Specifying Sustainable Concrete

Understanding the role of constituent materials

2 SPECIFYING SUSTAINABLE CONCRETE

Contents
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Aggregates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Key guidance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Cements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Specification of concrete to BS 8500. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Admixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Assessment tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Reinforcement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Responsible sourcing: BES 6001. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Environmental Product Declarations


(EPDs) and BREEAM. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Further reading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

About this publication

Concrete’s flexibility offers many opportunities for designers to influence the environmental, economic
and social credentials of their projects, including performance credentials such as fire, durability, acoustics
and adaptability. This publication is intended to assist designers in optimising the sustainable credentials of
concrete through specification.

This guide focuses on concrete, its constituent materials and how the variation of specification can influence
the sustainability performance of concrete. Sustainable characteristics with the greatest scope for influence
through specification include: the performance of fresh and hardened concrete (e.g. strength gain, durability);
embodied CO2; CO2 associated with transportation; responsible sourcing and use of recycled or secondary
materials.

Aspects of sustainability, outside the scope of this document, are addressed in other Concrete Centre
guidance. Readers should refer to www.concretecentre.com/publications for titles including:
Concrete and BREEAM, Material Efficiency, Concrete and Fire Safety, Thermal Mass Explained and Whole-Life
Carbon and Buildings.

Cover image and left: The University College London’s new student centre was awarded an ‘Outstanding’ BREEAM rating. It
uses ground granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBS) and recycled aggregates within its concrete mix. The building fabric is also
highly efficient, with exposed concrete used for thermal mass, helping to regulate temperature and minimise energy use.
Image: Nicholas Hare Architects © Alan Williams Photography
 SPECIFYING SUSTAINABLE CONCRETE 3

Introduction
shortcoming of generalised tools is that – by definition - they are general,
and specific geographical or project constraints may not be accounted for.

A challenge for all assessments is in weighting the different factors which

Whilst the purpose of this guide is to enable the specification of low carbon
concrete that is appropriate to optimising a truly sustainable building
solution, it is now recognised that concrete specification is but a part of
the process. These considerations need to be balanced with other key
criteria required by a life cycle analysis approached on a whole life basis,
taking into account, sustainable engineering design solutions, construction
methodologies, in use operational benefits (such as thermal mass and the
potential for energy conservation), the potential for reuse or repurposing as
well as end-of-life outcomes, all of which are key attributes of the material.
Thus, the focus on embodied carbon becomes an investment decision
considering the whole life of the building, as well as using the material to
its best advantage to save carbon now, whilst even lower carbon concrete
solutions are in development to contribute to the Government’s net zero
commitment.
Concrete’s role in delivering a sustainable built environment through the
performance benefits of durability (long life), robustness (strength and low
maintenance), fire resistance, thermal mass (energy efficiency), acoustic
performance and climate change resilience (flood and extreme weather) –
together with design excellence (potential for a reduced need for applied
finishes) – is increasingly recognised and utilised by design teams in the
delivery of the most sustainable projects and infrastructure.
Concrete is a versatile and natural material and designers can use it efficiently
to deliver structure and other functions of integrated designs. Concrete and
its constituents have other strong sustainability credentials; for example, they
are local to the UK and most are certificated to the highest, most demanding
responsible sourcing standards.
These are among the many sustainability factors that result in designers
choosing concrete. Sustainability is about optimising economic, social
and environmental issues. Many assessment tools and methodologies
have been developed to provide measurement and comparison. The
often have different units of measurement; for example, how does one
compare biodiversity, health and safety and transportation CO2 emissions?
Therefore, it is accepted good practice for designers to not simply follow
a tick box mentality in their use of assessment tools but to understand
the factors and take a holistic and whole-life view of sustainability when
considering their project in a whole life context.
Whole-life thinking calls for a longer-term perspective. Specification decisions
and carbon measurement must consider the operational performance of a
building or structure, its flexibility to adapt to user needs and its recycling at
the end of life, as well as the materials used to construct it.
While embedded carbon from manufacturing processes may be
easier to calculate, it fails to address some critical factors that are of key
importance when assessing the true environmental impact of buildings
and infrastructure over their lifetime. Clients need to have a far greater
appreciation of the fact that buildings must last longer and may have
multiple uses over their lifecycle.
The European standard for concrete BS EN 206 [1] and its UK
complementary Standard, BS 8500 [2] do not contain any provisions for
specifying sustainability. This document aims to provide guidance over and
above concrete codes and standards, to enable the project team to balance
the desire to specify concrete with low environmental impacts whilst
ensuring that its other performance parameters are optimised.
These performance parameters can effect overall environmental impacts,
client and construction programmes, in use benefits and long term
sustainability issues.
Sustainability cannot be separated from performance. Concrete is a
unique material in that the specifier has the ability to directly influence the
constituent parts of the mix to ensure an optimum carbon footprint that
meets the performance criteria and addresses the design imperatives of
resource and energy efficiency within a whole life context, that also address
the precepts of a circular economy.

Key guidance
¢ The balance between the reduction of embodied CO2 of concrete and the design, specification, construction
method and contract programme need to be considered at an early stage.
¢ Only specify responsibly sourced concrete and reinforcement.
¢ Consider specifying strength at 56 days rather than the conventional 28 days, where appropriate.
¢ Specify concrete with a wider range of cement types/combinations selected from Table 1 from
BS 8500-2: 2015.
¢ Use of cementitious additions can both reduce the embodied CO2 (ECO2) of concrete and influence its visual
appearance. When aesthetics are critical, specify the cement/combination to achieve colour consistency.
¢ Specify the strength required from producers with Product Conformity Certification.
¢ Permit the use of admixtures. Admixtures can be used to enhance sustainability credentials and reduce the
ECO2 of concrete, as well as modifying its physical properties.
¢ The specification of recycled and secondary aggregates may not be the most sustainable option.
¢ Permit the use of recycled or secondary aggregates but do not over specify.
¢ BS 8500 already allows producers to use up to 20% of recycled aggregates in many concretes.
¢ Recycled aggregates should generally only be specified when they are locally available, otherwise CO2
transportation impacts are likely to exceed the intended benefits.
¢ Specify the largest maximum aggregate size conducive to achieving efficient placing and full compaction.
 4 SPECIFYING SUSTAINABLE CONCRETE

Specification of Concrete to BS 8500

In the UK concrete is specified in accordance with the European Standard for Concrete, EN 206[1], and the UK
complementary Standard BS 8500[2]. BS 8500 is published in two parts: BS 8500-1, Method of specifying and
guidance for the specifier, and BS 8500-2 Specification for constituent materials and concrete.

For particular applications, reference to alternate standards or specialist Table 1: BS 8500-2: Guidance on the selection of designated concrete in
literature may be an option. For agricultural buildings, BS 5502‑21 and BS housing and other applications
5502‑22 could be appropriate and for maritime works then BS 6349‑1‑4
should be used. BS EN 13369 covers common rules for precast concrete Typical application Designated Recommended
products and there is further information in some individual concrete concrete slump class
product standards. However, BS 8500 is appropriate for most building and Foundation (fully buried)
civil engineering structures in the UK. The standard sets out five standard Unreinforced foundations in DC-1 soils GEN1 S3A)
ways to specify concrete. These are: designed concretes, designated
Reinforced foundations in DC-1 soils RC25/30 S3A)
concretes, prescribed concretes, standardized prescribed concretes and
proprietary concretes. The term ‘concrete mix’ is sometimes used to refer to Unreinforced or reinforced foundations FND2 S3A)
a prescribed concrete but otherwise it is always a ‘concrete’ that is specified. in DC-2 soils
Unreinforced or reinforced foundations FNDxyz S3A)
Designed concretes are for the informed specifier, where the designer in DC-xyz soils
considers all the requirements for the hardened concrete such as strength FloorsB)
and durability to derive the necessary strength class and other properties
Unreinforced floor with permanent finish GEN1 S2
such as cement type, minimum cement content and maximum water/
to be added e.g. screed of floating floor
cement ratio. Normally the designer will assess the exposure conditions and
consider the recommendations set out in BS 8500: Part 1:2015+A2:2019 Unreinforced floor with no permanent GEN2 S2
finish to be added e.g. carpeted
Annex A to determine the concrete properties and minimum cover to
reinforcement required to achieve the structural performance and service Unreinforced garage floor GEN3 S2
life. Due to its inherent durability properties most reinforced concrete is Reinforced house floor RC20/25 S2
designed for a minimum intended working life of at least 50 years, but
Reinforced garage floor with at least RC28/35 S2
often performance of 100 years can be achieved with zero or modest 40mm nominal cover to reinforcement
increases in cover or concrete quality. The longevity of concrete in use is an
Other applications
important sustainability consideration. The flexibility of designed concretes,
makes them suitable for specifying the most sustainable concrete, that Infill to insulated concrete formwork RC20/25C) D)

used above ground

is with the minimum of embodied carbon using low carbon cements or
combinations, together with the option of recycled or secondary aggregate Oversite GEN1 S3
where considered beneficial. Kerb bedding and backing GEN0 S1

The designer’s specification is then passed to the contractor where the Drainage works on DC-1 soils to give GEN1 S1
immediate support
concrete specification is completed with the addition of requirements for
fresh concrete properties, such as consistence. Drainage works on DC-1 soils GEN1 S3
House drives, domestic parking and PAV1 S2
Designated concretes are types of designed concretes that allow scope external paving – no de-icing salt
to be achieved using a range of predetermined mixes, where for a range of
Heavy-duty external paving for rubber- PAV2 S3
applications the specifier only calls up the required designation, e.g. FND2 tyred vehicles
is a concrete suitable for use in ground assessed as ‘DC-2’, Design Chemical A) For trench fill, use S4
Class 2. Similarly, RC28/35 is a designated concrete of C28/35 strength B) Floors with any embedded metal should be treated as being reinforced
class suitable for use in an internal suspended floor. Designated concretes C) Specify a 10mm maximum aggregate size
D) Follow the recommendation of the manufacturer of the insulated
are quality-assured designed concretes that conform to a specification
detailed in BS 8500-2. These concretes have been selected to be fit for concrete formwork system being used
E) When to be placed by hand
their intended use and they can only be supplied by ready-mixed concrete
producers who have third-party product conformity certification. A QSRMC
or BSI Kitemark logo on the delivery ticket provides this confirmation. Prescribed concretes allow the informed designer to specify concrete by
Purchasers can be confident that the concrete will be delivered as specified prescribing the composition. This method is rarely used but is useful where
and ordered, and as the concrete is optimised by the producer it will be the a particular ratio of constituents is required for exposed aggregate concrete
most cost effective, which can often also be the most sustainable. finishes.

Designated concrete is the preferred method of specifying concrete when
working to the NHBC Standards. Guidance entitled Concretes for Housing -
Designated concrete [3] is available from the British Ready-Mixed Concrete
Association (BRMCA).
Designated concretes are not appropriate where concrete needs to resist
the risk of corrosion by the ingress of chloride in such cases the specifier
should specify a designed concrete.
Standardized prescribed concretes are intended for small building sites
where concrete is either mixed by hand or in a small, less than 150 litre,
concrete mixer. They are designated ST and are accepted by NHBC for
some applications. There is no requirement to demonstrate the strength
of ST concrete but BS 8500 Part 1:2015+A1:2019 Annex A provides some
indicative values for the strength class that may be assumed for structural
design, e.g. the highest grade of standardized prescribed concrete is ST5,
where this may be assumed to be at strength class not greater than C20/25.
 SPECIFYING SUSTAINABLE CONCRETE 5

To ensure the ST designation recommendation is safe for the indeterminate
range of materials and site supervision the prescribed cement content is
very high, and the use of ST concretes should be avoided where a ready-
mixed concrete in the form of a designated or designed concrete can be
used. Standardized prescribed concretes have a much higher embodied
carbon than the equivalent designated concrete. The GEN series of
designated concretes are the more sustainable option because the cement
content is optimised to that required for strength.
Table 2: Standardized prescribed and equivalent designated concretes
In practice, for reasonable quality aggregate, RC30/37, RC28/35 and
RC25/30 should be achievable at the minimum cement content with
the use of water reducing or high range water reducing admixtures. This
applies to all cements incorporating not more than 20% silica fume or
limestone, 35% fly ash or 65% ggbs. At higher levels, an extra cementitious
content above the minimum should be expected.
Even with reasonable quality aggregates and high performing admixtures,
an extra cementitious content is likely to be required for RC40/50 concrete
to achieve the required strength.

Since the water cement ratio has a large impact on the strength of the
Standardized prescribed concrete Designated concrete equivalent
concrete, with higher water cement ratios producing lower strength
ST1 GEN0 concretes for the same cement content, the use of water reducing and
ST2 GEN1 high range water reducing admixtures can reduce the cement content
and hence the ECO2, while providing the same strength and improved
ST3 GEN2
durability characteristics.
ST4 GEN3

Optimising strength class

Proprietary concretes are developed by the concrete producer and are
marketed on the basis of their enhanced fresh or hardened properties.
The producer will normally guarantee the performance of these products
and provide test certificates. Proprietary concretes may be covered by
third-party product conformity certification. Proprietary concretes are often
used for high performance applications where the sustainability benefit is
in the reduction in the total material volume used rather than the value per
volume. For commercial reasons the producer may not disclose the exact
composition and is not required to do so by the concrete Standards, EN 206
and BS 8500.
For more information on specifying to BS 8500, refer to How to Design
Concrete Structures to Eurocode 2 [4], published by The Concrete Centre.
A reduction in concrete strength class will typically offer immediate savings
in terms of ECO2 (reduced cement/combination content) for the same
volume, unless limited by minimum cement content specifications. As an
example, a reduction in strength class from C70/85 to C32/40 may reduce
concrete’s cement/combination content by around 150kg per m3 of
concrete, with corresponding ECO2 reductions of around 185 kg of CO2.
For a typical concrete column scenario (applied load of 24000kN and
moment of 500kNm), however, the higher strength class would afford
element size reductions of around 30% (from around 900 x 900mm to 750
x 750mm) and corresponding reinforcement content reductions of about a
third. In addition, there may be potential reductions in foundation size.

