab continuous casting machines with large width changes. The
mount type is that the cutting gun trolley rides directly on the slab, which
is rarely used. The cutting gun cart is a device used to support and move
the cutting gun. There are two types of cutting gun movement: linear and
swing, which are installed on the cutting car. The speed of the torch
trolley can be adjusted flexibly, with different speeds such as starting cut,
normal cutting, high-speed return, and high-speed approach. The cutting
gun cuts the billet. It consists of a gun body and a cutting nozzle. There
are also many types of cutting nozzles, mainly internal mixing, external
mixing, and internal premixing. The internal premixing type is the best,
with high heating efficiency and long flame core, which is conducive to
high-quality and fast cutting. There is also a cutting nozzle with powder
spray for cutting high-alloy steel and stainless-steel casting billets. The
gas-water distribution system includes various valves, pipelines and
measuring instruments for oxygen, gas, compressed air, and cooling
water. The electric control system of cutting equipment generally adopts
PLC control.

5.5.2 Water cutting:

Water jet cutting can be used to cut almost all kinds of solid materials.
It is a kind of cutting machine using high pressure water flow. Under the
control of the computer, it can carve the workpiece at will, and is less
affected by the material texture. It is a kind of cold cutting without
thermal deformation or thermal effect. It can complete drilling, cutting,
and forming at one time.

The CNC water jet cutting machine consists of five parts: ultra-high-
pressure generator, CNC machine tool, automatic abrasive conveying
system, CNC system, and integral cutting head. Among them, the ultra-
high-pressure generator is the power core of ultra-high-pressure water
jet cutting. It pressurizes the finely filtered water to 300Mpa-400Mpa
(45000psi-60000psi), and then forms a jet at about three times the speed
of sound through the jewel nozzle. The pressure is transformed into
concentrated kinetic energy, to achieve the purpose of cutting any
material.
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5.5.3 Mechanical cutting:

Mechanical cutting includes cutting, sawing (strip saw, circular saw,

grinding wheel saw, etc.) cutting, milling, etc. Cutting is mainly used for
steel plate cutting; sawing is mainly used for cutting various steel sections
and pipes; milling is mainly used for cutting precision parts and weld
groove.

The most used equipment for mechanical cutting is plate shears.

Generally, the maximum shear thickness is about 20 mm, the maximum
tensile strength is 490 MPa and the maximum shear width is 3000mm.
There are two transmission modes of plate shears: mechanical and
hydraulic. Its working principle is to apply a shear force to the material by
mechanical device. When the shear stress exceeds the shear strength of
the material, it will be cut off, to achieve the purpose of separating the
material.

5.5.4 Welding:

Welding is a manufacturing process and technology for joining metals

or other thermoplastic materials such as plastics by heating, high
temperature, or high pressure. Welding is a process in which two or more
of the same or dissimilar materials are bonded and diffused together
through atoms or molecules.

The welding process will produce deformation and welding stress, the
internal stress generated in the welding process and the change of the
shape and size of the weldment caused by the welding thermal process.
The non-uniform temperature field in the welding process and the local
plastic deformation and the structure with different specific volume
caused by it are the root causes of welding stress and deformation.
Welding stress and deformation will affect the function and appearance
of weldments under certain conditions, so they must be considered in
design and manufacturing.

Welding residual stress：

Welding stress is the stress generated by welding of welded

components. The internal stress generated in the weldment during the
welding process and the change in the shape and size of the weldment
caused by the welding thermal process. The non-uniform temperature
field in the welding process and the local plastic deformation and the
structure with different specific volume caused by it are the root causes
of welding stress and deformation. When the uneven temperature field
caused by welding has not disappeared, this kind of stress and
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deformation in the weldment is called transient welding stress and

deformation; the stress and deformation after the disappearance of the
welding temperature field is called residual welding stress and
deformation.

Welding residual stress is the initial stress on the cross-section of the

component that has not yet received the load. During the service process
of the component, it superimposes with the working stress caused by
other loads, causing secondary deformation and redistribution of residual
stress. Not only will it reduce the rigidity and stability of the structure,
but under the combined action of temperature and medium, it will also
seriously affect the fatigue strength, resistance to brittle fracture,
resistance to stress corrosion cracking and high temperature creep
cracking of the structure.

Measurement of welding stress:

The measurement of welding residual stress in components is usually

carried out by experimental mechanical methods, including mechanical
methods and physical methods. Mechanical methods are generally
destructive testing or stress release methods. While releasing stress,
resistance strain gauges, mechanical strain gauges, optical method
measures the corresponding uniaxial strain variables, and the physical
methods are mostly non-alkali tests or non-contact tests, such as X-ray
methods.

(Figure 4. welding residual stress analyzer)

The welding residual stress analyzer produced by Finnish Stressstech

Oy can effectively detect the residual stress of welded components, with
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non-destructive measurement in the whole process, high accuracy, and

fast speed. On-site analysis, non-destructive sampling.

5.5.5 Multiple repair welding:

Due to severe restraint conditions associated with typical weld repairs.

