Journal of Computational Design and Engineering, 2023, 10,

1143–1157
DOI: 10.1093/jcde/qwad043
Advance access publication date: 31 May 2023
Review article

Challenges and opportunities in green hydrogen supply

chain through metaheuristic optimization
1,2 ,
Saman A. Gorji *
1
Centre for Smart Power & Energy Research, School of Engineering, Deakin University, Melbourne, Australia
2
Centre for Clean Energy Technologies & Practices, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia
∗
Corresponding author. E-mail: saman.asgharigorji@deakin.edu.au

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Abstract
A comprehensive analysis of the green hydrogen supply chain is presented in this paper, encompassing production, storage, trans-
portation, and consumption, with a focus on the application of metaheuristic optimization. The challenges associated with each
stage are highlighted, and the potential of metaheuristic optimization methods to address these challenges is discussed. The primary
method of green hydrogen production, water electrolysis through renewable energy, is outlined along with the importance of its opti-
mization. Various storage methods, such as compressed gas, liquid hydrogen, and material-based storage, are covered with an empha-
sis on the need for optimization to improve safety, capacity, and performance. Different transportation options, including pipelines,
trucks, and ships, are explored, and factors influencing the choice of transportation methods in different regions are identified. Var-
ious hydrogen consumption methods and their associated challenges, such as fuel cell performance optimization, hydrogen-based
heating systems design, and energy conversion technology choice, are also discussed. The paper further investigates multi-objective
approaches for the optimization of problems in this domain. The significant potential of metaheuristic optimization techniques is
highlighted as a key to addressing these challenges and improving overall efficiency and sustainability with respect to future trends
in this rapidly advancing area.

Keywords: consumption, green hydrogen, metaheuristic optimization, production, storage, transportation

1. Introduction In this context, the supply chain plays a vital role in ensuring
the efficient transformation of renewable energy into hydrogen,
The Earth’s climate system is rapidly changing, with a global mean
its safe storage and transportation, and its utilization (Gondal,
temperature increase of 0.85◦ C from 1880 to 2012. The Intergov-
2019; Li et al., 2023). However, challenges associated with produc-
ernmental Panel on Climate Change attributes this warming to
tion, storage, transportation, and consumption must be addressed
the unprecedented levels of greenhouse gases, including carbon
to unlock its full potential, with optimization being key. At present,
dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O), primar-
no single optimization technique is universally agreed upon as the
ily caused by human activities (Change et al., 2007), expected to
most appropriate for solving all problems across various domains
worsen in the future. To address this issue, countries are focusing
and industries. Each of the existing methodologies has its specific
on sustainable development and low-carbon technologies. How-
challenges. For example, exact methods can be time-consuming
ever, current mitigation strategies are insufficient, and a funda-
and challenging to apply when resolving optimal solutions for is-
mental transformation is needed, with more research on the prac-
sues related to green hydrogen production in the supply chain.
tical implementation of sustainable energy sources.
Moreover, the dynamic nature of energy production and distribu-
Green hydrogen, generated through electrolysis using renew-
tion systems adds complexity to the implementation of these al-
able energy sources, offers a cleaner alternative to grey and blue
gorithms. As a result, the use of exact methods does not guarantee
hydrogen, with the potential to significantly impact the global en-
that the obtained solutions will remain optimal. This complexity
ergy landscape due to its reduced emissions, versatility, and stora-
highlights a need for innovative solutions and ongoing research.
bility (Carmo et al., 2013; Hermesmann & Müller, 2022; Howarth
Among the available methodologies, metaheuristic methods
& Jacobson, 2021; Jacobson et al., 2019; Sharaf & Orhan, 2014).
have demonstrated promising performance in enhancing the ef-
As shown in Table 1, green hydrogen provides key benefits such
ficiency and cost-effectiveness of green hydrogen’s supply chain
as reduced greenhouse gas emissions (Gorji, 2022), energy carrier
(Riera et al., 2023). Applying metaheuristic algorithms to the green
capabilities, and extended storage and transportation. However,
hydrogen supply chain presents various advantages. These flexi-
challenges remain, including higher production costs, intermit-
ble algorithms effectively solve optimization problems, address-
tent renewable energy sources, and the need for efficient storage
ing challenges in production, transportation, and storage of green
and transportation solutions (Ball & Wietschel, 2009; Bertuccioli
hydrogen. They efficiently identify global optimal solutions, cru-
et al., 2014; Sherif et al., 2005).
cial for sustainability and efficiency in the supply chain. Addition-
ally, metaheuristic algorithms are faster and more robust to noise,