Additional aids to specification of concrete include the National Structural The more slender, high strength structural solution may offer potential
Concrete Specification (NSCS) Edition 4 [5] and the National Building economic, environmental and social benefits to the design team, contractor
Specification (NBS) [6]. More details of these resources can be found in and client alike that offset the higher ECO2 per m3 of concrete.
Further Reading (see page 23).
Table 4 illustrates an example case in which three options are considered
compared with a base option. For this building, there is a small net reduction
Specification examples of ECO2 by using higher strength concrete for columns (see option 3
compared with option 2 and option 1 compared with base option). The
Designated concrete example opposite is true for slabs (see option 2 compared with option 1).
For a building with external reinforced vertical elements exposed to rain
(exposure class XC3/4 to BS 8500) with an intended working life of at least Table 4: Comparison of ECO2 for different construction options
50 years, a range of concretes are appropriate depending on the minimum
cover to the reinforcement. These are shown in Table 3. Base Option 1 Option 2 Option 3
Option
Table 3: Designated concretes for exposure class XC3/4 and minimum Concrete class
C32/40 C32/40 C50/60 C50/60
50 years for slab

Concrete class for

Minimum Strength Min Max w/c Designated C32/40 C50/60 C50/60 C60/75
vertical elements
cover (mm) class cement ratio concrete
content Volume of slab
(kg/m3) 2,110 2,110 1,841 1,841
concrete (m3)
20 C40/50 340 0.45 RC40/50
Volume of concrete
1,112 956 956 885
25 C30/37 300 0.55 RC30/37 in verticals (m3)

30 C28/35 280 0.60 RC28/35 Change in nett

0% 1.22% 1.22% 1.78%
≥35 C25/30 260 0.65 RC25/30 lettable area

An allowance for deviations (generally 10 mm for in situ work) is added to Tonnes ECO2 1,369 1,346 1,492 1,477
minimum cover to give nominal covers to reinforcement.
Variation from
100% 98% 109% 108%
base option
 6 SPECIFYING SUSTAINABLE CONCRETE

Assessment Tools
A range of assessment tools exist. Product sustainability tends to focus on embodied impacts whereas the
sustainability of construction systems have a much broader focus over the entire life cycle of the system.
Existing mechanisms and tools to make such assessments are associated with project-level assessments or have
a bias towards environmental issues, rather than incorporating social, environmental and economic aspects
of sustainability. Existing assessment schemes such as the BRE Environmental Assessment Method (BREEAM),
CEEQUAL and the BES 6001 Responsible Sourcing scheme have widespread credibility.

Responsible sourcing Figure 1: The activities of the supply chain covered by the responsible
sourcing standard BES 6001
If any construction product is to be regarded as sustainable it is vital to
establish and provide credible evidence of responsible sourcing and Transport Delivery
production throughout its supply chain.
Materials sourcing Product manufacture
UK concrete producers, particularly those working within the Concrete
Industry Sustainable Construction Strategy, [7], have chosen to provide Energy management
this evidence by achieving independent certification to BRE’s BES 6001 Life cycle thinking
“Framework Standard for Responsible Sourcing” [8].
Ecotoxicity
Based on 2018 data, 91% of all ready-mixed and precast concrete produced
under the sustainable construction strategy [7] was certified to BES 6001. Traceability
The full listing of products certified to BES 6001 is available at Legal compliance
www.greenbooklive.com.
Health and safety management
BES 6001– Framework Standard for Responsible Sourcing
Environmental management
The BRE responsible sourcing standard, BES 6001 [8], first launched in
October 2008, provides a benchmark to compare responsible sourcing Management, measurement
and reporting of:
performance for all construction products on an equal basis.
• Greenhouse gas emissions
• Water usage, waste management
The aim of BES 6001 is to verify that companies manufacture to sustainable • Employee training and skills
development principles using materials sourced from suppliers that • Local community engagement
• Transport and delivery impacts
operate to ethical, social and environmentally responsible principles. This
is achieved largely by manufacturers providing evidence of policies and
Resource use management
embedded management systems for supply chain, quality, environmental
and health and safety management both for their own production Quality management
and their suppliers’ materials throughout the supply chain. Verification
Ethical trading and employee rights
that these management systems are embedded tends to be through
certification to recognised management standards such as ISO 9001 Supply chain
Quality, ISO 14001 Environmental, ISO 50001 Energy and ISO 45001 Health
and Safety.

This tends to give BES 6001 a more comprehensive scope than similar
responsible sourcing schemes that typically focus on evidence of Guidance for specification
traceability/chain of custody. Figure 1 shows activities in the supply chain
which are covered within BES 6001.
Responsible sourcing
Certification to BES 6001 is accompanied by a performance rating of ‘Pass’,
Recommendation: Specify BES 6001 certified responsibly sourced
‘Good’, Very Good’ and ‘Excellent’ depending on the extent of verified
concrete.
evidence of the supply chain activities achieved.

IN 2018 91% OF PRECAST AND READY-MIXED
CONCRETE PRODUCTION WAS CERTIFIED
RESPONSIBLY SOURCED TO BES 6001 WITH >90%
OF THIS AT “VERY GOOD” OR “EXCELLENT” LEVEL.
Benefits of specifying responsibly sourced concrete
Specifying concrete products that are certified to BES 6001 provides
confidence that they are sourced to sound ethical, social and
environmentally responsible principles without resorting to potentially
costly and time-consuming methods of establishing credentials directly
with the manufacturer.
For example, with the current vital importance of reducing carbon and
greenhouse gases, it is compulsory under BES 6001 certification that:
“The organisation shall establish a policy, supported by a documented
management system, for the monitoring and reduction of the GHG intensity
of its operations.” This is not necessarily the case with other responsible
sourcing schemes.
A key benefit from this specification is that accreditation to BES 6001
enables products to gain credits within construction project assessment
schemes, including BREEAM, Homes Quality Mark and CEEQUAL – the
assessment and awards scheme for improving sustainability in civil
engineering and public realm projects.
For example, within BREEAM assessments, it is possible to achieve a range
of credits for materials that are certified as responsibly sourced using a
Responsible Sourcing Certification Scheme (RSCS) score on a scale of 1-10,
provided by BRE, that is then input to a materials calculator. The baseline
default level for BES 6001 to Pass level is 5 but higher levels of BES 6001
performance can move this up to 7, which is currently the highest score
available to any responsible sourcing scheme for new materials. Each
concrete producer’s certificate will be accompanied by its own RSCS
score which can be obtained from the manufacturer or viewed at the
BRE website www.greenbooklive.com
It is important to obtain this score for the products actually used to
maximise credits for concrete products within BREEAM.
Support from the concrete industry
Concrete can demonstrate the highest level of responsible sourcing, based
on the local availability of materials, short supply chains and regulated
management systems. The industry’s high standards, achieved in areas such
as employment rights, waste and environmental management and health
and safety are also highlighted.
BES 6001 was viewed by the UK concrete industry as the most
comprehensive responsible sourcing standard available, measuring the
whole infrastructure of the supply chain. The industry quickly adopted
independent certification to BES 6001 as a measure within its Sustainable
Construction Strategy, launched in 2008 and overseen by the Sustainable
Concrete Forum.
The Sustainable Concrete Forum has published a guidance document,
approved by BRE, which provides interpretations of the requirements in BES
6001 specific to the concrete industry. It gives details of suitable metrics,
benchmarks and improvement targets which the industry has established
and typical examples of policies and management approaches. This
document can be used by concrete producers, as an aid to assessment. The
latest version [9] can be viewed at www.sustainableconcrete.org.uk.
SPECIFYING SUSTAINABLE CONCRETE 7
Precast concrete certification will include the embedded reinforcing steel.
For ready-mixed concrete, the reinforcing steel used on site can also be
certified as responsibly sourced either directly to BES 6001, through the
ECO Reinforcement scheme based on BES 6001 [10] but with additional
requirements or the CARES Sustainable Reinforcing Steel Scheme [11].
Other schemes linked to concrete and responsible sourcing also exist,
including BES 6002, an Ethical Labour Sourcing Standard, which was
established following the Modern Slavery Act of 2015, and PAS 2080
which was designed to specifically address the management of carbon in
infrastructure, including a product’s supply chain and delivery.
Quick Facts
BES 6001 Responsible sourcing
¢ Responsible sourcing is a holistic approach to the sustainable
assessment of materials.
¢ Responsible sourcing of materials to BES 6001 is demonstrated
through an ethos of supply chain management and product
stewardship and encompasses social, economic and
environmental dimensions and is broader than the scope of
many stewardship schemes.
¢ The latest listing of responsibly sourced materials to BES 6001
can be found at www.greenbooklive.com.
¢ Eco-reinforcement is the certification scheme for responsibly
sourced reinforcement steel to the standard BES 6001.
www.eco-reinforcement.org.
¢ An alternative is the UKCARES sustainable reinforcement scheme
www.ukcares.com.
To gain accreditation to BES 6001 the organisation must have as a
minimum:
¢ A responsible sourcing policy and compliance with all relevant
legislation.
¢ A greenhouse gas reduction policy and measures using the
principles of ISO 16064-1.
¢ Policies supported by management systems that cover the
efficient use of resources, water, waste management, life cycle
thinking, transport, training and development and the local
community engagement.
¢ Demonstrate that at least 60% of its constituent raw materials
are fully traceable, covered by documented environmental
management systems that comply with ISO 14001 and
documented Health and Safety systems that is compliant with
local legislation and recorded incidents.
In practice the concrete supply chain generally operates at above
90% regarding these aspects.
For more information download the Concrete Industry Guidance to
Support BES 6001 [9] from www.sustainableconcrete.org.uk.
 8 SPECIFYING SUSTAINABLE CONCRETE

Environmental Product Declarations BRE Environmental Assessment

An Environmental Product Declaration (EPD) is a document that uses Method (BREEAM)
life-cycle assessment (LCA) and other information to report on the
environmental data of products. Standards such as ISO 14025 and BS EN
15804 exist to ensure consistency of format and comparability of data. EPDs
can be verified by accredited third parties so that users have assurance that
the EPD complies with the specific requirements of the standard that has
been applied. The concrete industry has produced generic EPDs to
BS EN 15804 for a range of commonly used precast concrete products and
ready-mixed specifications and these can be used in BREEAM assessments
and for inclusion with BIM software. Manufacturers are also producing
product specific EPDs.
EPDs produced before 2019 may cover all stages in the life-cycle of a
construction material or have a narrower scope covering just the cradle-
to-gate impacts arising from the manufacturing process. It is important
therefore to be aware of this when using them, particularly when working
with multiple EPDs from a variety of sources. This issue is avoided with newer
EPDs produced in accordance with the 2019 version of BS EN 15804, which
requires all stages in the lifecycle of construction materials to be included.
The UK concrete industry’s generic EPDs are a good starting point for
early stage design, for example, the generic ready-mixed concrete
EPD is a C30/37 suitable for all foundations, floors and the majority of
building structures. It covers the complete life-cycle of the product from
manufacturing through to end-of-life and contains a level of cementitious
additions (ggbs and fa) that reflect average UK concrete production by
member companies of the British Ready-Mixed Concrete Association. Later
in the design process when the concrete performance requirements are
known, the use of suitable product specific EPDs from manufacturers may
offer opportunities to further optimise the ECO2 through a greater use of
cementitious additions and other construction efficiencies. Generic and
product specific concrete EPDs are freely available to download at:
https://ibu-epd.com/en/published-epds/
http://www.greenbooklive.com/
BREEAM is a recognised global benchmark for sustainability performance.
It measures performance, against established benchmarks, to evaluate a
development’s specification, design, construction and use. The measures
cover a broad range of factors related to energy and water use, the internal
environment (health and wellbeing), pollution, transport, materials, waste,
ecology and management. The scheme is essentially voluntary, but has
often been referred to in local authority planning guidance as a prerequisite
for publicly funded developments. There are country-specific standards
and international standards for a range of development and assessments
types. In the UK, assessment schemes include BREEAM New Construction,
BREEAM Communities, BREEAM In-use and BREEAM Refurbishment. BREEAM
UK New Construction is used to assess non-domestic buildings, during
design and on completion. BREEAM is updated periodically with the aim of
continuously challenging industry to drive beyond standard practice.
Concrete has been used effectively in many award-winning buildings
that have achieved the very highest BREEAM ratings. Concrete’s versatility
offers construction solutions that provide opportunities to score credits,
either directly or indirectly, in nearly all of the categories of BREEAM
New Construction. Direct credits include those based on the material
specification and selection itself, such as responsibly sourced concrete
with low embodied impacts or high levels of recycled content, but
also the performance of the material in use. Credits scored through the
performance characteristics of concrete include durability, acoustic and
fire insulation and flood resilience. Significant credits are available by
adopting a low-energy and/or passive ventilation strategy - a technique
often made more effective when designed to work with the thermal mass
of concrete. Concrete also offers the potential to score credits for low-waste
construction, ease of recycling, local availability, offsite construction and
cost-effectiveness. For more information, see Concrete and BREEAM [12],
published by The Concrete Centre.

See www.concretecentre.com/EPD for more information on EPD.