The residual stresses caused by weld repairs can be significantly higher
than those caused by initial fabrication welds. The main difference in
residual stresses between weld repairs and initial fabrication welds is the
repair weld typically subject multiaxial stress state from multiaxial stress
state. while in initial welds typically experiences severe restraints only in
its longitudinal direction. both the through-thickness membrane and the
bending content in the residual stress distribution tend to increase
significantly. The residual stress field on the repair weld is embodied in 3-
D distribution feature, which depends on the repair geometric
parameters, such as repair depth, length and width, and sensitivity to
component geometry such as pressure vessels and pipe components or
plate structures. The repair length has an important influence on the
residual stress distribution. In terms of residual stress, longer repairs are
preferable to shorter repairs.

Investigation of repair weld geometry effects on residual stress

distribution characteristics：

（Figure 5. (a) General arrangement shown circumferential positions of

short and long weld repairs, (b) short repair excavation profile with
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schematic bead lay-up, and (c) position of neutron diffraction and deep
hole residual stress measurement. From《Residual Stresses in Weld
Repairs and Mitigation by Design》）

The University of Michigan conducted an experiment on the effects of

repair welding, The model for residual stress measurement uses a pipe
girth weld model with an outer diameter of 432mm and a thickness of
19.6mm.As shown in Figure 5.(a). The two repair welding arcs are 20º
and 62º, respectively. (b). The depth of weld repair is about 14mm, which
is about 71% of the total thickness. (c.) The measurement position at -
24mm is the weld toe of the repair weld.

*（Figure 6. 3D finite element model for short repair. from《Residual

Stresses in Weld Repairs and Mitigation by Design》）

Fig. 6. shows a 3-D finite element model used in this case (arc length 20º).
The cross-section repair situation is exhibited in Fig 6(a) and (b). As
shown in Figure 6(c), the total 3D model is a quarter, with two symmetry
plane conditions-one plane is Z symmetry and the other is X symmetry.
Symmetry is used to reduce the model size. The deposition temperature
is 1500°C. At this temperature or higher, all material properties remain
constant, but the thermal conductivity is assumed to be doubled to
consider the increase in the convection effect of the molten weld pool.
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*(Figure7. 3D Finite element model for parametric. From《Residual

Stresses in Weld Repairs and Mitigation by Design》)

Figure 7 shows the definition of some parameters the model. The study
of repair weld parameters covers the repair length from 20º to 100º in
angular dimensions (half the actual length in the FE model due to
symmetry), and the repair width from t/2 to 2t (in the FE model due to
symmetry) Half the actual width), the repair depth ranges from t/5 to t,
and the tube diameter to thickness radio r/t ranges from 2.8 to 12. By
using the decomposed through-thickness membrane and bending stress,
the influence of various repair parameters on the residual stress
characteristics can be further characterized.

Repair Depth Effect:

Consider five repair depths to study the effect of repair depth on residual
stress distribution characteristics. The repair depth ranges from 0.2t
shallow repair to full thickness (1t) deep repair. The depth of each repair
weld metal is assumed to be 0.2t. r is the radius of the pipe.
(1). Thin Pipe r/t=12
as the figure 8 shown the contour plots of residual stress distribution for
the thin shell r/t=12 repairs, all the hoop residual stress is dominantly
tensile in the outer section of the repair area for all 5 repair cases. On the
inner surface, as the repair depth increases, the circumferential residual
stress will change from higher. Regarding the axial residual stress, the
overall trend is like the hoop residual stress. When the repair depth is
shallow (0.2t), the axial residual stress on the inner surface is slightly
stretched and compressed in the middle part. As the depth of repair
increases, the tension of the axial residual stress on the inner surface and
the intermediate surface becomes higher and higher.
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*(Figure 8. Repair depth effect. From《Residual Stresses in Weld Repairs

and Mitigation by Design》)

(2) Thick Pipe r/t=2.8

Considering an extreme case, the r/t ratio of the pipeline is 2.8 for further
research on the effect of repair depth on the residual stress distribution.
Due to the difference in the r/t ratio, the absolute repair length
measured in arc length is much shorter than in the previous case, even if
the repaired angular span length remains 10o. The stress of the hoop and
the axial membrane increases as the depth of repair increases from
shallow repair (0.2t) to mid-depth repair (0.6t), and the bending stress
component tends to decrease. After the repair depth reaches 0.6t or
higher, while keeping the membrane stress and bending stress relatively
stable.

Repair Length Effect:

Repair length is another important parameter that has a significant
impact on residual stress. The same 3Dsolid models were used for
analysis, and three different repair lengths were considered, 20o, 50o
and 100o, respectively.
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(1). Thin Pipe r/t=12：

*（Figure 9. Repair length effect. From《Residual Stresses in Weld

Repairs and Mitigation by Design》）
Figure 9 shows the contour map of the residual stress distribution under
three different repair lengths. It can be seen from the example of the
repair length of 20o that the residual stress in the middle part of the
repair is concentrated by the welding end effect. As can be seen from the
50o and 100o examples, isolated weld end effects and relatively invariant
distribution along repair length direction within the rest of the repair
length. As the repair length increases, the membrane stress decreases
and the bending stress increases.

(2) Thick Pipe r/t=2.8：

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*(Figure 10. Repair length effect. From《Residual Stresses in Weld

Repairs and Mitigation by Design》)
r/t ratio of 2.8 is considered here again. As shown Fig 10. Both the 10o
and 25o repair conditions showed higher axial stress. This shows that for
r/t = 2.8 pipelines, 10o and 25o repairs can be classified as short-term
repairs. Regarding hoop stress, thick pipes show strong compressive force
at the weld toe, which shows that the constraint conditions are higher
compared to the r/t ratio of 10.