Received: March 27, 2023. Revised: May 1, 2023. Accepted: May 3, 2023
© The Author(s) 2023. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Society for Computational Design and Engineering. This is an Open Access article
distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/), which permits
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1144 | Challenges and Opportunities in Green Hydrogen Supply Chain
Table 1: Benefits and challenges of green hydrogen.
Benefits Challenges
Reduced emissions versus Higher production costs versus
blue/grey hydrogen blue/grey hydrogen
Energy carrier versatility Intermittent renewables
Storable and transportable Storage and transport issues
Sustainability contribution Developing infrastructure
Grid peak shaving Efficiency losses
Electrolyser advancements Electrolyser life-cycle
More energy-dense Less efficient than batteries
Long-range vehicle suitability Longer refuel time than petrol
errors, and data uncertainty, making them suitable for real-world
applications like the green hydrogen supply chain. Their adapt-
ability allows customization to meet specific problem require-
ments, optimizing performance and efficiency. Metaheuristic opti-
mization methods, such as genetic algorithm (GA), particle swarm
optimization (PSO), simulated annealing (SA), and ant colony op-
timization (ACO), have been widely employed in addressing the
challenges associated with the production, storage, transporta-
tion, and consumption of green hydrogen (Al-Rashed et al., 2022;
Safari et al., 2013; Zhang et al., 2018).
Given the interdisciplinary nature of green hydrogen, optimiza-
tion techniques from various fields such as power electronics, con-
trol systems, materials science, and computational intelligence
can be combined to develop innovative solutions for the chal-
lenges faced by the green hydrogen supply chain. For example,
GAs have been employed to optimize the design and sizing of
green hydrogen production systems, while PSO and ACO have
been used to optimize design and sizing as well as energy man-
agement strategies in hydrogen-based microgrids (Abo-Elyousr et
al., 2021; Ding et al., 2020; Mehrjerdi et al., 2022; Mohammadshahi
et al., 2022; Monforti Ferrario et al., 2021).
As the green hydrogen sector continues to evolve, there is an in-
creasing need for advanced optimization techniques that can ad-
dress the complex and multi-objective nature of the problems en-
countered in this field. The aim of this paper is to offer insight into
the contribution of metaheuristic optimization methods towards
the green hydrogen supply chain. The paper intends to provide a
comprehensive overview of green hydrogen production, storage,
transportation, and consumption, thereby providing a valuable
avenue for further research. By underscoring the importance of
these optimization techniques, the study underscores their capac-
ity to tackle the obstacles that arise in green hydrogen systems.
The main contributions of this paper are as follows:
(i) An investigation into how to leverage metaheuristic algo-
rithms for real-world optimization problems and how they
can contribute to the green hydrogen supply chain.
(ii) A discussion of the challenges and opportunities in green
hydrogen production, storage, transportation, and con-
sumption, considering the interdisciplinary nature of the
field.
(iii) An exploration of the potential for advanced optimization
techniques to address complex and multi-objective prob-
lems, particularly in the context of hydrogen-based micro-
grids.
(iv) Suggestions for future research directions in the green hy-
drogen field, emphasizing the development and application
of innovative optimization techniques.
The paper is organized as follows: Section 2 explores the role
of metaheuristic algorithms, including their application to the
green hydrogen supply chain. Sections 3–6 discuss the produc-
tion, storage, transportation, and consumption of green hydrogen,
highlighting the role and impact of metaheuristic optimization