White Collar Factory, London is a BREEAM ‘Outstanding’ 17-storey office building that has extensive exposed concrete throughout. This provides the thermal
mass that’s intrinsic to its passive cooling strategy. Image © Timothy Soar
 SPECIFYING SUSTAINABLE CONCRETE 9

Aggregates
Aggregates are the major component of concrete by volume and are inherently a low carbon product. Most are
naturally occurring materials requiring little processing and are usually locally sourced, with the associated benefit
of low transport CO2 emissions. Contact your local concrete supplier to find out about your local aggregates.

The standard BS EN 12620:2002 – Aggregates for concrete [13] does not Table 5: Designated concrete - allowable percentage of coarse CCA
discriminate between different sources of material and permits aggregates
from natural, recycled and manufactured sources. The focus is on fitness for Designated concrete Allowable CCA as a
purpose, rather than origin of the resource. EN 12620 does not discriminate percentage of coarse aggregate
between aggregates, giving a wide selection of potential local aggregates
GEN 0 to GEN 3 100%
available for use. Specifying a precise aggregate can be more carbon
intensive, less economic, and is likely to cause more logistical issues for RC20/25 to RC40/50 20%*
the supplier.
RC40/50XF 0%
In addition to primary aggregates, suitable materials for use in concrete PAV1 & PAV2 0%
include air cooled blast-furnace slag, crushed concrete aggregate (CCA),
manufactured and lightweight aggregates, as well as some by-products FND2 to FND4 0%
from the china clay industry, sometimes referred to as stent. * Except where the specification allows higher proportions to be used.
Note: On larger contracts an increased % CCA can achieve the concrete
The UK leads Europe in recycling rates for hard demolition waste, and
specification, this is usually demonstrated based on proving trials or the
sources of secondary aggregates are utilised by the industry. Primary experience of the specifier.
aggregates are needed and as a resource are abundant. Their extraction is
Since the amount of recycled content permissible in a mix varies
tightly regulated, and sites of mineral extraction are restored, often to an between different designations it follows that the opportunities for
enhanced state, delivering significant biodiversity benefits. including recycled aggregates varies between concrete uses. For example
100% is allowable in GEN1, used for many reinforced foundations. Cross
Total aggregate use in Great Britain is relatively low in comparison with reference Table 5 with Table 1 for more information.
other countries. Annual per capita use of aggregates in GB is approximately
20% below the European average [14].
CCA is also permitted in designed concrete, although no direct guidance is
Depending on the type of recycled or secondary aggregates used, there given on limiting proportions. BS 8500-2 does, however, provide guidance
may be increased water demand and a need to increase the cement on limiting concrete strength and exposure classes for CCA use, as shown
content of the concrete to achieve the specified characteristic strength, in Table 6.
with a consequential increase in ECO2. When assessing the broader
sustainability aspects it will, in many cases, prove to be better if recycled Table 6: Permitted use of CCA in designed concretes
aggregates are used in other applications (in lieu of primary aggregate)
in preference to their use in concrete. Within the UK economy there is Exposure Use of CCA permitted
little evidence that aggregates which could be recycled are sent to landfill XO Yes
or wasted.
XC1, XC2 & XC3/4 Yes
If exposed aggregates are a requirement for a visual concrete finish, the
XD1, XD2 & XD3 Possibly**
architect and concrete contractor should agree the specification; a test
panel of the required finish is recommended. XS1, XS2 & XS3 Possibly**

XF1 Yes

Recycled aggregates (RA) XF2, XF3 & XF4 Possibly**

BS 8500 permits the use of coarse RA and CCA in concrete, providing DC1 Yes
certain quality and performance criteria are met. RA is aggregate resulting
DC-2, DC-3 & DC-4 Possibly**
from the reprocessing of inorganic material previously used in construction,
while CCA principally comprises crushed concrete. **CCA may be used if it can be demonstrated that it is suitable for the
exposure condition.
Clauses 4.3.3 and 4.3.6 of BS 8500-2:2015 [2] and clause A.7.10 of BS 8500-1:
Note: The maximum strength class should be C40/50, unless the CCA
2015 provide guidance on RA and CCA use in designated concrete, as
comes from previously unused concrete of known composition, for
shown in Table 5. example from a precast factory.
This is carried out via testing to prove the resistance to freezing and
thawing (and possibly to chloride ingress) or a proven history of use
(10years+) with no issues.

Provisions for the use of fine CCA and fine RA are not given in BS 8500 but
this does not preclude their use when it is demonstrated that, due to the
source of material, or verified via testing, significant quantities of deleterious
materials are not present and their use has been agreed.
 10 SPECIFYING SUSTAINABLE CONCRETE
Constraining factors for the use of CCA include consistency of supply and
the original source. Due to their inherent variability, testing regimes for
quality control of the RA or CCA aggregates may need to be more rigorous
than for natural/primary aggregates.
Secondary aggregates
Secondary or manufactured aggregates may also be specified for use in
structural concrete. These materials are typically industrial by-products not
previously used in construction. These aggregate types are derived from a
very wide range of materials; many having a strong regional character.
Examples include china clay waste in South West England and air cooled
blast-furnace slag in South Wales, Yorkshire and Humberside.
Materials such as china clay sand and stent have similar properties to
primary aggregates. As such they conform to BS EN 12620:2002 [13] and
their use is well established for fine and coarse aggregate substitution in
concrete. However, it is important to ensure that the aggregates conform
with all requirements of the specification and an appropriate mix design is
used, while an enhanced level of testing may be required.
Guidance for specification
Specification of aggregates
Recommendation: Specification of natural aggregates for concrete,
which may contain up to 20% of recycled content, as permitted
under BS 8500, is a practical alternative to more overly prescriptive
specifications.
Any recycled content used in this approach will be at the discretion
of the concrete producer based on availability and cost (with
aggregates levy and landfill tax in-built to any cost comparison).
Recycled and secondary aggregates
Recommendation: Permit the use of recycled or secondary
aggregates but do not over-specify. When specifying recycled
and secondary aggregates, the factors to balance are resource
depletion, transportation CO2 impacts and implications on
concrete mix design. These are all impacted by availability, and
concrete producers are well placed to ensure the most sustainable
aggregates for each project are used.
Aggregate size
Aggregate size can have a significant impact on the cement content of
concrete; larger aggregate sizes generally requiring lower cement content
for the same or similar strength class.
As an example, the limiting mix design requirements for designated
concretes are given in BS 8500-2: 2015 (Table 6). It should be noted that
each designation class is assigned minimum cement contents (kg/m3)
for different maximum aggregate sizes. For an RC32/40 designation, for
example, the minimum cement content for concrete with maximum
aggregate sizes of 10mm and 20mm is 340 and 300kg/m3 respectively.
Where possible, therefore, reduced ECO2 levels will be achievable by
specifying increased maximum aggregate sizes. It should be noted that
most plants and factories do not stock aggregate sizes greater than 20mm.
Transportation impact from the use
of recycled/secondary aggregates
The UK construction industry is very efficient at recycling hard construction
and demolition waste in non-concrete applications, and there is very little
evidence that any material is being land-filled as waste [15]. Approximately a
third of all UK aggregates used in concrete and other applications are either
recycled or secondary aggregates. Urban regions provide the principal share
of recycled materials and construction and demolition waste.
Given that recycling is already efficiently undertaken, most available
recyclable materials are already in the market and future growth is likely
to be incremental and linked to the future amounts of construction and
demolition activity. As such, primary aggregate extraction is unlikely to
be reduced by further encouragement of use of recycled aggregates on
concrete projects. Overly prescriptive specifications will result in recycled
aggregates being transported longer distances to meet specific project
requirements rather than being used more efficiently in the locations where
the materials are generated. Such a distortion of markets could be less
environmentally friendly than using locally available primary aggregates
due to the related increase in CO2 due to the delivery distances. There will
be no net reduction in primary aggregate use; just increased transportation
of material. As a bulk material road transport is a significant element of
delivered aggregates carbon emissions relative to the typically low per tonne
emissions associated with the extraction and processing of aggregates.
The impact of this is illustrated in Table 7, which provides indicative ECO2
for the extraction and production of virgin and recycled aggregates, as well
as their delivery to site. Table 7 demonstrates that ECO2 values for recycled
aggregates may be higher than for virgin materials if delivery distances
are longer than around 15km (10 miles). As recycling rates are so high, no
tangible benefits in terms of resource depletion will be achieved.
This approach to sustainable aggregate specification is reflected in
a BREEAM New Construction 2018 which has revised its method of
assessment relating to the use of recycled aggregates. The credit now
recognises that local aggregates may be the most sustainable source for a
given location using a new metric linking abundance with the method and
distance of transportation has been introduced.
Guidance for specification
Aggregate size
Recommendation: Do not specify maximum aggregate sizes below
10mm unless necessary.
 SPECIFYING SUSTAINABLE CONCRETE 11

Table 7: Indicative CO2 for virgin and recycled aggregates

Quick Facts
Material and

Cradle to gate

Transport kg CO2/tonne

Total kg CO2/tonne

+/– % CO2
kg CO2 /tonne
delivery distance
The aggregates sector

Virgin aggregates

+58.5km (delivery and return 6.6 2.7 9.3 –

distance by road)

Recycled C&D aggregates compared to the use of virgin aggregates

Used on-site, 7.9 0.0 7.9 –15%

0 km transport

+5km (delivery distance by road) 7.9 0.5 8.4 –10%

+10km (delivery distance by road) 7.9 0.9 8.8 –5% ¢ Primary aggregates are predominantly UK-sourced, their
extraction is tightly regulated and adverse environmental
+15km (delivery distance by road) 7.9 1.4 9.3 0%
impacts – such as noise and dust – are minimised.
+20km (delivery distance by road) 7.9 1.8 9.7 5% ¢ Regulators such as the Environment Agency work closely with
+58.5km (delivery and return 7.9 2.7 10.6 14% industry to ensure the life cycle of a quarry is environmentally
distance by road) positive.
¢ Over 700 sites of special scientific interest are current and
*C&D - Construction and Demolition
former mineral extraction sites. The significant contribution to
UK biodiversity from the minerals sector is being increasingly
recognised.

Guidance for specification
Use of recycled and secondary aggregate
Recommendation: Recycled and secondary aggregates should
only be specified when they are locally available or delivered using
low-carbon transportation. Availability of resource and technical
implications should be discussed with the client and contractor.
Within the current assessment method, discussion with the client
or project code assessor is recommended to prevent unnecessary
penalisation.
¢ Approximately a third of all UK aggregates used in concrete and
other applications are either recycled or secondary aggregates.
Urban regions provide the principal share of recycled materials
and construction and demolition waste.
¢ The concrete industry makes a significant contribution to
biodiversity and nature conservation through the management
and restoration of sites of mineral extraction. The industry
strategy prioritises its actions within quarries and the indicator
reports on the proportion of relevant production sites that
have an action plan relating to site restoration, biodiversity or
geodiversity. The value reported for 2018 is 99.7% against our
2020 target of 100%.
¢ The aggregates sector is a key part of a partnership programme
Nature after Minerals (NAM). NAM has stated that the restoration
of sites of mineral extraction represents the largest expansion
of habit in the UK. The industry’s investment in restoration is
uniquely placed to enable the UK to achieve biodiversity targets
that will directly safeguard the future of 960 priority species. Case
studies, advice and further information can be found at
www.afterminerals.com and www.mineralproducts.org

For more information visit www.mineralproducts.org

 12 SPECIFYING SUSTAINABLE CONCRETE
Cements
‘Cement’ generally refers to the powder component of concrete which, when mixed with water, becomes the
glue-like material, or binder, that allows concrete to set, harden and strengthen. The cement content of concrete is
normally in the range from 10-15% by volume.
Clinker and CEM I
Portland cement, or CEM I, is made by grinding clinker, which comes from
the cement kiln, together with gypsum to produce a fine powder. Most
cements in the UK contain a portion of clinker, and these are the cements
on which BS 8500 is based. Cements containing clinker as the key binding
ingredient are produced either at the cement factory or at the concrete
mixing plant.
Secondary cementitious materials
or additions
Secondary cementitious materials (SCMs) are materials that may be used
as part of cements. When added at the concrete mixing plant such SCMs
are referred to as ‘cementitious additions’ as they are added to high-
clinker CEM I or CEM II/A cements. SCMs may be naturally occurring with
minimal processing or may arise from wastes or by-products from other
industries. The UK average for cementitious additions across all concretes is
approximately 33%.
The following are cementitious materials or additions permitted in BS 8500.
Ground granulated blast-furnace slag (ggbs)
Ggbs (BS EN 15167-1:2006) is a by-product from the manufacture of iron.
Molten slag is tapped off from the blast furnace during the production
of molten iron. If it is cooled rapidly, the granulated material has latent
cementitious properties; i.e. when water is added, it reacts. However,
the reaction is very slow but when placed in the alkaline environment
created by the clinker component, the reactions are accelerated. The most
commonly used proportion of ggbs in UK-produced cements is 50% by
mass of total cementitious content.
Fly ash
The majority of fly ash used in the UK is a by-product from the burning of
pulverised coal to generate electricity at power stations. When coal is burnt,
the resulting fine ash is captured and classified. Fly ash for concrete (BS EN
450-1:2012) has pozzolanic properties and therefore does not react when
water is added but does so in the alkaline environment created by the
clinker component, where the pozzalanic reactions are initiated. The most
commonly used proportion of fly ash in UK cements is 25% by mass of total
cementitious content.
Natural pozzolana and natural calcined pozzolana
Some naturally occurring clay materials have pozzolanic properties
and react with the clinker component in a similar way to fly ash. An
example is natural pozzolana which is a naturally occurring siliceous
(or silico-aluminous) material found in volcanic deposits. Furthermore,
if these materials are calcined (heated) their reactivity with clinker may
be increased, thus reducing setting times and improving early strengths
(compared with the non-calcined material). However, unlike fly ash and
natural pozzolana, natural calcined pozzolanas are usually limited to 25% of
the total cementitious content, as recommended in BS8500-1:2019, due to
the pozzolanic inactivity that results at higher addition levels. Specification
for the production of these materials as additions for concrete are given in
BS 8615-1:2019.
High reactivity natural calcined pozzolana
High reactivity natural calcined pozzolanas (BS 8615-2:2019) such
as metakaolin may be used to improve durability while potentially
accelerating early setting and strength. For similar reasons to natural
calcined pozzolanas, addition levels are restricted to 15-20 % of the total
cementitious content.
Silica fume
Silica fume (BS EN 13263-1:2005+A1:2009) is a by-product from the
manufacture of silicon. It is an extremely fine powder (as fine as smoke)
and therefore it is used in concrete production in either a densified or
slurry form. Due to economic considerations, the use of silica fume is
generally limited to high strength concretes or concretes in aggressive
environmental conditions. Concretes containing silica fume are more liable
to spalling in fire and therefore care should be taken with the specification
if fire may be an issue. The most commonly used proportion of silica fume
in UK cements is 10% by mass of total cementitious content.
Limestone
Limestone is abundantly available and in powdered form it serves as a very
effective SCM. Powdered limestone (BS 7979:2016) works particularly well in
combination with other SCMs in “multi-component” cements i.e. cements
incorporating more than one SCM type. BS 8500 was recently amended to
make provisions for limestone-containing multi-component cements in
non-aggressive exposure conditions. Wider implementation of limestone
containing multi-component cements will be achieved following the
completion of a UK validation programme in 2021. In BS 8500, limestone
is limited to 20% of the total cementitious content in Portland-limestone
cements (i.e. CEM II/A and C II/A cements) and 15% in limestone-containing
multi-component cements (CEM II/A-M, CII A-M, CEM II/B-M and
CIIB-M cements).