Repair Width Effect:

The effect of repair width on residual stress characteristics is also studied.
Three different repair widths are considered, and the total repair width is
equal to t/2, t and 2t, respectively.

(1). Thin Pipe r/t=12：

As shown in Fig 11, The axial residual stress on the inner surface has
shown the most significant effect, and its magnitude has changed from
low compression to high tension. The outer surface is always subjected to
compressive stress. In the hoop direction, even if the magnitude of the
stress field decreases slightly with the increase of the repair width, the
effect of the repair width is smaller than in the axial direction. As the
repair width increases, the stress value of the upper half thickness
increases, while the stress value of the lower half thickness remains
roughly the same. This is like the repair depth effect.

(Figure 11. Repair Width Effect. From《Residual Stresses in Weld Repairs

and Mitigation by Design》)

(2) Thick Pipe r/t=2.8：

As the repair width increases, the axial membrane stress will increase,
and the axial bending stress will change from the tension on the outer
surface to the tension on the inner surface. Due to the increased radial
stiffness of the thick tube, the axial membrane stress is much larger than
that of the thin tube, while the hoop membrane and bending stress are
relatively insensitive to the repair width.
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The way to mitigate welding stress:

The current failure methods to mitigate stress include vibration aging

(mitigate 30%~50% of stress) and thermal aging (mitigate 40%~70% of
stress) Hawking PT aging (mitigate 80%~100% of stress).

Warm up:

The tailor-welding process of performing integral thermal aging on

important welded components and then combined welding with other
components on site is a commonly used method in the manufacture of
building steel structures. It has the triple functions of removing hydrogen
from the weld, restoring shape, and eliminating stress. It is generally
believed that the stress relief effect of heat aging is more than 40%.

Remelting:

Weld toe defect is a small, sharp, and continuous defect in the weld bead
fusion line that is inevitable. It often becomes the source of structural
fatigue damage. TIG remelting process is often used to repair the weld
toe and reconstruct the weld before the crack. This process reduces the
stress concentration caused by welding toe defects and extends the
fatigue life. At the same time, TIG remelting can also improve the
transverse residual stress in the weld zone; remelting does not
significantly improve the longitudinal residual stress of the weld, and the
absolute value of the residual stress decreases little; but it has a certain
effect on the uniform distribution of the longitudinal residual stress. But
it has a significant improvement effect on the transverse residual stress,
the absolute value of the residual stress drops significantly, and the
distribution tends to be uniform.

Vibration aging:

Vibration stress relief is the alternating stress applied to the component,

which is superimposed with the residual stress on the component to
reach the yield stress of the material, resulting in local macro and micro
plastic deformation. This plastic deformation usually occurs at the
maximum residual stress and the component stress concentration point,
so that the residual stress can be released, and the residual stress can be
reduced and homogenized. Although the VSR equipment does not have
the function of dehydrogenation and restoration of shape, it has reached
or exceeded the level of thermal aging from the comparison of
dimensional stability. VSR is an advanced process to eliminate stress and
improve dimensional stability.

Vibration welding：
 22

Vibration welding is also known as vibration modulated welding and

welding vibration; in the appendix of vibration aging standard, it has been
confirmed as one of the processes that can be combined with vibration
aging. It does not change the original welding process. In the welding
process, vibration welding is formed by injecting vibration with
controllable frequency and amplitude. The vibration amplitude will have
certain effect on the weld pool and heat affected zone

(1) When the weld is in the state of metal melting, bubbles and impurities
are easy to float and remove due to vibration.

(2) Vibration of grains during recrystallization is beneficial to grain

refinement.

(3) When the temperature is higher than 600 ℃, the thermal plastic
deformation accompanied with vibration will reduce and homogenize the
welding residual stress gradually, to reduce the welding deformation and
the formation of welding cracks

Welding stress mitigation equipment：

The welding stress mitigation equipment impacts the weld toe, which can
quickly repair the defects of the weld toe, reduce stress concentration,
and with the effect of its compressive stress zone, it can reduce the
residual stress of the weld to a certain extent without impact; welding
stress; Elimination equipment can impact the weld toe in the direction of
the weld at a frequency of 20,000 times per second, causing it to produce
greater compression and plastic deformation, resulting in a smooth
geometric transition at the weld toe, and greatly reducing stress
concentration; eliminating the surface layer of the weld toe. The micro
cracks and slag defects can cause the premature initiation of welding
cracks, adjust the stress field, and generate a certain value of
compressive stress, so that the weld toe is strengthened, and it has a
significant effect on improving the fatigue life of the welded joint.

Explosive method：

After the explosive is detonated, a continuous shock wave is generated to

align the extensional stress area of the structure with plastic
deformation, to achieve the purpose of stress relief. It is completed in an
instant, suitable for large and super large structures. The explosion
method is an excellent safety measure for stress relief construction, and
it is difficult to apply in urban buildings.
 23

5.5.6 Holing:

The high-strength bolt gusset plate is drilled on the plane by a CNC

drilling machine, the end of the H-shaped steel is drilled with a three-
dimensional CNC drilling machine, and the mounting bolt hole can be
drilled with a radial drill. For components that are difficult to make
holes, holes can be drilled during pre-assembly to ensure the accuracy of
high-strength bolt connection. Before making holes, the columns,
beams, and gusset plates are processed on the end milling machine to
determine the positioning datum, and then marking or drilling on the
CNC drilling machine. When installing the bolt hole marking, use the
marking needle to draw the reference line and the drilling line, and punch
the five-point plum print on the center and the circumference of the bolt
hole, which is convenient for drilling and inspection.