in each stage. Section 7 presents multi-objective optimization ap-
proaches. Section 8 concludes the paper and suggests directions
for future research.
2. Leveraging Metaheuristic Algorithms for
Real-World Optimization Problems: H2
Metaheuristic algorithms are a class of computational techniques
that have gained significant attention due to their ability to solve
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complex optimization problems (Cheng et al., 2021; El-Shorbagy &
El-Refaey, 2022; Tavasoli et al., 2021). Unlike traditional optimiza-
tion methods, which rely on mathematical models and exact solu-
tions, metaheuristic algorithms search a large solution space in-
telligently to find optimal or near-optimal solutions (Abbaspour
et al., 2022). These algorithms are inspired by natural phenom-
ena such as evolution, swarm behaviour, and physical processes,
and can handle complex and non-linear optimization problems
that are difficult to solve using traditional optimization methods
(Hu et al., 2022). Metaheuristics provide several advantages, in-
cluding flexibility, generality, scalability, and robustness, allowing
them to be applied to a wide range of problems in various fields
(Yazdani et al., 2020). They can also be customized and tailored
to specific problem domains, providing problem-specific solutions
(Gharib et al., 2022). Metaheuristic algorithms are increasingly rec-
ognized as a valuable tool for solving optimization problems, es-
pecially in emerging research areas like the green hydrogen supply
chain. Understanding metaheuristic concepts is crucial for utiliz-
ing metaheuristic techniques, and following (Wang, 2010) defini-
tions offer insightful guidance:
(i) Definition 1: A heuristic is a problem-solving method that
utilizes trial and error to drive the development of a solu-
tion.
(ii) Definition 2: A metaheuristic is a more general, higher level
type of heuristic that is applied to a wider range of prob-
lems.
(iii) Definition 3: Metaheuristic computing is a type of adaptive
computing that utilizes general heuristic rules to solve a
particular category of computational problems.
Building upon these definitions, a generic metaheuristic frame-
work for solving optimization problems is defined as follows,
adopted from Crainic and Toulouse (2003):
A comprehensive framework, depicted in Fig. 1 and adapted
from Osaba et al. (2021), has been employed to tackle the complex
optimization challenges associated with the green hydrogen sup-
ply chain. This adapted framework comprises two distinct envi-
ronments, the lab environment and the application environment,
each encompassing specific stages that facilitate the systematic
and effective resolution of the optimization problem.
Within the lab environment, the process is initiated with the
identification of a pertinent problem in the green hydrogen sup-
ply chain. Following this, stage 1, i.e., the problem statement stage
is conducted, in which functional requirements are meticulously
defined and non-functional requirements are thoroughly anal-
ysed. Additionally, in this environment, stage 3 or the modelling
and assessment stage ensues, which encompasses the develop-
ment of a mathematical model, the meticulous design of algorith-
 Journal of Computational Design and Engineering, 2023, 10(3), 1143–1157
Figure 1: A general framework for solving optimization problems with metaheuristic algorithms in green hydrogen supply chain. Adapted from Osaba
et al. (2021).
Algorithm 1 A Generic Metaheuristic Framework
Require: SP, GP, RP, UP, TP, N(≥ 1), μ(≤ N), λ, ρ(≤ N)
1: Set iteration counter t = 0
2: Initialize N solutions St randomly
3: Evaluate each member of St
4: Mark the best solution of St as x∗
5: repeat
6: Choose μ sol. ( Pt ) from St using a selection plan (SP)
7: Generate λ new sol. ( Ct ) from Pt by a generation plan (GP)
8: Choose ρ sol. (set Rt ) from St using a replacement plan (RP)
9: Update St , by replacing Rt ; using ρ solutions from any com-
bination of max three sets Pt , Ct , & Rt , by an updated plan (UP)