Table 8: Designations of cements and combinations permitted in BS 8500
Broad Composition
designationa,b
CEM I Portland cement
SRPC Sulfate-resisting Portland
cement
IIA Portland cement with 6–20%
fly ash, ground granulated
blastfurnace slag, limestone, or
6–10% silica fumec
IIB-S Portland cement with 21–35%
ground granulated blastfurnace
slag
IIB-V Portland cement with 21–35%
fly ash
IIB-P Portland cement with 21–35%
natural pozzolana
IIB-Q Portland cement with 21–35%
natural calcined pozzolana or
high reactivity natural calcined
pozzolana
IIB+SR Portland cement with 25–35%
of either fly ash, natural
pozzolana, natural calcined
pozzolana or high reactivity
natural calcined pozzolana
IIA-M Portland cement with 12–20%
limestone in combination with
12–20% of either: ground
granulated blastfurnace slag,
fly ash, natural pozzolana,
natural calcined pozzolana or
high reactivity natural calcined
pozzolana (and where the mass
fraction of Portland cement
clinker is not less than 80%)
IIB-M CEM II/A-L or LL in combination
with 6–29% of either: ground
granulated blastfurnace slag
or fly ash (and where the mass
fraction of Portland cement
clinker is not less than 65%)
IIIAd, e Portland cement with 36–65%
ground granulated blastfurnace
slag
IIIA+SRe Portland cement with 66–80%
ground granulated blastfurnace
slag with additional
requirements that enhance
sulfate resistance
IIIBe, g Portland cement with 66–80%
ground granulated blastfurnace
slag
IIIB+SRe Portland cement with 66–80%
ground granulated blastfurnace
slag with additional
requirements that enhance
sulfate resistance
IVB-V Portland cement with 36–55%
fly ash
SPECIFYING SUSTAINABLE CONCRETE 13
Cement types Broad Composition Cement types
(BS 8500) designationa,b (BS 8500)
CEM I IVB-P Portland cement with 36–55% CEM IV/B(P), CIVB-P
natural pozzolana
CEM I, SR0 or SR3
IVB-Q Portland cement with 36–55% CEM IV/B(Q), CIVB-Q
of either natural calcined
CEM II/A-L, CEM II/A- pozzolana or high reactivity
LL, CIIA-L, CIIA-LL, natural calcined pozzolana
CEM II/A-S, CIIA-S,
CEM II/A-V, CIIA-V, Key
CEM II/A–D a There are a number of cements and combinations not listed in this table
that may be specified for certain specialist applications. See BRE Special
CEM II/B-S, CIIB-S Digest 1 for the sulfate-resisting characteristics of other cements and
combinations.
b The use of these broad designations is sufficient for most applications.
Where a more limited range of cement or combinations types is
CEM II/B-V, CIIB-V required, select from the notations given in BS 8500–2:2015+A2:2019,
Table 1.
c When IIA or IIA–D is specified, CEM I and silica fume may be combined
CEM II/B-P, CIIB-P in the concrete mixer using the k-value concept; see BS EN 206:2013,
Cl. 5.2.5.2.3.
d Where IIIA is specified, IIIA+SR may be used.
CEM II/B-Q, CIIB-Q
e Inclusive of low early strength option (see BS EN 197–1 and the “L”
classes in BS 8500–2:2015+A2:2019, Table A.1).
f “+SR” indicates additional restrictions related to sulfate resistance. See
BS 8500–2: 2006, Table 1, footnote D.
g Where IIIB is specified, IIIB+SR may be used.
CEM II/B-V+SR,
CIIB-V+SR, CEM
II/B-P+SR, CIIB-P+SR,
CEM II/B-Q+SR,
CIIB-Q+SR Designation of cements
CEM II/A-M (S-L or Table 1 in BS8500-1:2015+A2:2019 [2] provides details of the cement types
LL), CEM II/A-M (L recommended for UK structures. For most applications and construction
or LL-S), CEM II/A-M
scenarios, BS 8500-1:2015+A2:2019 [2] allows considerable specification
(V-L or LL), CEM
II/A-M (L or LL-V), flexibility in terms of cement type used. However, BS 8500 does not provide
CEM II/A-M (P-L or specific guidance on the relative merits of cements in terms of their
LL), CEM II/A-M (L associated performance and environmental impacts, apart from exposure
or LL-P), CEM II/A-M classes.
(Q-L or LL), CEM
II/A-M (L or LL-Q)
In BS 8500, factory-produced cements carry the ‘CEM’ designation
CEM II/B-M (S-L or (mirroring the cement types from EN 197-1:2011) whereas cements
LL), CIIB-M (S-L or produced at the concrete plant carry the ‘C’ designation, replicating
LL), CEM II/B-M (L the proportions of powder constituents in their corresponding CEM
or LL-S), CIIB-M (L
designations. It is well established that CEM and C cements have equivalent
or LL-S), CEM II/B-M
(V-L or LL), CIIB-M performance; however, C cements (those produced at the concrete plant)
(V-L or LL), CEM are required to follow special conformity protocols (described in Annex A of
II/B-M (L or LL-V), BS 8500-2:2015+A2:2019). C cements use high-clinker CEM I or CEM II/A as
CIIB-M (L or LL-V) base cements in combination with low carbon cementitious additions.
CEM III/A, CIIIA
At many ready-mixed concrete plants, producers typically stock CEM I
or CEM II/A and one or two cementitious addition types to formulate
C cements. When possible and appropriate, specifications should allow
CEM III/B+SRf ,
flexibility and choice to enable the most appropriate, sustainable and
CIIIB+SRf
economic additions to be used.
Embodied CO2 of cements
CEM III/B, CIIIB
Cement plays a significant role in the properties of the concrete but, at
present, also represents the majority of the embodied CO2 (ECO2). The UK
CEM III/B+SRf, cement industry has taken early action on carbon reduction by gradually
CIIIB+SRf using fewer fossil fuels. For over 20 years the cement industry has been
replacing coal with waste derived fuels including bio-based waste. This
fuel switching and the use of mineral by-product and waste has made
significant progress in reducing the ECO2 of cement and means that the
CEM IV/B(V), CIVB UK cement industry hasn’t sent any process waste to landfill since 2012. UK
cement’s production emissions have reduced faster since 1990 than the UK
as a whole [14].
 14 SPECIFYING SUSTAINABLE CONCRETE

The use of waste derived fuels not only diverts waste from landfill and saves Table 10: Embodied CO2 for main constituents of reinforced concrete
on the need for fossil fuels, but can reduce the need for raw materials; for
example, the use of waste tyres provides a fuel and minimises the need to Material Embodied CO2
add iron-oxide to cement due to the steel wire content of the tyres. The use (kg / tonne)
of the combustion ash from fuels and the other waste material means that
Portland cement, CEM I 860
on average a tonne of cement contains around 10% recycled content.
Ground granulated 79.6
Indicative ECO2 values for the main cementitious constituents of reinforced blastfurnace slag (ggbs)
Secondary
concrete are provided in Table 10. Published by MPA Cement, UK Quality cementitious
Fly ash 0.1
Ash Association and Cementitious Slag Makers Association [16], and from materials (SCMs)
the British Association of Reinforcement [14], these figures are derived Limestone 8
using data from 2017/18 and represent ‘cradle to- factory-gate’ values as
they do not consider transport from place of manufacture to concrete Aggregate 2.6
plants. Reinforcement 412

Table 9: Embodied CO2 of typical UK Cements

The use of cement additions does affect the total amount of cementitious
Cement types in BS 8500* Secondary Embodied CO2c binder; yet any increases are typically small. ECO2 reductions for a range of
Main smc content
typical concrete designation types are shown in Table 11.
Constituent Low – High, kg
(smc) or CO2 / tonne
Produced at the Produced at
Addition
cement factory the concrete
mixing plant
Low – High
Content % Guidance for the specification of
CEM I cements
Portland 860
cement Portland Cement clinker is the controlling constituent material in terms of
the embodied CO2 content of concrete. As such, if ECO2 content is critical
CEM II/A-LL or L
Portland 6 - 20 for a given structure, close consideration should be given to the concrete’s
CIIA-LL or L 842 - 721 clinker content but within the context of functional design requirements,
limestone limestone
cement construction practice and ultimate fitness for purpose.

CEM II/A-V When specifying concrete to BS 8500-1:2015+A2:2019 [2], there are

6 - 20
Portland fly CIIA-V 825 - 686
fly ash several strength classes and cement types permitted for selected
ash cement
minimum working lives, exposure classes and nominal covers to normal
CEM II/B-V reinforcement. All of these strength classes and cement types should be
21 - 35
Portland fly CIIB-V 694 - 555 considered by the designer.
fly ash
ash cement

CEM II/B-S
Giving preference to options with low recommended minimum cement
21 - 35 content, and permitted cement types with the highest levels of clinker
Portland slag CIIB-S 712 - 585
ggbs
cement replacement, will directly reduce ECO2 values of concrete.

CEM III/A However, consideration also needs to be given to savings in concrete

36 - 65
Blastfurnace CIIIA 594 - 350
ggbs and reinforcement through structural design solutions, the specification
cement
of higher strength concrete as well as potential savings in construction
CEM III/B timelines. While meeting specified durability requirements, cement
66 - 80
Blastfurnace CIIIB 359 - 232 contents and types may have a significant impact on associated structural
ggbs
cement
and/or other concrete construction criteria and finishing processes.
CEM IV/B-V
36 - 55 As well as giving preference to specific cement types at the specification
Siliceous fly CIVB-V 564 - 381
fly ash stage, consideration may be given to attaching preferred minimum levels
ash cement
of SCMs or additions. For cement IIIA, for example, a preferred minimum
Notes replacement of cement with ggbs of 50% could be stipulated, but should
a For CEM I 1% minor additional constituent (mac) and 5% gypsum is
assumed. For CEM II, CEM III and CEM IV at the highest proportion of be discussed with the supplier.
the smc it is assumed that no mac is incorporated and at the lowest
proportion of smc it is assumed that mac is added at 1% with the Admixture use should be considered as an effective way of reducing
appropriate proportions of limestone, fly ash and ggbs. cement content (see page 18). High range water-reducing admixtures
b For Combinations the CO2e figure for CEM I is used together with the (super plasticizers) typically give water reductions of 16% to 30% without
figures for limestone, fly ash and ggbs in the appropriate proportions.
loss of consistency or final properties; allowing corresponding reductions in
c CO2e figures for CEM II, CEM III and CEM IV and their equivalent
combinations are based on the range of smc proportion, where the cement content or improved strength for similar cement content.
range is from the minimum to maximum proportion of smc or
addition. CO2e can be interpolated for proportions of smc or addition It is important to note that ECO2 values for concrete should not be
between the minimum and maximum, noting that the minimum CO2e considered or specified in isolation. Adopting holistic approaches to
is associated with the highest proportion of smc or addition. sustainability-related decision-making is always advisable; given the
significant impact of cement type and content on a range of key concrete
properties and benefits.
 SPECIFYING SUSTAINABLE CONCRETE 15

Table 11: Effect of cement type on ECO2 content of designated concretes Precast visual concrete can be specified in collaboration with your precast
(cradle to gate). concrete manufacturer. Coloured concrete can also be produced by adding
coloured pigments to the concrete (see Admixtures, page 18).
Concrete Concrete ECO2 (kgCO2/m3)
type (slump
class) CEM I
concrete
30%
fly ash
50%
GGBS Guidance for specification
concrete concrete
Colour
Blinding,
mass fill, strip
GEN1 (S2) 165 120 95 Recommendation: When aesthetics are critical, specify the cement/
footings, mass
foundations combination to ensure colour consistency.