5.6 Assembly.

General requirements for the assembly are carried out on a levelled

platform. Release the assembly sample on the platform and pass the
inspection to determine the assembly benchmark. The steel ruler used
for blanking, assembling, and netting must be qualified by measurement
and inspection, and the ruler must be unified before use, and the
assembly platform must be flat. The assembly of components should be
carried out according to the technological process, and the oil stains and
rust within the range of 30-50mm on both sides of the weld of the part
connection should be cleaned up, and the metal luster of the steel should
be revealed. When assembling, carefully control the installation position
and angle of each part. For concealed surfaces that cannot be painted
and welded after assembly, they should be carried out before the parts
or components are assembled as a whole and can be assembled after
passing the inspection.

After the components are made, the typical components should be pre-
assembled on a flat platform, and the errors or problems found in the
pre-assembly process should be corrected gradually. The Purpose of pre-
assembly: all production errors or other problems will be corrected after
pre-assembly in the factory. The various conditions in pre-assembly
should be controlled according to the size of the construction drawing.
The centerline of each member should intersect at the center of the node
and be completely in a free state. Forced fixing by external force is not
allowed. The supporting point of a single member regardless of column,
beam or support, there should be no less than two supporting points.
After the pre-installation inspection is qualified, each interface and
component number are identified, the factory layout diagram is drawn,
and the component materials and components are shipped to the
construction site at the same time, so that the site can be assembled as it
is.
 24

5.7 Construction.

This step is to reinvest the steel structure parts after the second
production into the new structure. There are several common problems
in this step:

1. pedestal installation problem:

(1) Problems with embedded parts (anchor bolts): the overall or layout is
offset; the elevation is wrong; the threaded fasteners are not protected.
Directly cause the bolt holes of the steel column bottom plate to be
misaligned, resulting in insufficient thread length.

Measures: The steel structure construction unit cooperates with the civil
construction unit to complete the embedded parts work before the
concrete is poured. Relevant dimensions and firmness must be reviewed.

(2) The anchor bolt is not vertical: the level of the frame column base
plate is poor, the anchor bolt is not vertical, and the horizontal error of
the embedded anchor bolt after the foundation construction is too large.
After installation, the pillars are not in a straight line, and they tend to
sway from side to side, making the appearance of the house unsightly,
causing errors in the installation of steel pillars, and the structure is
affected by force, which does not meet the requirements of construction
acceptance specifications.

Measures: The anchor bolt installation should insist on first levelling

the bottom plate with the lower adjusting bolts, and then filling it with
non-shrink mortar for secondary grouting. This method is used in foreign
construction. Therefore, fixed anchor bolts such as steel bars or angle
steel can be used for anchor construction. Weld into a cage shape,
perfect the support, or take some other effective measures to avoid the
anchor bolt shifting when the foundation concrete is poured.

(3) Anchor bolt connection problem phenomenon: the column anchor

bolt is not tightened, and the backing plate is not welded to the bottom
plate; part of the anchor bolt with 2 to 3 threaded buttons is not
exposed.

Measures: Welded anchor rods and nuts should be adopted; on the

outside of chemical anchor bolts, fire-resistant coatings and heat
insulation treatment should be thickened to prevent the anchoring
performance from being affected in the event of fire; the observation
data of foundation settlement should be supplemented.
 25

2. Steel structure installation problems:

(1) Pre-control measures for gaps in the foot of the steel column. Before
the steel column is hoisted, the foundation elevation should be strictly
controlled, and the measurement should be accurate, and the foundation
surface should be carefully levelled according to the measured value;
Hole (also used as an exhaust hole), use the steel backing plate to level
up the unevenness of the bottom of the steel column, and place the steel
plate of the column foot support in advance according to the design
elevation, and then adopt secondary grouting

(2) Pre-control measures for steel column displacement. Before pouring

the concrete foundation, use the shaping chuck to clamp the embedded
bolts according to the design position to prevent displacement when
pouring the concrete; the reserved holes of the low steel plate of the
column should be enlarged and the hole position should be determined.
Make reserve holes again.

(3) Pre-control measures for excessive vertical deviation of the column

the steel column should be hoisted in place according to the calculated
hanging point, and a hoisting method of more than two points must be
adopted. The hoisting method should be temporarily fixed to prevent
hoisting deformation; after the column is in place Temporary supports
should be added in time; the vertical deviation should be corrected
before fixing.

5.8 Save information.

After the new structure is completed, the steel number information used
in the new structure should be collected and saved to the database.

6 THE CASE OF RE-MANUFACTING FOR RE-USED STRUCTURE IN

EUROPE.

In Europe, there is a project called PROGRESS, which was established in

2017. Its purpose is to prevent waste of resources and reuse of building
 26

materials caused by construction and demolition. By 2020, the goal is

expected to reduce the waste of construction and demolition to less than
70%. The waste discharge reaches 10%, as shown in the figure below

(Figure 12. Target of PROGRESS target. from PROGRESS website)

6.1 Provisions for a Greater Reuse of Steel Structures.

The PROGRESS project is a realistic project in Europe that uses the

concept of reuse of steel structures. The PROGRESS project will provide
methods, tools, and suggestions to reuse steel components in existing
and planned buildings.