10: Evaluate each member of St
11: Identify the best solution of St and update xt∗
12: t ←t+1
13: until (a termination plan (TP) is satisfied)
14: Declare the near-optimal solution as x∗
mic techniques, and the comprehensive assessment of the solu-
tion’s performance. In the application environment, stage 2, or the
algorithmic verification and testing stage is undertaken, focusing
on real-world verification and necessary parameter adjustments.
As demonstrated in Fig. 1, the interconnectivity of the stages
and the iterative nature of the optimization process are crucial
elements of the framework. Decision diamonds have been incor-
porated to evaluate the compliance of the proposed solution, the
emergence of new constraints, the fulfilment of objectives, and
the requirement for supplementary testing. Based on the out-
comes of these assessments, the process reverts to the pertinent
stages, ultimately striving to devise a solution that satisfies the
established criteria and can be efficiently implemented in real-
world scenarios.
3. Production of Green Hydrogen
Green hydrogen production is crucial for a sustainable energy fu-
ture, and various methods have been developed to enhance effi-
ciency and reduce costs. This section explores the challenges and
opportunities in green hydrogen production, focusing on the role
of metaheuristic optimization and advanced power electronics
and microgrid technologies. The discussion covers different pro-
duction methods, the impact of optimization techniques, and the
advancements and applications of these techniques in the con-
text of green hydrogen production.
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3.1. Overview of green hydrogen production:
challenges and comparison of different
methods
Green hydrogen production primarily involves the electrolysis of
water using renewable energy sources, such as solar, wind, and
hydropower. This process breaks down water into its constituent
elements, hydrogen and oxygen, through the use of an electric
current. There are several electrolysis technologies available for
green hydrogen production, including alkaline electrolysis, pro-
ton exchange membrane (PEM) electrolysis, solid oxide electrol-
ysis, and anion exchange membrane (AEM) electrolysis. Each of
these methods has its advantages and limitations, as summarized
in Table 2. Despite the promise of green hydrogen, there are sev-
eral challenges associated with its production:
(i) Efficiency: Different electrolysers have varying efficiency
levels, which impact the overall energy consumption and
cost of hydrogen production.
(ii) Operating conditions: Electrolysis technologies have dif-
ferent operating temperature ranges, pressure require-
ments, and response times, which can influence the choice
of technology for specific applications and energy systems.
(iii) Cost and investment: Capital costs, maintenance costs,
and required investments for different electrolysis tech-
nologies vary, affecting the overall cost of green hydrogen
production.
(iv) Durability: The durability of different electrolysis tech-
nologies impacts the long-term viability and cost-
effectiveness of green hydrogen production.
(v) Gas purity: The purity of hydrogen produced by different
electrolysis methods may impact its suitability for specific
applications and the need for additional purification steps.
(vi) Infrastructure development: The deployment of green hy-
drogen production facilities requires significant invest-
ments in renewable energy infrastructure and electroly-
sis equipment, as well as the integration of these systems
with existing energy infrastructure.
(vii) Technology maturity: Different electrolysers have varying
degrees of maturity, with alkaline and PEM [e.g., NEL (nel,
2023) and ITM (itm, 2023)] being more established than
solid oxide [e.g., Bloom (blo, 2023)] and AEM [e.g., Enapter
(ena, 2023)]. Maturity affects factors such as cost, perfor-
mance, and availability.
1146 | Challenges and Opportunities in Green Hydrogen Supply Chain