Reinforced RC25/30
295 245 190
foundations (S2) **

RC28/35
Ground floors 295 245 175
(S2) *

Structural:
in-situ,
RC32/40
superstructure, 345 295 220
(S2) **
walls,
basements

Higher strength RC 40/50

405 330 255
concrete (S2) **

* includes 30 kg/m3 steel reinforcement

** includes 100 kg/m3 steel reinforcement

Guidance for specification

Minimising ECO2
Recommendation: Specify that concrete should permit a wide
range of cements from BS 8500-2: 2019, Table 1

Visual concrete
The surface colour of concrete is dominated by its finest particles, which
typically includes cement/combination and sand particles smaller than
around 0.06mm. The colour of cement varies according to the materials
from which it is manufactured. The incorporation of additions such as fly The Angel Building, London used a concrete mix containing 40 per cent
ash, ggbs and silica fume also has a major influence. fly ash replacement, which helped to achieve its dark grey finish. Image
courtesy of AHMM Architects.
Ggbs is off -white in colour and substantially lighter than Portland Cement.
Concretes containing CEM III/B cements are often specified as a more
sustainable and economic alternative to white Portland Cement. Fly ash
is dark grey in colour, resulting from a combination of iron compounds
present and carbon residues left after the coal is burned as part of its
manufacturing process; the shade depending on the source of coal and the
process plant used.

Where aesthetics are critical, the impact of cement/combination type on

concrete colour may dominate considerations of local availability and ECO2
content.

There are many other sustainability benefits gained by using concrete as a

finish. Although visual concrete may have a small cost premium compared
to a standard concrete, considerable savings are made when comparing
the cost including other materials that only provide the finish. Visual
concrete also encourages the exposure of the concrete surface; increasing
operational energy savings in buildings from the utilisation of thermal mass.
The Simon Sainsbury Centre, Cambridge used 50% GGBS in the mix for
the project’s extensive exposed concrete. The building achieved a BREEAM
rating of Excellent. Image © Hufton and Crow.
 16 SPECIFYING SUSTAINABLE CONCRETE
Quick Facts
The cement sector
¢ Over 75% of the cement used in the UK is produced in the UK.
¢ In 2018, carbon dioxide emissions per tonne of production from
all UK cement manufacturing sites were 29% lower than 1990.
¢ The UK cement industry is a net consumer of waste. It sends
zero waste to landfill and uses 1.4Mt of waste and by-products
recycled from other industries [14].
¢ In 2018, 43% of the UK cement industry’s fuel requirement was
from waste derived fuels [14]. The sector is also leading a project
looking at innovative fuel switching technologies as part of the
journey to net zero.
For more information:
¢ MPA Cement (cement.mineralproducts.org)
¢ MPA Cement Sustainable Development Report - download at
www.mineralproducts.org/sustainability
¢ UK Quality Ash Association (www.ukqaa.org.uk)
¢ Cementitious Slag Makers Association (www.ukcsma.co.uk)
¢ Silica Fume Association (www.silicafume.org)
Figure 2: Relative carbon dioxide equivalent of common cements vs alternative cements
-30%
Relative C02e
PORTLAND CEMENT
18% LIMESTONE
30% PFA
CEM I CEM II CEM III
Next-generation cements
The British Standard PAS 8820 has been introduced for alkali-activated
materials (AAMs) suitable for use in UK concrete products. Successful trial
concrete pours have also provided confidence that existing plant can be
used to batch, transport and place novel mixes. Calcium sulfoaluminate
cements are now well-established in Europe for specialist applications,
although the carbon savings are similar to existing composite cements
already widely used in the UK. In the US, Solidia has completed
manufacturing trials of concrete pavers formulated with carbon-cured
(calcium metasilicate) cement. Celitement (calcium hydrosilicate) in
Germany is at the pilot plant production stage with laboratory
testing underway.
An available alternative to innovative cements is to save carbon through
the more efficient use of cement replacement materials. Recent research
has shown that materials such as GGBS, fly ash, calcined clay and
powdered limestone can work better in a multi-component cement.
Combinations such as cement-GGBS-limestone, cement-fly ash-limestone
and cement-calcined clay-limestone potentially enable higher rates of
cement replacement. In 2018 MPA initiated a project to develop new
low-carbon multi-component cements for UK concrete applications,
forming a consortium with Hanson, BRE and Bison Precast. The research
and demonstration are part-funded by the government under the £9.2m
Industrial Energy Efficiency Accelerator programme. Good progress is
being made, with BRE carrying out validation testing of new concretes in
which 65% cement replacement has been achieved. On completion of the
technical programme, recommendations will be presented to BSI
to support standardisation of low-carbon multi-component cements in
BS 8500.
After sequestration
Uncertain
range
-46%
CELITEMENT
50% GGBS
45% PFA
AETHER
SOLIDA
AAM
CEM IV CEM V ALTERNATIVE CEMENTS
 SPECIFYING SUSTAINABLE CONCRETE 17

Early strength development When early strength is important, some compromise on the level
of cement replacement may be needed. In precast factories, rate of
For a given value of 28-day strength, concrete containing additions such as production and turnaround of mould may be important. For in-situ
fly ash and ggbs will exhibit lower relative early age strengths than those concrete, under normal circumstances, the striking times for concretes
containing Portland Cement only. This is because concrete’s early strength containing up to 50% ggbs do not increase sufficiently to significantly
is dependent, primarily, on its Portland Cement content. The table below affect the construction programme. However, concretes with higher levels
provides information on strength gain of different concretes. of ggbs will not always achieve sufficient strength after one day to allow
removal of vertical formwork, particularly at lower temperatures, lower
cementitious contents and in thinner sections. Generally, high (> 50%)
Table 12: Strength gain of different concretes ggbs levels may be less appropriate for soffit applications and thin sections;
particularly during winter months unless the slower strength gain and
Concrete Strength* at 7 days Strength* gain from prolonged striking times have been built into the programme .
28 to 90 days
Water reducing and accelerating admixtures can be added to enhance
CEM I concrete 80% 5-10% early strength (see Admixtures).
30% fly ash concrete 50-60% 10-20%
50% ggbs concrete
To limit any impact on programming, established methods for more
accurately determining in-situ early age concrete strengths and/or
50% fly ash concrete 40-50% 15-30% formwork striking times are available [17, 18, 19]. These include the use of
70% ggbs concrete maturity methods using site-specific or predicted input data; testing of
* Strength as a percentage of 28-day strength site-cured or temperature-matched test cubes; and penetration, pull-out or
These figures are based on standard cure at 20oC. break-off tests.

Using maturity methods, it is understood that concrete strength is a

function of time between casting and testing and the temperature at
Figure 3: Influence of embodied CO2 on early strength which concrete specimens are stored. For a particular concrete, therefore,
it is possible to develop a time-temperature relationship to predict
40 maturity and strength. On-site temperature history can be measured using
% ggbs (35 to 90% by mass) concrete
35 thermocouples or predicted using established models which account
for variables such as cement/combination type and content, section size,
30 1-day strength
ambient conditions and formwork materials. Test cubes, match cured at
3-day strength
25 the same temperature as the element poured, can add relevant data to
Strength MPa

decisions about striking and load transfer times.

20

15 Specialist contractors are able to erect in-situ concrete structures, such as

framed buildings, conventionally (to programme and budget) using low
10
Data set is from 18 concrete
ECO2 concrete mixes. Indeed, using the established assessment techniques
5 mixes with 28-day strengths described above, innovative UK construction teams are presently erecting
ranging from 15 to 70 MPa
high rise structures year-round using average to high Portland Cement
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 replacement levels. Further details may be sourced from CONSTRUCT and
Embodied CO2 (kg/m3)
British Ready Mixed Concrete Association members.

Guidance for specification

Clearly, this relationship could introduce a potential conflict between
demands for achieving low concrete ECO2 values (driven, most likely,
Strength
by architects, consulting engineers or clients) and the achievement of
adequate early strengths to satisfy programming requirements, such as Recommendation: Do not over-specify strength.
timely formwork removal (driven, most likely, by contractors). Specifications
should, therefore, be written to allow flexibility and compromise between Recommendation: Consider the possibility of strength conformity
conflicting concrete attributes. It may be beneficial to involve the at 56 days rather than the conventional 28 days.
contractor at the earliest stage of specification production to assist in
optimising concrete specifications.

It is possible to specify 56 day strength provided this has been considered

in the structural design and the construction programme. The use of 56
day strength specification may have an effect on the striking times for
suspended slabs and vertical elements. Early discussion with the contractor
and concrete producer is advisable.
 18 SPECIFYING SUSTAINABLE CONCRETE

Admixtures Construction site benefits

Admixtures are defined in EN 934-2 [20] as ‘material
added during the mixing process of concrete in a
quantity not more than 5% by mass of the cement
content of the concrete, to modify the properties of the
mix in the fresh and /or hardened state’. In both cases
there are potential benefits for the sustainability
of concrete.
Admixtures are now an essential component of modern concrete, facilitating
environmentally optimised mix design, innovative building design, improved
job site placing and enhanced long term durability of the concrete.
Correct placing, compaction and finishing of concrete during construction
is vital for quality and long term performance. Admixtures can make a key
contribution towards this. For example:
¢ Plasticisers enable a wide range of concrete consistency right up to
self-compacting at different water and cement contents to achieve
optimal workability for the placing situation and reduce onsite labour
and energy required for compaction.
¢ Pumping aids reduce the energy for hydraulic pumps where site
procedures are enhanced by concrete pumping.
¢ Admixtures can be used to achieve viable, good quality concrete where
there may be less than optimal local materials.
¢ Accelerating admixtures can reduce curing times and allow for earlier
removal of formwork and faster strength development.

Modifications to the fresh concrete can significantly improve the handling ¢ Anti-washout admixtures prevent potential environmental hazards.
and compaction of both site placed and precast concrete production,
allowing more efficient and lower energy processes.
Reduced embodied carbon
In the hardened state admixtures can significantly improve the durability
Water reducing admixtures can contribute significantly to lowering the
of the concrete to a range of aggressive environments, extending the
embodied carbon of concrete by enabling lower cement content and
maintenance free service life. The dosage rates of admixtures are so small
optimisation of alternative cementitious material content.
that their own ECO2 is insignificant, but the improvements that admixtures
can bring can contribute specifically to a reduction in the ECO2 of concrete The Cement Admixtures Association (CAA), www.admixtures.org.uk,
and more widely enhance the sustainability credentials of concrete. estimates that, based on normal water reducing admixture use alone
in 2018, current admixture use already saves around 420,000 tonnes of

Admixture types ECO2 per annum and this could be significantly increased by further mix
optimisation.
BS EN 934-2 [20] defines admixture types and their associated performance
The enhanced control of concrete placing efficiency on site allows
requirements depending on the role the admixture is intended to play in
reduction in energy use and associated carbon emissions.
modifying the concrete properties.

Typical dosage rates for and approximate UK usage of admixtures based on

2018 CAA data, are shown in Table 13. Despite the relatively small dosage,
the modifications to concrete properties achievable by admixtures can
reduce the ECO2 of concrete, mainly through the more effective use of
the cementitious component, while maintaining and even enhancing the
properties of the concrete.
In terms of current usage two main types are dominant: water-reducing
admixtures (WRA) and high range water-reducing admixtures (HRWRA) also
referred to as super-plasticising admixtures, however, other types can make
a key contribution to the sustainability of concrete in specific situations
such as freeze-thaw and complex exposure conditions.
Table 13: Typical UK use and dosage rates for admixtures [21]
Admixture Type to EN 934-2 Proportion of Average Dosage
sales by weight % by weight of
cement
Whole life performance and
reduced maintenance
Long term durability and low maintenance/replacement are key factors in
in concrete being a sustainable material. Structures with concrete using
BS 8500 are generally specified to have a 50- or 100-year life, although are
often in service longer. Admixtures help optimise performance through:
¢ Enabling high quality, low permeability concrete
¢ Ensuring good compaction around and bond with steel reinforcement
preserving steel cover and reducing potential for corrosion
¢ Meeting the requirements for concrete performance in difficult
exposure conditions
¢ Enhancing resistance to freeze-thaw conditions using air entrainers.

Superplasticisers 48 0.81*
Guidance for specification
Normal Plasticisers 29 0.50 Admixtures
Accelerating 2 1.36
Recommendation: The use of admixtures by the concrete producer
Retarding 2 0.33 should be permitted in the specification.

Air Entraining (AEA) 2 0.21

Other concrete admixtures 13 –

Notes:
*Dosage based on 40% solution; some super-plasticizers will be sold at
greater dilution with a correspondingly higher dose.
 SPECIFYING SUSTAINABLE CONCRETE 19

Admixtures and improved durability

Quick Facts
performance
When specifying concrete to BS EN 206 [1] and BS 8500 Parts 1 and 2:
Admixtures
2015, consideration needs to be given to the environmental conditions
the concrete will be exposed to. The five main exposure classes defined in
BS 8500 are listed below. Each class has several sub-categories depending
upon the severity of exposure.
¢ XC Exposure class for risk of corrosion induced by carbonation
¢ XD Exposure class for risk of corrosion induced by chlorides other than
from sea water
¢ XS Exposure class for risk of corrosion induced by chlorides from sea
¢ The durability, sustainability and environmental profile of
water
concrete can all be enhanced by admixture use.
¢ XF Exposure classes for freeze/thaw attack
¢ Admixtures provide enhanced concrete quality and deliver cost
¢ DC Exposure classes for chemical attack benefits to both the producer and the user.
Depending upon the exposure condition and the cover, BS 8500 gives ¢ A range of technical guidance for admixture types is available
recommendations for a minimum cement content, maximum water: including:
cement ratio and possible required strength to give the desired design life. ¢ Normal water reducing/plasticizing admixtures
¢ High range water reducing/super-plasticizing admixtures
The use of water-reducing or super-plasticizing admixtures enables a given
strength and/or water cement ratio to be achieved with lower cement ¢ Retardation
content (subject to achieving the minimum cement content). Thus, the ¢ Acceleration
correct use of admixtures can allow concrete to meet the requirements ¢ Air-entrainment
for an exposure class at a lower cement content, reducing the ECO2 while
¢ Water resisting (waterproofing)
enhancing long-term performance.
¢ Corrosion inhibition
Table 14: Designated concrete for freeze-thaw exposure XF3 ¢ Polymer dispersion admixtures
¢ Pumping aids
Exposure Min. Max. w/c Min Min. air Alternative
class Strength ratio cement content designated ¢ Self-compacting concrete
class content, concrete ¢ Precast, semi-dry concrete
kg/m3
¢ Anti-washout / underwater admixtures
XF3 C25/30 0.60 280 4.5 PAV1
¢ Shrinkage reducing admixtures
C40/50 0.45 340 – RC40/50XF ¢ Truck washwater admixtures

The table above indicates how it is possible to meet the requirements for
freeze thaw resistance at lower cement contents by the use air entraining
agents to provide a controlled and stable air content.
Admixture environmental impacts
All admixtures from UK manufacturers are produced under third
party certified ISO 14001 compliant Environmental Management
Systems.