(Figure 13. PROGRESS Introduction. from PROGRESS website)

The design concept of the project is especially aimed at the destruction

and reuse design of the envelope, load-bearing frame, truss, and
 27

secondary elements of steel single-story buildings. This type of building

type has a wide range of applicability in industrial, commercial, sports,
exhibition, and warehouse facilities, and shows the greatest potential in
the reusability and feasibility of the circular economy business model,
which is the trend of future steel structure development .

The PROGRESS project will quantify reusable single-story steel structure

buildings from an environmental and economic perspective. Information
on project results will be widely disseminated, especially among
manufacturers, designers, contractors, and researchers.

The PROGRESS project provides a new perspective on the design and

execution of buildings and the manufacturing of building products. They
will no longer be regarded as final products, but as part of a continuous
chain of product ecosystems within the scope of circular economy.
Construction and demolition waste will become new resources to be
considered in future architectural design.

ECCS is responsible for disseminating the results through seminars, ECCS

European design manuals, web presentations and newsletters.

(ECCS: European Convention for Constructional Steelwork: ECCS)

(Figure 14. The progress LOGO. From PROGRESS website)

The total budget of the project is 1,664,994 euros; of which the EU

allocates 998,997 euros. Partners are: VTT-Technical Research Centre of
Finland, Steel Construction Institute(UK), Ruukki Construction
Oy(Finland), Rheinisch-Westfaelische Technische Hochschule
Aachen(Germany), UPT-University "Politehnica" Timisoara(Romania),
ECCS-Convention, and Paul Kamrath Ingenieurrückbau GmbH(Germany).

6.2 NTS building, Thirsk, UK.
(Figure15. NTS building)
1. Project information
Client:
Original designer/fabricator:
Project manager and fabricator:
Structural engineer:
Fabrication drawings:
Steelwork erector:
(Figure16. Erection of the NTS building primary structure)
28
National Tube Stockholders (NTS)
Sever field plc/Fisher Engineering
Cleveland Steel and Tubes (CST)
BHD partnership
Rapid consulting
WHL Building Services Ltd
 29

2. Case Introduction:

As the Client of this project, National Tube Stockholders (NTS), an

expert in providing steel pipes and hollow sections, operates 36000m²
storage facilities in the UK and Ireland, and has nearly 30 years of
experience in the steel storage industry. NTS has established a strong skill
and the main product range includes structural hollow profiles,
mechanical pipes, line pipes and fittings, and hydraulic products, as well
as special pipes for offshore and renewable energy fields.

The Project manager and fabricator，Cleveland Steel and Tubes,

established in 1973, The one of the largest stockholders of steel tubes in
Europe with over 80,000 tons of material held at least 100-acre facility in
North Yorkshire, UK. also, founder members of the multinational Bianco
Group, with associate companies worldwide.

And the business of Cleveland Steel and Tubes mainly involves the
purchase of surplus steel pipes from offshore oil companies and the
natural gas sector and the provision of structural steel pipes to enter the
UK construction market. Cleveland Steel and Tubes has an inventory of
approximately 65,000 tons of pipes in the Thirsk, UK plant. In addition to
inventory, Cleveland Steel and Tubes also provides steel structure
manufacturing services. Cleveland Steel and Tubes’ project
representative National Tube Stockholders manages the reuse project.
Cleveland Steel and Tubes has extensive experience in sourcing
previously used steel structures and is keen to promote the reuse of
structural steel. Cleveland Steel and Tubes is responsible for the overall
management and coordination of the project.

This case study is very rare because the project involved the reuse of a
part of a larger steel structure that was originally designed and
manufactured in 2008, but due to the economic recession, the contract
was cancelled before the structure was transported or erected.

The initial single-story building area was 74,700 square meters, and it was
manufactured for the Irish company Quin Therm. The building will be
shipped to Ireland as a manufacturing plant for the construction industry
to produce PIR insulation materials.

The original building was designed and manufactured by Fisher

Engineering (part of Sever field plc) at its Thirsk factory.
in England. Since the original order was cancelled in 2008, the
prefabricated structure has been stored outdoors in Sever field

Ruins of Thirsk. As the figure 17 shows the status of steel in 2017

(manufactured in 2008)
 30

(Firgure17.The original steelwork (fabricated in 2007-8) in September

2017)

The design of the original building is shown below. In 2013, the

prefabricated steel structure of the building was divided into four parts
(batch) and sold at auction. National Tube Stockholders purchased many
original structural components. The original steel structure will be
converted to a new neighboring factory in Thirsk and used as a National
Tube Stockholders warehouse. It is understood that the other three plots
have also been auctioned and reused.

The structural model of the original building shown in Figure18.

（Figure 18.The structural model of the original building）

 31

The Figure 19 shows the structure of the reused part of the new building.
The new building measures 195m x 60m and includes a double door
frame structure. The column spacing is 7.5m, and the eaves height is
11m. The total construction area is 11,700 square meters. WHL
Construction Services completed the main structure in just three weeks
in the summer of 2017. The long axis of the new building is configured
from NE to SW.