Table 2: Comparison of green hydrogen production methods.

Method Alkaline PEM Solid oxide AEM

Efficiency 60–80% 70–85% 70–80% 65–82%

Operating 60–80◦ C 50–80◦ C 700–1000◦ C 20–90◦ C
temperature
Response time Slow Fast Slow Fast
Energy input Low Low High Low
Pressure Low to medium Medium to high High Low to medium
Current density Low High High Medium
Gas purity Medium High High High
Durability High Medium Medium Medium to high
Investment $ Low Medium High Medium
Maintenance $ Low Medium High Low
Technology Mature Mature Emerging Emerging

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maturity

To address these challenges and enable the widespread adop- 3.3. Applications of metaheuristic optimization
tion of green hydrogen, it is essential to develop innovative solu- techniques for green hydrogen production
tions that improve the efficiency and cost-effectiveness. Metaheuristic optimization techniques have gained significant at-
tention in recent years due to their ability to solve complex, large-
3.2. The need, role, and impact of metaheuristic scale, and highly constrained problems. Green hydrogen produc-
optimization in improving green hydrogen tion systems, especially hydrogen microgrids, present a series of
production challenges that require efficient, scalable, and flexible optimiza-
tion methods. As discussed in the introduction, the complexity
As discussed in the introduction, metaheuristic optimization
and non-linearity of these systems demand advanced optimiza-
techniques play a crucial role in improving the efficiency and per-
tion techniques to achieve optimal performance.
formance of green hydrogen production systems. Figure 2 illus-
In a metaheuristic optimization problem, there are three main
trates a green hydrogen production microgrid, highlighting the
components: an objective function, constraints, and a search
key aspects where metaheuristic optimization techniques can be
space. The objective function represents the goal of the optimiza-
applied to address the challenges:
tion, which is typically to minimize or maximize a certain value.
Constraints are the limitations or requirements that must be sat-
isfied by a feasible solution, while the search space is the set of all
possible solutions to the problem.
Several well-known metaheuristic methods, such as GA, PSO,
SA, ACO, and differential evolution, have been widely used to
(i) System design and sizing: Optimal sizing and design of
tackle various optimization problems. These methods share a
electrolyser systems, renewable energy sources, and energy
general structure but differ in specific variation operators and
storage systems can significantly enhance the overall ef-
selection processes. General pseudo-code for metaheuristic opti-
ficiency and cost-effectiveness of green hydrogen produc-
mization is presented, where steps 1, 2, 3, 4(9), and 10 are com-
tion.
mon to most metaheuristic methods, while steps 5, 6, 7, and 8
(ii) Electrolyser dynamic response: By optimizing the dynamic
vary depending on the specific technique used. For instance, GA
response of electrolysers to variable renewable energy in-
employs crossover and mutation operators in step 6 to generate
put, metaheuristic techniques can improve system reliabil-
new solutions, evaluates their fitness in step 7, and uses a selec-
ity and stability.
tion mechanism like tournament or roulette wheel selection in
(iii) Energy resource allocation: Effective allocation of renew-
step 5 to update the population in step 8. On the other hand, PSO
able energy resources and energy storage in microgrids
updates particle positions based on their velocities and the best-
can maximize green hydrogen production while minimiz-
known positions in step 6, evaluates the fitness of the new posi-
ing costs and environmental impact.
tions in step 7, and updates the population in step 8 by replacing
(iv) Waste heat recovery: Optimizing waste heat recovery pro-
the previous positions with the new ones. PSO uses the personal
cesses can enhance overall system efficiency and reduce
and global best positions as guidance for the search in step 5, in-
energy demand. During the electrolysis process, a consid-
fluencing the particles’ movement towards promising regions of
erable amount of heat is generated as a by-product. This
the search space.
waste heat, if not managed properly, can lead to energy
Hence, the objective function, constraints, and other compo-
losses. By implementing waste heat recovery techniques,
nents in the pseudo-code can be tailored to address each green
the captured thermal energy can be utilized for various
hydrogen production challenge. By doing so, metaheuristic tech-
purposes, such as pre-heating the feedwater, space heat-
niques can be applied to various aspects of green hydrogen pro-
ing, or even generating electricity through thermoelectric
duction:
generators.
(v) Water consumption optimization: Metaheuristic tech-
niques can help minimize water consumption in green hy- (i) System design and sizing: The objective function can
drogen production, reducing its environmental footprint be formulated to minimize the total cost of the system,
and resource requirements. including the capital, operating, and maintenance costs,