The admixture industry has for many years provided detailed

information relating to environmental aspects of the production
and use of admixtures. More recently, the UK Cement Admixture
Association (CAA) has worked in conjunction with the European
Federation of Concrete Admixtures (EFCA) to produce generic
model Environmental Product Declarations (EPD) independently
verified to EN 15804 for a range of admixtures:
¢ Plasticisers and superplasticisers
¢ Retarders
¢ Hardening accelerators
¢ Set accelerators
¢ Air entrainers
¢ Water resisting

These EPDs can be downloaded from the CAA website and in the
UK are only applicable to members of the CAA. Further guidance
and information on admixtures is available from the Cement
Admixtures Association (CAA),
www.admixtures.org.uk
 20 SPECIFYING SUSTAINABLE CONCRETE

Water Guidance for specification

Water is essential to the hydration of cement, which
enables it to act as the main binder for concrete. Water
management is also an essential part of responsible
concrete manufacture, with industry guidance in place
for best practice.
It is recognised by specifiers and the concrete industry alike that water
needs to be treated as a valuable resource. The concrete industry and its
constituent material sectors committed to the MPA Water Strategy in 2017.
It is based around three main principles:
¢ Minimising water consumption
¢ Prioritising use of the most sustainable water sources available
¢ Protecting the environment through good water stewardship.
Water extraction and responsible
sourcing
Water extraction is an important aspect of responsible sourcing certification
to BES 6001[8] (see page 6). To achieve a primary level of performance the
organisation must establish a policy and metrics for water extraction in
terms of reducing mains water use and the efficient and effective use of
‘controlled groundwater’. Controlled groundwater is defined as all water
abstracted from boreholes and other surface water features which need
an abstraction license known as a ‘Full License’ in the Water Act 2003. To
achieve a higher performance rating in BES 6001 the organisation must
demonstrate external verification of the reported data on water extraction.
Recovered or combined (mixture of recovered and from other
sources) water may be used for both un-reinforced and reinforced
(including pre-stressed) concrete, and its use should be allowed for
at the specification stage.
If its use is proposed, its influence should always be considered as
there may be special requirements for the production of concrete;
for example, air-entrained concrete or concrete exposed to
aggressive environments. As recovered water generally contains
varying concentrations of very fine particles (typically less than
0.25mm), its use in visual or architectural concrete should also be
assessed in detail.
Concrete Industry Sustainable
Construction Strategy
Water is important at many stages of concrete production. It is used
for washing during the extraction of aggregates, as quenching for
GGBS, during the mixing and placing of concrete, for cleaning plant
and in dust suppression measures.
The concrete industry strategy is a commitment to meet the aims
and objectives of the MPA Water Strategy and reports on mains
water consumption and progress and measures to reduce mains
water consumption. In 2008, the base year of data collection, the
value was 86 litres/tonne (including water used in the supply of raw
materials). In 2017, mains water consumption had reduced by 18%
to 70 litres/tonne.

Embedded water Sustainable Water Hierarchy

Concrete’s cradle-to-gate water consumption can be found using the ‘net

freshwater’ category as defined in Environmental Product Declarations
(EPDs), this is often less than comparative building materials, however any
comprehensive comparison should be done at a building level.

For making concrete general suitability is established for water conforming to

BS EN 1008: 2002 [22]. This standard gives guidance on mixing water for concrete
and the use of water recovered from processes in the concrete industry.

Limitations on use of recovered water include additional mass of solid

material (which must be less than 1.0% by mass of the total mass of
aggregates present in the concrete) and any impacts on the chemical and
physical concrete properties such as setting time and strength.

Wash-water admixtures
Specialist admixtures are available that reduce the waste produced at a
ready-mixed concrete plant. At the end of a working day, concrete trucks
need to be cleaned to prevent the build-up of hardened concrete in the
This has been achieved by using alternative sources such as licensed
mixer drum. Traditionally, large quantities of water have been added to the
water abstraction, recycled production water and harvested
mixer, which has then been spun and the detritus dumped in a settlement
rainwater. Water reducing admixtures are now used in most types
pit. An alternative treatment involves incorporating a wash-water stabilising
of concrete. Recent developments in high performance water
admixture into the drum overnight. The admixture stops the hydration
reducers and such innovations as “wash-water admixtures”, which
of the main phase of the Portland cement even after initial hydration has
allow residues in mixer trucks to be treated and reused, have also
started. The following day, the wash-water residue is incorporated into the
contributed. More information and detailed action plans as part
first delivery of the day. The addition of significant volumes of cementitious
of sector Resource Efficiency Action Plans can be found at www.
material activates the hydration reactions. Alternatively, a special activator
sustainableconcrete.org.uk or directly from British Precast or BRMCA.
can be added to the wash-water. Further guidance is available in the BRMCA
guide Best Practice Managing Concrete Plant Water and Wash Water [23].

Reinforcement
All UK produced rebar is sourced from UK recycled scrap metal. This makes
up around 65% of rebar used in the UK market. Almost all of the balance is
also produced via the Recycled scrap metal (EAF) route.
Concrete on its own performs well in compression but
not in tension. Steel reinforcement is used to deliver
tensile capacity where it is needed. Hence reinforced
concrete uses different materials very efficiently. This
minimisation of material use is often taken for granted
but is a major contributor to sustainability.
About half of all concrete cast in Britain is reinforced. Steel reinforcement
should comply with BS 4449: 2005 [24] or BS 4483: 2005 [25] and be cut and
bent in accordance with BS 8666: 2005 [26]. Efficient use of reinforcing steel
is dependent on good structural design and on the material’s chemical
composition, mechanical properties and rib geometry, as well as accurate
cutting, bending and fixing.
The embodied energy values of reinforcing steel are based on the energy
used to melt scrap metal and reform it. Although all steel manufacture is
an energy-intensive process, the energy needed to produce one tonne of
steel from scrap steel is as low as one third of that needed to make one
tonne of steel from iron ore. All the reinforcement made in the UK is made
from recycled scrap steel. Equally, reinforcing steel itself can be recovered,
recycled and re-used at the end of a building or structure’s service life.
Manufacturing of
reinforcement steel
There are two common steelmaking processes used for steel in the UK
market. These are Basic Oxygen Steelmaking (BOS) and Electric Arc Furnace
(EAF) steelmaking. The BOS route is the most widely used steelmaking
process worldwide and involves the smelting of iron ore, coal and other
raw materials in a two-stage process. The EAF production process involves
passing an electric charge through scrap metal, melting it; thus enabling it
to be recycled into new products.
The EAF process normally uses approximately 98% scrap metal as the raw
material. An EAF furnace generally produces 0.5 to 1.0 million tonnes per annum,
making it ideally suited to smaller-scale steel making operations typically used
for the manufacture of reinforcing steel. EAF production sites typically include
specialised rolling mills producing long products such as reinforcing bar.
SPECIFYING SUSTAINABLE CONCRETE 21
Guidance for specification
Reinforcement steel
There are two accreditation schemes in the UK for verifying
the sustainability credentials of reinforcement. CARES, the
certification body for ensuring quality in reinforcement also has
the CARES sustainability certification scheme which quantifies the
environmental impact of the reinforcement. This scheme complies
with BS 8902. Another scheme is the Eco-reinforcement scheme
from BAR. This complies with BES 6001. Both schemes provide
reassurance that the reinforcement specified will be made using the
EAF process from recycled steel and will be responsibly sourced. For
more information on the two schemes, visit https://www.ukcares.
com/certification/sustainable-reinforcing-steel or http://www.
eco-reinforcement.org/.
It is recommended that all steel reinforcement should be obtained
from companies holding a valid CARES certificate of product
approval, as well as certification from one of these two sustainability
accreditation schemes.
Quick Facts
Reinforcement
¢ The combination of reinforcement and concrete utilises tensile
and compressive qualities respectively: an efficient sustainable
solution.
¢ UK-produced reinforcement uses UK scrap steel.
¢ UK-produced reinforcement and most of the imported
reinforcement uses the low-energy EAF process.
For more information visit: UK CARES (www.ukcares.com) and
British Association of Reinforcement (www.uk-bar.org).
 22 SPECIFYING SUSTAINABLE CONCRETE

References
1. BS EN 206:2013+A1:2016, Concrete. Specification, performance,
production and conformity, BSI, 2016.
2. 2a) BS 8500-1:2015 +A2:2019, Concrete - Complementary British
Standard to BS EN 206, Part 1: Method of specifying and guidance for the
specifier, BSI, 2016.
20. BS EN 934-2: 2009 + A1:2012, Admixtures for Concrete Mortar and Grout
- Part 2: Concrete admixtures – Definitions, requirements, conformity,
marking and labelling, BSI, 2012.
21. A Minson & I Berrie, Admixtures and Sustainable Concrete, The Structural
Engineer, Institution of Structural Engineers, Jan 2013.

2b) BS 8500-2:2015+ A2:2019, Concrete - Complementary British
Standard to BS EN 206, Part 2: Specification for constituent materials
and concrete, BSI, 2016.
3. Concretes for Housing, British Ready-Mixed Cement Association
(BRMCA), 2009
4. How to Design Concrete Structures to Eurocode 2 - The Compendium
(Second edition), The Concrete Centre, 2018
5. National Structural Concrete Specification for Building Construction –
edition 4, The Concrete Centre, 2010
6. NBS, RIBA: www.thenbs.com
22. BS EN 1008: 2002, Mixing water for concrete – Specification for
sampling, testing and assessing the suitability of water, including water
recovered from processes in the concrete industry, as mixing water for
concrete, BSI, 2002.
23. Managing Concrete Plant Water and Wash Water, British Ready-Mixed
Concrete Association (BRMCA), 2016
24. BS 4449:2005 + A3:2016, Steel for the reinforcement of concrete –
Weldable reinforcing steel – Bar, coil and decoiled product specification,
BSI, 2005.
25. BS 4483:2005, Steel fabric for the reinforcement of concrete –
Specification, BSI, 2005.

7. Concrete Industry Sustainability Report, The Concrete Centre on 26. BS 8666:2005, Scheduling, dimensioning, bending and cutting of steel
behalf of the Sustainable Concrete Forum, 2020. All reports can be reinforcement for concrete – Specification, BSI, 2005.
downloaded from www.sustainableconcrete.org.uk

8. BES 6001, BRE Environmental & Sustainability Standard Framework

Standard for the Responsible Sourcing of Construction Products – Issue
Everyman Theatre, Liverpool, utilised
3.1, BRE, 2016. ground-granulated blast-furnace slag
(GGBS) as a cement replacement and was
9. Guideline to BES 6001, Concrete Industry Guidance Document to winner of 2014 RIBA Stirling Prize. Image
support BES 6001, Issue 1, MPA on behalf of the Sustainable Concrete courtesy of Philip Vile.
Forum, December 2008.
Download from www.sustainableconcrete.org.uk

10. Ecoreinforcement. www.eco-reinforcement.org

11. CARES www.ukcares.com

12. Concrete and BREEAM, The Concrete Centre, 2015.

13. BS EN 12620:2002+A1:2008, Aggregates for concrete, BSI, 2002.

14. Sustainable Development Report 2019, Mineral Products Association,

2019

15. Survey of Arisings and Use of Alternatives to Primary Aggregates in

England 2005, Construction and Waste, DCLG, 2007.

16. Factsheet 18: Embodied CO2e of UK cement, additions and cementitious

material, MPA, 2019

17. John Reddy, A Decision Making Tool for the Striking of Formwork to
GGBS Concretes (a project report submitted for the award of diploma in
Advanced Concrete Technology), The Institute of Concrete Technology,
2007

18. CA Clear, Formwork striking times of ground granulated blastfurnace

slag concrete: test and site results, Proceedings, Institution of Civil
Engineers, Structures & Buildings, 1994, 104, Nov. 441-448.