*Figure 19（The structural model of the new NTS building）

3. Design information:

The original design drawings and structural model were obtained from
Sever field. There is no structural calculation for the original design. Sever
field provided more than 200 drawings and identifying all members and
components from the drawings was difficult and time-consuming. Many
components have been hard stamped, which helps the process. Most of
the steel is S355 grade, although some S275 grades are used for base
plates and accessories. Since it is fully traceable to the original drawing, it
can be used directly without testing to determine the performance of the
steel.

3.1 Redesign:

Strengthen the columns along the eastern column line:

In the original building, the east column of the new building (the grid line
BA in Figure 20) is the inner column and therefore need to be reinforced
to limit the deflection tolerances in the new building configuration. This is
achieved by welding the T-section (T 305x152x49 separated from UC) to
all 26 columns (UB 610x229x101) on this grid line.
 32

(As the figure 20 below)

Figure 20. (Strengthening of the columns on grid line BA using a welded

T-piece and the larger base plates)

In addition, the bottom plates of the outer columns AS and BA need to be

redesigned. Original floor design (750x400x25) is reserved for the central
valley line (AW), but the larger substrate is used for the two outer column
lines. The picture below shows the configuration of the base plate and
compression bolts. The foundation depth of the base of the external wall
column is 3.5x2.5x0.6m. Pads on the Center (valley) line of the column Is
2.8x2.0x0.6m deep. As the Figure 21 and Figure 22 shown.
 33

(Figure 21. Column line AS)

(Figure 22. Column line BA)

 34

At the Southern end of the building (portal 26), the original gable wall
was replaced with a portal frame to enable the building to be extended if
required in the future.

(Figure 23. Southern end of the building (grid line 26) showing the
hunched portal and the vertical bracing in the end bay)

the figure of design of the southern (grid line 1) and northern end (grid
line 26) of the new building is shown in next page (Figure 8, Figure 9)
 35

(Figure 24. Elevation of the gable wall structure at grid line 1)

The redesign of structure adds more brace system than before.

(Figure 25. Elevation of the portal frame gable structure at grid line 26)

Next is relevant to cleats (Figure 26), For the New cleats were welded
onto the columns to support the side rails. This was because the original
cleats were for an unknown but non-standard wall cladding system and
did not match the new Tata Steel Trisomy cladding. Some cleats were
also missing. In addition, the original cladding was to be hung horizontally
whereas on the new building, the cladding will hang vertically. The side
 36

rails are a single-span, sleeved system. The rafters had been pre-drilled so
that cleats can be bolted to them to attach the purlins. The new purlins
are double span with sleeves (heavy end bay).

（Figure 26.New cleats to support the cladding rails (grid line AS)）
 37

*（Figure 27. Cladding rail fixed to one of the strengthened columns on

grid line BA）

10 tons and 20 tons of EOTC (Electric Overhead Crane) suspension rails

(UB 610x305x149) are provided on all three lines. In addition, in the east
of the building (Column BA), a steel structure is provided to support the
external gantry crane.
*(Figure 28. Crane rails)

*(On the central column line)

 38

*(Figure 29. Supports for an external gantry crane (grid line BA))

(Figure 30. Crane rail locations)

 39

Coatings：

The original coating on steel products is epoxy resin. After being

manufactured in 2008, the structural members were left outside for
about 10 years and showed significant deterioration, see Figure17. The
steel structure needs to be sandblasted to remove loose and peeling
paint and repaint before installation.

Difficulties were encountered passing the fabricated steelwork through

the automated shot-blaster. This was due to:

• Difficulties with sections with fittings welded to them passing over the
roller conveyor

• Shot becoming trapped in the open sections (and carried out of the
shot-blaster) particularly members with end or base plates.

As a result, about 50% of the structure was cleaned by automatic shot

blasting, and the rest was manually shot blasted.

Shot peening can only remove loose paint. Sandblasting the paint on the
welds can cause problems because the spray welds will not remove the
paint, and after applying new paint to these areas, it will become "wet
and blistering." Therefore, the paint on the weld must be scraped off
manually.

Cleveland Steel and Tubes were able to identify the original paint system
and sought advice from a paint manufacturer about a suitable paint for
over-spraying. A twin-pack epoxy was used to over-coat the original
paint. This was done in Cleveland Steel and Tube’s workshop.

The repainting of the steel structure began in the summer of 2016, as

shown in Figure 31, some of which were repainted (As of September
2017) has shown some deterioration, we will be on the site the building
has been covered and is watertight.
 40

(Figure 31. Central column showing the hunched rafters, eaves struts
(CHS),
purlins and purlin stay. Note the condition of the painted steelwork in
September 2017)

Cladding:

Tata Steel's Trisomy composite panels will be used for the roof and wall
cladding of the new building.

The drill is drilled to fix the cleats, and these are used for the new purlin.
Re-drill the gutter support brackets to adapt to the different gutter
systems on the new building and fix new cleats on the columns on the
grid lines AS and BA.
 41

(Figure32. Fully erected structure as of September 2017)

(Figure33. Cladding of the building January 2018)

 42

4.Missing and redundant steelwork:

All tubular support members are missing at the time of purchase, so they
must be replaced with new one’s member. Use API tubes; these are
purchased and manufactured by CST.

5.Planning and CE marking:

The planning application (Hambleton District Council application

16/01953/DCN) is only filed after the frame is purchased at the auction.
The application was proposed by NTS in February 2017. The license was
granted in September 2017.