19. TA Harrison, Formwork striking times – criteria, prediction and methods

of assessment, CIRIA Report 136, 1995.
 SPECIFYING SUSTAINABLE CONCRETE 23

Further reading
To download or access many of these Case studies of exemplar, sustainable,
publications, visit concrete projects are listed at
www.concretecentre.com/publications www.concretecentre.com/casestudies

Specific titles from The Concrete Centre
that accompany this guide, include:
Concrete and BREEAM
Guidance on how concrete can be used to achieve credits under the
latest version of BRE Environmental Assessment Method (BREEAM)
UK New Buildings.
Material Efficiency
Provides information on the material and resource efficiency of concrete
and masonry at each stage of their manufacture, design, construction
and demolition.
Thermal Mass Explained
Introduction to thermal mass and its advantages which will provide a basic
working knowledge of its function and how best to use it.
Offsite Concrete Construction
Guidance on the benefits of using offsite concrete construction and delves
into details of some of the more common techniques.
Whole-Life Carbon and Buildings
Focus on how the unique attributes of a concrete building, including its
durable structure, which is a fundamental aspect of whole-life performance,
can be used to minimise CO2 emissions.
Concrete and Fire Safety
Explains how concrete construction, which is well suited to the new
performance-based fire safety approach, can minimise the impact of fire
upon a building.
Additional aids to specification
(in more detail)
National Structural Concrete Specification
(NSCS) – Edition 4: 2010
Covering three sections – Standard Specification, Project Specification and
Guidance – this document assists the project team in the specification of
structural concrete and concrete finishes. The fourth edition recognises the
latest standard for responsible sourcing, BES 6001, and, in the final section,
provides guidance on materials for sustainable construction.

Concrete Floor Solutions for Passive National Building Specification (NBS)

and Active Cooling NBS encompasses a range of services provided by RIBA, many via
Details all the various cooling systems currently available, from the simple subscription, to assist in the creation of accurate and up-to-date
passive approach to the more sophisticated active systems. specifications for building projects.
 24 SPECIFYING SUSTAINABLE CONCRETE
Appendix 1
Understanding the carbon footprint
of rebar and mesh used in the UK
Specifying Sustainable Concrete, published by MPA
The Concrete Centre (2020) includes Table 10 (page
14) that provides indicative ECO2 values for the main
cementitious constituents of reinforced concrete.
In this appendix, an alternative methodology for
calculating the embodied carbon of steel reinforcement
is considered.
In the 2020 edition of Specifying Sustainable Concrete, the data referred to a
source from the British Association of Reinforcement, that was associated
with the “best” available EPD data and the value for reinforcement was
stated at 412 kg ECO2 per tonne.
Based on the research, EPD data, industry statistics and expert judgement
explained in this appendix, the weighted mean average carbon footprint
for all rebar used in the UK was found to be 742 kg ECO2 per tonne.
Summary
Buildings’ embodied carbon assessments can be significantly affected by
the accuracy of carbon factors used for different products and elements.
One item often overlooked in the carbon debate is the true carbon
footprint of rebar and mesh used to reinforce concrete. In 2019, the
Inventory of Carbon & Energy (ICE) Database published a beta version
with a new world average for the cradle-to-gate impacts of steel rebar. At
around 1.99 kg CO2e/kg, or 1,960 kg CO2e/t in more recent publications,
the published rebar footprint from World Steel Association is approximately
2.5 to 3 times higher than the carbon factor regularly used in reinforced
concrete environmental product declarations (EPD). Some LCA experts
have also questioned whether it complies with EN 15804, the standard
which sets out the rules and structure of EPDs. Despite this, the World Steel
Association (WSA) rebar factor went on to become the default value in
a very wide range of guidance documents and carbon calculators used
across the construction industry.
The Mineral Products Association (MPA) and UK CARES have sought to build
a more accurate picture of the likely carbon footprint of rebar consumed
in the UK in 2019, 2020 and 2021. This used export/ import statistics from
the International Steel Statistics Bureau (ISSBi), EPD declarations published
by suppliers to the UK market, and expert judgement from professionals
within the rebar sector. Based on the data and statistics available, the
cradle-to-gate carbon footprint of rebar used in the UK was between
667.5 to 844.6 kg CO2e/ tonne. The carbon factor for rebar and mesh in the
reference year (2019) was 742.1 kg CO2e/ tonne.
ISSB statistics also reveal that >50% of reinforcing steel used in the UK
comes from local mills. Around 70 to 80% of all rebar used in the country
comes from the UK or EU, and most of the rest comes from Eastern
Europe and Turkey from predominantly EAF mills. The carbon factor for
international (imported rebar) was around 800.1 kg CO2e/tonne.
1. Background
Embodied carbon calculations can be very sensitive to the nature and
accuracy of carbon factors and data used for different construction
products and components. Standards on carbon footprinting and buildings’
impact assessment, such as EN 15804, have a number of strict requirements
on what data to use and how to deal with different aspects affecting
the quality of data, such as geographic, technological or time-related
representation. EN 15978 and EN 15941ii also have requirements on generic
data use and how problems with data precision or completeness can be
dealt with. Despite this, use of inappropriate embodied carbon data in
databases and calculators is very common in the UK and can sometimes
distort carbon assessments and affect its conclusions.
In 2019, the Inventory of Carbon & Energy (ICE) Database published a beta
version with a new world average for the cradle-to-gate carbon footprint of
steel rebar based on data from WSA. This rebar carbon value can be found
in most carbon calculators used in the UK, such as H/BERT, FCB Studios,
Circular Ecology concrete embodied carbon calculator (Jones, 2020iii),
IStructE’s Structural Carbon Tool, One Click LCA, the National Highways
carbon tool and a number of other calculators and databases. A few
renowned databases, such as Ecoinvent, also include that rebar carbon
value. The WSA rebar carbon value can also be found in publications such
as LETI’s Embodied Carbon Primer (LETI, 2020iv).
MPA assessed the WSA rebar carbon value and found it to be
unrepresentative of the true embodied carbon of rebar used in the UK. This
is due to the following reasons:
¢ Based on advice from rebar experts, the WSA carbon value was based
on data from a group of 27 non-UK manufacturers dominated by
producers from outside the EU. Only one EU-based rebar manufacturer
was included in that average. Rebar consumed in the UK over the last
few years have been dominated by EU and UK-based producers (70-
80%), so the WSA value is unlikely to be geographically representative
of reinforcing steel consumed in the UK and using such value is likely to
go against clause 6.3 of EN 15941.
¢ The WSA average for scrap seems to combine EAF and Direct Reduced
Iron (DRI) processes into one average. The scrap average seems to
include a significantly high proportion of iron ore (World Steel, 2019v),
which does not reflect the true technology coverage for most rebar
used in Europe and is likely to go against EN 15941 requirements on
data representativeness and technology coverage.
¢ Some experts believe that the World Steel carbon assessment
methodology may not be fully aligned to EN 15804 and may include an
element of closed loop recycling allocation to scrap steel within it (see
Figure 1 below).

EN 15804 employs the Modularity and Polluter Pays principles where
impacts are reported in the modules in which they occur. So, impacts from
the previous lifecycle of a metal or plastic material cannot be re-allocated
to its future lifecycle when it is recycled and used in making a new
construction product. Pre-consumer steel mill waste scrap may contain
some impacts from the original steel mill or factory operation if sold as
scrap due to economic allocation with the primary product. But that impact
is likely to be very small (or even negligible due to the vast difference in
price). Post-consumer scrap would not have any impacts from its previous
use. Many experts believe that the method of allocation identified in Figure
1 (known as “avoided burden”) go against EN 15804 and would, therefore,
go against EN 15941 (clause 4.5.2) requirements for generic data.
As noted above, the WSA carbon value went on to become the default
value for a very wide range of guidance documents and carbon calculators.
Several academic papers published in the last three years made conclusions
and findings based on calculations using that international average for
rebar. Both Hawkins et al (2021vii) and Hart et al (2021viii), two of the most
recognised and acknowledged embodied carbon comparative assessment
studies in the last 18 months, used an average for rebar similar or higher
than the one from WSA.
As noted above, the impact of rebar carbon data can be significant:
Changing the rebar footprint data from “European” to a “WSA” option within
the ICE Database concrete carbon calculator increases the Cradle-to-Gate
1.0
0.8
kgC02eq/m2GFA/year
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
Insulation - glass wool Insulation - EPS
SPECIFYING SUSTAINABLE CONCRETE 25
Figure 1. Extract from World Steel Association 2017
LCI Report (World Steel, 2017)vi.
footprint of a reinforced precast concrete ground beam from 186.3 kg
CO2e/ tonne to 249 kg CO2e/ tonne (>33% increase). For a typical C28/35
ready mixed concrete, the rise in the carbon footprint is significantly higher.
The impact of inappropriate background data on studies’ accuracy and
credibility is a well-documented problem. IEA’s Annex 57 report (Birgisdóttir
et al, 2016ix) offers an ideal example where generic data from the widely
used Ecoinvent database was found to have more than double the carbon
footprint of insulation based on a more accurate national average (Norway).
Aim of study
The aim of this report is to offer a more representative estimate of the
average carbon footprint of reinforcing steel consumed in the UK using
best available data on rebar consumption, imports and likely cradle-to-gate
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.
The Mineral Products Association (MPA) and UK CARES, using statistics from
the International Steel Statistics Bureau (ISSB), in addition to published EPD
data and feedback from experts at UK CARES and the British Association of
Reinforcement (BAR), developed an accurate picture of the likely carbon
footprint of rebar consumed in the UK in 2019, 2020 and 2021.
Generic Data - Ecoinvent
EPD Norway Data
Figure 2: Results from IEA’s Annex
57 case study (NO1) where generic
data is compared with the national
EPD data (Birgisdóttir et al, 2016).
 26 SPECIFYING SUSTAINABLE CONCRETE
2. Materials and methods
The study used statistics for the UK’s rebar and mesh consumption from the
ISSB to identify the exact proportions, and countries of origin, for almost
all reinforcing steel used in the construction industry. Data from the ISSB
identify 33 countries of origin for rebar and mesh used in the UK for the
period between 2019 and 2021. For the reference year (2019), there were
23 countries of origin (including the UK).
With help from experts and using Environmental Product Declarations
(EPD) published by manufacturers responsible for most rebar UK imports
from these 23 countries of origin, we developed estimates of the cradle-
to-gate carbon emissions of rebar sourced from each country of origin.
These cradle-to-gate carbon factors were then weighted based on import
volumes from the ISSB statistics, reflecting a likely cradle-to-gate carbon
factor for reinforcing steel used in the UK.
Rebar and mesh statistics from ISSB
The ISSB publishes monthly reports on UK imports, exports and
consumption for a variety of steel products. ISSB’s report for bars and
rods under Custom Tariff No 721420 accounts for the vast majority of
reinforcing steel, mesh and rebar used by the concrete industry in the UK.
The report identifies 23 countries of origin for rebar and mesh used in the
UK (including locally produced rebar and mesh) in 2019. Figure 3 shows a
regional breakdown.
2019
0.02%
1.6%
10.36%
17.7%
19.58%
19.99% 29.7%
50.05%
UK EU Eastern
Europe
Figure 3. Proportions of rebar, mesh, and other reinforcing steel (by mass) consumed in the UK in 2019 per country of manufacture (ISSB, 2021)
As shown in Figure 3, just over half of all reinforcing steel and mesh used
in the UK is from local mills. Data collected by the precast sector in the UK
also showed that 50.8% of all reinforcing steel used by precast concrete
manufacturers can be traced back to UK based mills (British Precast, 2021xi).
ISSB statistics also reveal that 70-80% of all reinforcing steel used in the UK
was supplied by local or EU-based manufacturers.
Reference year
The reference year for the dataset used is 2019. It was possible to find
accurate statistics covering 2020 and 2021, but as these two years were
dominated by the Covid pandemic, it was felt that an average based on
these two years will go against prEN 15941: 2022 (clause 6.3) as both
were not years of normal production. 2019 was also the last year where
it is possible to report separate numbers for UK rebar production as
competition law makes it difficult to report any UK rebar stats post-2019 as
two manufacturers now exist in the UK.
Any further updates to this report will have to consider statistics post-
February 2022 as the Ukraine conflict is likely to have a long-term impact
on UK rebar import statistics.
Linking imported steel to specific manufacturing processes
Rebar, mesh, and other reinforcing steel is mainly made from steel
manufactured via two routes:
¢ Electric Arc Furnace (EAF): Often used for recycled steel scrap.
¢ Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF): Which creates new or “virgin” steel.
While most steel used in rebar and mesh production in Europe, Africa,
Middle East and North America comes from EAF, a significant proportion
of reinforcing steel in some other parts of the world is manufactured with
virgin or BOF steel. The process of generating new virgin steel, rather than
recycling scrap, is more carbon-intensive (Hoffmann et al, 2020x).
2020 2021
0.7%
8%
4.8%
8.5%
28.7%
50.3% 50.0%
Turkey Rest of
world
MPA held several meetings with experts from the British Association of
Reinforcement (BAR) in 2021, and UK CARES in 2022, to understand the
nature of mills and sources of reinforcing steel used in the UK (whether
local or imported). MPA also sought help from these experts on the likely
representative processes and how published EPD data can be matched
with different countries of origin. EPD declarations from 25 mills, and
additional process information for another eight mills, were found. This