6.Cost:

In the early design phase of any project, cost models, benchmarks and
historical cost data are key tools used by cost consultants when
estimating all building elements. At this stage, the basic cost including the
structural frame will usually be expressed as a ratio per square meter
based on the total internal building area (GIFA).

Cost is the basic consideration in selecting structural frame materials and

forms, which is a key early decision in the design process.

Steel has a high market share of approximately 65% in multi-story

buildings, and a review of the latest industry trends highlights the
importance of keeping up-to-date, market-tested cost recommendations
for structural steel products. By considering many key factors and
negotiating with the market and supply chain, it is possible to tailor the
estimate of the structural steel budget quickly and successfully for a
specific project.

Many factors can be considered to have a key impact on the price of

structural steel frames. These "key cost drivers" can be reviewed as part
of the following groups:

• Function, department and building height

• Form, site conditions and complexity
• Location, logistics and access
• Plans, risks, and procurement pathways
 43

(Table 1. Costs for this project have been provided by CST)

Excluding the costs related to the secondary steel structure, facade, and
site management (the shaded items in the table above), the total cost
related to the primary structure is £491,750 or £42 per square meter. In
contrast, as of the second quarter of 2017, the indicative new
construction cost of a large-span high-eave door frame structure was
between £82 and £112 per square meter.

7.Conclusion and case learned:

By studying this large case study, the study shows that economic savings
can be achieved by reusing structural steel. The following are important
factors for the successful completion of this project:

• CST's knowledge and project experience in reusing structural steel

and its commitment to deliver the project.
• Closer to the location where recycled steel will be delivered to the
new building.
• CST has a very professional manufacturing, shot blasting and
spraying process of structural steel.

From the age of use of the steel structure and the commercial
relationship between CST and Sever field plc, a lot of design information
of the original steel structure can be obtained. In addition to obtaining
the original design drawings, CST also purchased an electronic structural
 44

model and sent the model to Rapid Consulting (RC), and asked them to
produce, install and

wrap the drawings. According to CST, this caused many problems,

including:

1. RC merged the contents that were not explicitly required to be

omitted in the original structure and redesigned all the contents
that needed to be added. This does not make the reuse design
concept a reality.

2. RC's new BIM software is not mature enough, there are many
problems, it is impossible to integrate the old model into the new
BIM software. This causes many problems.

3. The new engineering drawing is a combination of the original

engineering drawing and the new engineering drawing, which
makes it complicated to use them in practice. It is difficult to
determine where and which part is necessary.

4. The new BIM software produced hundreds of parts drawings

during the design process, most of which were useless.

5. The original software is not compatible with the original model

and the new model, so some of the part labels on the original
model are not correctly transferred to the new software. This step
requires a lot of extra work to mark the parts in the new model so
that they are associated with the original model.

6. RC did not consider redesigning the original steel structure from

the first principles but focused on modifying specific parts of the
original design in isolation, rather than considering the
construction of the newly designed structure.

Due to there is no steel structure contractor to take the initiative to

work on the project, it wastes a lot of time for CST to find a steel
structure contractor/installer, because many steel structure
contractors are unwilling to sacrifice production efficiency by
processing recycled structural profiles. Explain that a different supply
chain is required to support the reuse of structural steel projects,
rather than trying to incorporate the reuse of steel into the existing
structural steel supply chain.
 45

7 THE RE-MANUFACTING FOR RE-USED STRUCTURE IN FINLAND.

Finland is a country that has been doing very well in environmental

protection and energy saving. Also vigorously develop the concept of re-
used steel structure in construction engineering. Finland generates
approximately 2.2 million tons of construction waste each year. Among
construction waste, about 27% is demolition waste, 16% is construction
waste, and the vast majority (57%) is waste from construction renovation
work. Many building components and load-bearing components are re-
manufacturing or can be reused directly. Of which most of them were
steel structures. When the reusable steel structure is heavy and bulky,
also consumes a lot of energy, the environmental benefits that can be
achieved through repeated use are usually greater.

Reusing steel structures has huge business potential in Finland. If we

assume that 50% of renovation and demolition waste is suitable for
reuse, we end up with a rough estimate for reusable components of
about 172,000 tons. When applying the calculation method used for the
capital to the Tampere area, the corresponding figure would be 40,000
tons, while in Oulu it would be 38,000 tons. It has been estimated that
199,000 tons of construction waste are produced in Turku (V-S liitto,
2017). (from circhubs fi. 2019.《Building components suitable for
reuse》)

7.1 Challenge and opportunities of Remanufacturing of Finnish Reuse Structures in

Finland:

Up to now, there is no significant economic support for the reuse of

building components, due to just little demand for already-used
components and their prices are very low. The element systems used in
buildings have not been designed to be disassembled, which is the
prerequisite for reuse, and most of the Finnish company in the
construction do not have much experience in this area. In real life, most
of the disassembling components need manually. the higher labor costs
involved when compared to the use of new materials also curb the
enthusiasm for reuse of materials. There are no professional large-scale,
reused steel structure companies in Finland. The problem of reusable
steel structure construction waste involves costs and inconsistencies in
 46

the quality and quantity of waste. The difference in room height and
structure also makes the concept of reuse difficult.

7.2 S-Market, Urjala, Finland:

Client: SOK Pirkanmaa

Contractor: Rakennusliike Ari Hiltunen
Architect: Seppo Kangasniemi
Structural Engineer: Tamratek Oy / Aulis Virtanen
Construction year: year 2009
Construction cost: about 2 million euros

*(Figure34.S-market, Urjala)

Project description:

Before introducing the project, let us briefly understand the contractor of

the project. Rakennusliike Ari Hiltunen, also named Fira Oy. Fira oy was
established in 2002. Fira oy's business includes various new development,
renovation, housing, and pipeline renovation projects. The company has
approximately 300 employees and is headquartered in Vantaa, Finland.
The project of Fira Oy had made include: Fennia Office Building
renovation (2016 – 2017, Kyllikinportti 2, Helsinki), Elisa headquarters
renovation (2015 – 2016, Rajavartijankatu 3-5, Helsinki). Fira Oy became
the contractor of the S-Market, Urjala, in 2009.

The original structure of the project is a discount store covering an area

of approximately 2,000 square meters. The store address is in Tampere,
Finland, SOK. It is planned to transform the store into a Prisma
supermarket covering an area of approximately 10,000 square meters.
 47

At the same time, SOK plans to build a new supermarket of similar size in
Urjala, about 60 kilometers away from Tampere. The decision to design a
new project is to put the old steel structure parts into the new structure
again. The original structure was completed in the 1980s. The main
components of the building are composite RHS columns and RHS steel
trusses. The walls are made of precast concrete elements, and the roof is
constructed in situ with trapezoidal panels, mineral wool insulation
materials and asphalt membranes. The main span of the original
structure is 27 m, and the total height is 6.3 m. The spacing between the
frames is 12 m from centre to centre, and the secondary truss between
the main trusses is 4.5 m from centre to centre. The structure was
dismantled and reassembled between 2008 and 2009. Cross-section of
the new building shown in figure 36.

(Figure 35. Cross-section of the new building).

Re-design process:

The original building is in Tampere, southern Finland. Due to the cold and
snowy climate in Northern Europe, the maximum snow load on the roof
is 1.7 kN/m2. The design process was rather simple. The new location
belongs to the same loading area as the original one and there were no
 48

significant changes in loading codes between the design periods.

Moreover, the original structure was designed according to Finnish
design regulations and it could still be used. The structure passed the
inspection and found no problems, co-operation with local building
authorities was very good. Due to certain changes in fire protection
regulations, it is necessary to design fire protection for steel frames. The
floor plan of the new building is shown in Figure 36, highlighting the
reused parts. Figure 37 shows the installation of the steel frame in the
new location. Figure 38 shows the facade of the new building.

*(Figure 36. The floor plan and the reused part of the new building)
 49

*(Figure 37. Installation of steel frame in new location)

*(Figure 38. the facade of the new building)

Deconstruction and construction process:

As the general contractor of the project, Fira Oy is also responsible for

the demolition of the original structure and the construction of the new
building. Due to the adequate preparation before the demolition, the
demolition process is also very smooth. The quality of most of the
structures is maintained in good condition, with bolts the main truss and
auxiliary truss of the column are easy to remove. The composite column
has a bolted foundation connection, which can also be removed without
failure. The double-core concrete wall element and the base element
(with insulating material) are grouted together, and they cannot be
removed without causing damage. In addition, the requirements for U-
value of walls in the Finnish building design code are different from those
in 1980. The screw-connected trapezoidal roof platform is in good
condition and can be easily reused in new locations. The material of the
original structure roof is hot-dip galvanized sheet, which is reused and
sprayed during the construction of the new building. In addition, most of
the insulation layer is also reused. All wall structures of the new project
are made of double-core concrete members at the lower part and steel
sandwich panels at the upper part. All built from new components.
Because the Finnish code has changed the fire performance of new and
old buildings, the roof truss structure of the new building was fire painted
on-site. Part of the new building has been converted into residence and
storage space, which is composed of new components through re-
manufacturing of steel structure, saving 10% of the total construction
cost.
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Main feature of the project:

1. The columns, main beams and beams in the steel structure are
the main re-used parts.

2. Steel structural components are coated with fireproof layer

during re-use process.

3. New plinth reused from original structure.

4. The reuse of steel structure saves about at least 10% of the total
construction cost.

*（Figure 39.the interior of the new building）

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REFERENCES

(1) Petr Hradil, Asko Talja, Margareta Wahlström（VTT Technical Research Centre
of Finland），Satu Huuhka, Jukka Lahdensivu, Jussa Pikkuvirta（Tampere
University of Technology）. Re-use of structural elements.

(2) circhubs fi. (2019). Building components suitable for reuse.

(3) pbctoday.co.uk. (2019). A new protocol for reusing structural steel.

(4) A. Contreras, S. L. Hernández1, R. Galvan, O. Vega. (2015). The Influence of

Multiple Welding Repairs of Pipelines in Residual Stress Assessment Related to
Stress Corrosion Cracking.

(5) Siva Prasad Murugan. (2015). The Effect of Repeated Repair Welding on the
Corrosion Behavior of Austenitic Stainless Steel and Mild Steel Dissimilar
Weldment.

(6) Jonathan Cullen. (2016). Steel reuse in construction.

(7) Shaolin Song. (2014). Residual Stresses in Weld Repairs and Mitigation by
Design.

(8) WeldsZhongqiu Fu, Ph.D.; Qiudong Wang; Bohai Ji, Ph.D.; and Zhiyuan
Yuanzhou Abstract. (2017). Rewelding Repair Effects on Fatigue Cracks in Steel
Bridge Deck Welds
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