helped us make reasonable judgement on the likely GHG emissions from
these suppliers. For countries where we had no knowledge about the
origin of steel, conservatively a BOF virgin steel origin was assumed. For one
manufacturer in North Africa, rebar was made of mixtures of direct reduced
iron (DRI) and scrap.
With help from experts, it was possible to assess that over 96% of
reinforcing steel used in the UK in 2019 was made of mainly scrap steel
produced through EAF. That percentage may further increase in the future
due to the Ukraine crisis.
Local rebar production
The UK currently have two local rebar manufacturers: Celsa, who had
around 50% of the whole UK rebar market in 2019 (ISSB, 2022), and Liberty
Steel who commissioned their Rotherham mill only in 2019/2020. The
Liberty Steel rebar EPD suggests it is based on production data covering a
very short period in 2020 (BRE, 2021xii) and production seems to have been
limited to specific rebar sizes (Richardson, 2022xiii). No industry body can
publish separate UK statistics for the two manufacturers due to competition
rules. The only option was to produce a hypothetical breakdown ratio
between the two manufacturers. The breakdown used is highly inaccurate
as it was not designed to offer a realistic representation. It was mainly
designed to ensure that the embodied carbon of UK-produced rebar is not
underestimated.
Environmental Product Declarations (EPD) and other GHG
emission data
Thanks to the CARES UK Sustainability Scheme, the reinforcing steel
sector has one of the highest levels of coverage in terms of EPD data.
Over 90% of all rebar and mesh used in the UK, by mass, appears to come
from 25 mills (or companies) covered by CARES UK or BAR, with all EPD
declarations verified and published under the BRE verification scheme. It
was, therefore, possible to link most ISSB country-of-origin statistics to exact
manufacturers’ EPDs.
100
80
% 60
40
20
0
UK EU Eastern Europe
Tonnage covered by EPD Tonnage not covered by EPD
SPECIFYING SUSTAINABLE CONCRETE 27
Experts from UK CARES were also able to identify another eight mills where
six are EAF-based, one is BOF based and one produced DRI based rebar.
Where details on specific manufacturers were not available, such as those
in South or East Asia, the most conservative estimates (based on BOF) were
used. A conservative estimate was also used for DRI based rebar. Rebar from
any country with no more than 100 tonnes per annum import was given a
maximum GHG emission value (based on BOF) regardless of location.
3. Main findings and analysis
Carbon footprint of rebar used in the UK
Based on weighted average calculations, the cradle-to-gate carbon
footprint of rebar and mesh used in the UK was found to be around 742.1
kg CO2e /tonne in 2019. This was also the median value across the three
years considered in this assessment. The annual average fluctuated in 2020
and 2021, but the overall mean value over the three years was still close to
the 2019 average, at 751.4 kg CO2e/ tonne.
2019 2020 2021
(Reference Year)
Cradle-to-gate 742.13 667.51 844.55
carbon footprint
(kg CO2e/ tonne)
2019 to 2021 Mean value 751.39 kg CO2e/ tonne
Table 1: Weighted average for the carbon footprint of rebar and mesh used
in the UK in 2019, 2020 and 2021.
Across all regions identified, apart from the “Rest of the World” category
(which contributed <1% of all rebar used in the UK in 2019), no region had
a mean average footprint for rebar anywhere close to the international
default rebar carbon factor currently proposed by the ICE Database and
carbon calculator tools.
Turkey Rest of world
Figure 4. Rebar used in the UK in
2019 in terms of EPD coverage
 28 SPECIFYING SUSTAINABLE CONCRETE

3000

2500

2000

1500

1000

500

Rebar from Rebar from Rebar from Rebar from All rebar average World steel average
UK+EU average E. Europe average Turkey average ‘Rest of world’ average

Figure 5: Average Cradle-to-Gate carbon footprint of rebar used in the UK in 2019 based on region-of-origin compared to World Steel rebar carbon average.

The new proposed carbon factor was also found to be significantly lower
2019 2020 2021
than rebar GHG emission values used in several well publicised studies and
(Reference Year)
papers published over the last few years comparing the performance of
reinforced concrete structures to other alternative forms of construction. Cradle-to-gate 784.05 626.38 988.81
carbon footprint
New international (imported) rebar carbon factor (kg CO2e/ tonne)

Based on this assessment, the mean average carbon footprint for
international rebar imported to the UK was 784.1 kg CO2e/tonne in 2019.
This is approximately 60% lower than the carbon footprint currently
proposed in publications such as IStructE’s “How to Calculate Embodied
Carbon” (Gibbons et al, 2022xiv).
The international average fluctuated over the 2019 to 2021 period.
However, the overall mean average during that three-year period was
around 800.1 kg CO2e/tonne.
2019 to 2021 Mean value 800.08 kg CO2e/ tonne
Table 2: Weighted average for the carbon footprint of international
(imported) rebar and mesh used in the UK in 2019, 2020 and 2021
Dominance of EAF-based rebar
Another important finding from this exercise is the dominance of
scrap steel across all rebar categories. Even with the most conversative
assumptions, BOF based rebar used in the UK was less than 4% in 2019 and
under 3% in both 2020 and 2021. As noted above, the Ukraine crisis could
lead to an increase in EAF imports post February-2022.

4. Conclusion
This assessment used the UK reinforcing steel consumption and import
statistics from 2019, combined with expert opinion and EPD data from
rebar manufacturers active in the UK market, to calculate a likely Cradle-
to-Gate footprint for reinforcing steel in the UK. GHG emission data from
different rebar manufacturers’ EPDs was correlated to their production
tonnage, or production tonnage from the countries they are based in, and
the weighted mean average carbon footprint for all rebar used in the UK
was found to be 742.1 kg CO2e /tonne. The weighted average footprint
for international rebar, imported from Europe, North Africa, Asia and other
parts of the world, was around 784.1 kg CO2e/ tonne.
2019 was chosen as the “Assessment Year”. The choice was due to prEN
15941 (2022) requirement that assessment years should be representative
years of “normal production”. However, this assessment also found that
despite fluctuations during the pandemic years (2020 and 2021), the overall
mean average over the three years was very similar to the Reference Year’s
mean average.
The findings of this assessment raise questions about many studies
produced in the last three years where significantly higher average rebar
footprints were used.
Based on these findings, it is recommended that the following values are
used for rebar in embodied carbon assessments:
¢ Where the rebar is sourced from a UK mill, the carbon factor for rebar
shall be sourced from the UK mill owner’s EPD based on the reported
A1-A3 GWP indicator reported in that EPD. That would be 647 kg CO2e/
tonne for rebar sourced from Celsa and 1,180 kg CO2e/ tonne for rebar
sourced from Liberty Steel.
¢ Where the rebar is sourced from outside the UK, the carbon factor for
rebar shall be 784.1 kg CO2e/ tonne.
¢ Where the origin of the rebar is unknown, a generic A1-A3 carbon factor
of 742.1 kg CO2e/ tonne shall be used.
Rebar sourced Rebar Rebar source
from UK mill imported unknown
to the UK
(international
mill)
Carbon factor Celsa: 647 784.1 742.1
for rebar Liberty Steel:
(kg CO2e/ 1,180
tonne)
2019 to 2021 Mean value 800.08 kg CO2e/ tonne
Table 3: Rebar carbon factor (A1-A3) value based on rebar source.
This report should be updated in a few years to continue to reflect the most
likely carbon footprint of reinforcing steel used in the UK.
SPECIFYING SUSTAINABLE CONCRETE 29
5. References
i. ISSB (2021) One off report for rebar and rods UK import and
consumption statistics – Custom Tariff No 721420. International Steel
Statistics Bureau (ISSB).
ii. BSI (2010) BS PD CEN/ TR 15941: Sustainability of Construction Works –
Environmental Product Declarations – Methodology for selection and
use of generic data. British Standards Institute, 2010.
iii. Jones, C (2020) Concrete Embodied Carbon Footprint Calculator.
Circular Ecology, 2019.
iv. LETI (2020) LETI Embodied Carbon Primer – Supplementary guide to
the Climate Emergency Design Guide. London Energy Transformation
Initiative (LETI).
v. World Steel Association (2019) Steel and raw materials – Factsheet. ©
World Steel Association, February 2019.
vi. World Steel Association (2017) Life Cycle Inventory Methodology
Report. © World Steel Association, 2017. URL: https://worldsteel.org/
wp-content/uploads/Life-cycle-inventory-methodology-report.pdf
Accessed on 10th April 2022.
vii. Hawkins, W; Cooper, S; Allen, S; Roynon, J; Ibell, T (2021) Embodied
carbon assessment using dynamic climate model: Case-study
comparison of a concrete, steel and timber building structure.
Structures. Vol 33, Oct 2021, Pages 90-98. Elsevier.
viii. Hart, J; D’Amico, B; Pomponi, F (2021) Whole-life embodied carbon
in multistorey building: Steel, concrete, timber. Journal of Industrial
Ecology, Vol 25, Issue 2. P 403-418.
ix. Birgisdóttir, H; Houlihan-Wiberg, A; Malmqvist, T; Moncaster, A;
Nygaard Rasmussen, F (2016) Evaluation of Embodied Energy and
CO2eq for Building Construction (Annex 57). Subtask 4: Case Studies
and recommendations for the reduction of embodied energy and
embodied greenhouse gas emissions from buildings. International
Energy Agency.
x. Hoffmann, C; Van Hoey, M; Zeumer, B (2020) Decarbonization challenge
for steel. McKinsey & Company. URL: https://www.mckinsey.com/
industries/metals-and-mining/our-insights/decarbonization-challenge-
for-steel. Accessed on 4th April.
xi. British Precast (2021) Sustainability Matters 2020, Sustainability
Performance Report (2019 data). British Precast (currently known as MPA
Precast), 2020.
xii. BRE (2021) Environmental Product Declaration, provided by Speciality
Steel UK Ltd (T/A Liberty Speciality Steels). BREG EN EPD No 000341.
xiii. Richardson, C (2022) UK keeping rebar ADD is not in economic
interest: Cisa. Argus metals. URL: https://www.argusmedia.com/en/
news/2303516-uk-keeping-rebar-add-is-not-in-economic-interest-cisa.
Accessed on 31st March.
xiv. Gibbons O P; Orr, J J; Archer-Jones, C; Arnold, W; Green, D (2022) How to
Calculate Embodied Carbon, 2nd Edition. © IStructE, 2022.
 30 SPECIFYING SUSTAINABLE CONCRETE

Appendix A – ISSB rebar source

statistics and carbon footprint data/
assumptions from industry experts
Table A.1 (below) summarises ISSB statistics on rebar consumption quantities and countries of source for 2019,
2020 and 2021. The carbon footprinting values are based on specific mills EPD data or assumptions by rebar sector
experts based on their knowledge of mills exporting rebar to the UK.

Country of Rebar Rebar Rebar Mill Process Carbon footprint Source of

source exported to exported to exported to route (kg CO2e/ tonne) data
UK (tonnes) UK (tonnes) UK (tonnes)
2019 2020 2021

per Mill Country

average

United 377,000 309,450 382,045 CELSA mills Scrap_EAF 647 730 EPD
Kingdom

Liberty Steel Scrap_EAF 1,180* EPD

Portugal 103.793 95.681 135,870 SN Maia Scrap_EAF 438 547 EPD

SN Seixal Scrap_EAF 655 EPD

Mill 3- Portugal Scrap_EAF 547 Expert

opinion
Mill 4- Portugal Scrap_EAF 547 (Average)

Spain 40,977 60,462 55,809 Megasa Scrap_EAF 527 530 EPD

Other mills Scrap_EAF 530** Association

EPD

Russia 17,585 9,303 51,695 Abinsk Scrap_EAF 760 1,108***

AO SW Balakovo Scrap_EAF 760 Expert

Opinion

JSC EVRAZ ZSMK Virgin_BF 2,500

JSC NLMK-Ural Scrap_EAF 760

NLMK-Kaluga LLC Scrap_EAF 760

Algeria 0 0 44,381 Mill 1 – Algeria DRI_EAF 2,200 2,200 Expert

opinion

Turkey 78.011 9,973 36,496 EKINCILER Scrap_EAF 824 816**** EPD

Yazici Scrap_EAF 672 EPD

ICDAS Scrap_EAF 890 EPD

HABAS Scrap_EAF 759 EPD

Diler Scrap_EAF 876 EPD

Colakoglu Scrap_EAF 981 EPD

Kroman Scrap_EAF 978 EPD

 SPECIFYING SUSTAINABLE CONCRETE 31

Kaptan Scrap_EAF 665 EPD

YEŞİLYURT Scrap_EAF 812 EPD

Bastug Scrap_EAF 765 EPD

Izmir Demir Celik Scrap_EAF 753 EPD

Ukraine 23,738 0 11,100 ArcelorMital Krivyi Rih Virgin_BF 2,580 2,580 EPD

India 0 0 15,527 One or multiple mills Assumed 2,580 2,580 Conservative

Virgin_BF assumption

France 5,780 14,287 7,051 ALPA Gargenville Scrap_EAF 396 396 EPD

Other mills Scrap_EAF 396***** Expert

Opinion

Germany 9 2,881 4,612 ArcelorMittal Hamburg Scrap_EAF 524 524 EPD

Other mills Scrap_EAF Expert

Opinion

Greece 0 9,151 4,242 One or multiple mills Scrap_EAF 760 760 Expert
Opinion

Belarus 106,182 99,889 2,523 Byelorussian Steel Works Scrap_EAF 655 655 EPD

Poland 0 221 11,525 One or multiple mills Scrap_EAF 760 760 Expert
Opinion

Gulf states 0 0 990 Emirates Steel DRI_EAF 2,130 1,234.2 EPD

Qatar Steel Scrap_EAF 1,120 EPD

Union Iron & Steel Scrap_EAF 891 EPD

Hamriyah Steel Scrap_EAF 1,070 EPD

Conares Scrap_EAF 960 EPD

China 57 954 56 One or multiple mills Virgin_BF 2,580 2,580 Conservative

assumption

Rest of 90 90 168 Multiple mills Virgin_BF 2,580 2,580 Conservative

World assumption

*Liberty Steel EPD currently being updated to account for normal year of production.
**Spanish association “Asociación Sostenibilidad Siderúrgica” own EPD is identical to Megasa’s.
***Mean average used for Russian rebar imports as the share of each of the five suppliers is unknown.
****Mean average used for Turkish rebar imports as the share of each of the 11 suppliers is unknown.
*****Alpa is the main French rebar supplier to British market. Data from INIES was deemed inappropriate (OneClick LCA tool advice).
Table A.1 Selected statistics from the ISSB statistics for bars and rods (Custom Tariff No 72142000000) correlated to specific mills across the world with EPD or
carbon footprint estimates.
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