 Journal of Computational Design and Engineering, 2023, 10(3), 1143–1157
Figure 2: Schematic representation of a green hydrogen production microgrid, highlighting key aspects for metaheuristic optimization.
while satisfying constraints on energy production, storage
capacity, and system reliability.
(ii) Electrolyser dynamic response: The objective function can
aim to minimize the deviation between the desired and ac-
tual output of the electrolyser, subject to constraints on the
input power and electrolyser operating limits.
(iii) Energy resource allocation: The objective function can be
designed to maximize green hydrogen production or mini-
mize energy costs while adhering to constraints on renew-
able energy availability, storage capacity, and load demand.
(iv) Waste heat recovery: The objective function may target
maximizing the waste heat recovery efficiency, constrained
by the heat exchanger limits and the available waste heat.
(v) Water consumption optimization: The objective function
can focus on minimizing water consumption in the green
hydrogen production process, considering constraints on
water availability, water quality requirements, and electrol-
yser limits.
By applying metaheuristic optimization techniques to these
green hydrogen production challenges, it is possible to improve
the overall efficiency, cost-effectiveness, and sustainability of hy-
drogen microgrids. Further research and practical applications
can continue to advance the state of the art in this area.
4. Storage of Hydrogen
In this section, the challenges and methods associated with hy-
drogen storage will be discussed, emphasizing the role of meta-
heuristic optimization techniques in addressing these challenges
and improving storage efficiency.
4.1. Overview of hydrogen storage: challenges
and comparison of different methods
Hydrogen storage is a critical aspect of the green hydrogen supply
chain, as it ensures the availability of hydrogen for end-use appli-
cations while maintaining safety and efficiency. There are various
methods for storing hydrogen, each with its own set of challenges
and optimization opportunities. In this subsection, an overview of
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the main hydrogen storage methods will be provided which dis-
cusses their associated challenges and presents a comparison of
their key characteristics in Table 3. Additionally, a schematic rep-
resentation of a hydrogen storage system (see Fig. 3) is presented,
which highlights the key aspects of metaheuristic optimization.
The main challenges in hydrogen storage include storage facil-
ity layout, hydrogen compression and liquefaction, temperature
and pressure control, and optimal storage material selection. In
the next subsection, we will explore the need, role, and impact of
metaheuristic optimization techniques in addressing these chal-
lenges and improving hydrogen storage.
4.2. The need, role, and impact of metaheuristic
optimization in improving hydrogen storage
As the demand for green hydrogen increases, it becomes crucial
to address the challenges associated with its storage to ensure
its efficient use in various applications. Metaheuristic optimiza-
tion techniques have emerged as powerful tools for tackling com-
plex optimization problems, particularly when traditional meth-
ods fail to provide satisfactory solutions. In the context of hydro-
gen storage, metaheuristic optimization can play a vital role in
overcoming challenges and maximizing system performance in
several ways:
(i) Storage facility layout optimization: Metaheuristic tech-
niques can be employed to design efficient storage facil-
ity layouts that maximize the utilization of available space
while ensuring safety and operational efficiency. This can
help minimize capital and operational costs and reduce en-
ergy consumption during storage and retrieval processes.
(ii) Hydrogen compression and liquefaction optimization:
The compression and liquefaction processes for hydrogen
storage are energy-intensive and can benefit from opti-
mization. Metaheuristic algorithms can be used to opti-
mize compression and liquefaction processes by minimiz-
ing energy consumption, maximizing throughput, and en-
suring optimal operating conditions.
(iii) Temperature and pressure control optimization: Effective
control of temperature and pressure is essential for safe
1148 | Challenges and Opportunities in Green Hydrogen Supply Chain
Table 3: Comparison of hydrogen storage methods.
Storage method Advantages
Physical (e.g., compressed gas) High storage density, mature technology
Chemical (e.g., metal hydrides) High density, low leakage
Material-based (e.g., porous material) Moderate density, low leakage
Note. For optimization opportunities A, B, C, and D, see Fig. 3.
Figure 3: Schematic representation of hydrogen storage system highlighting key aspects for metaheuristic optimization.
and efficient hydrogen storage. Metaheuristic techniques
can optimize temperature and pressure control strategies,
ensuring the stability of stored hydrogen and minimizing
energy losses due to leakage or evaporation.
(iv) Optimal storage material selection: Choosing the right
storage material is crucial for maximizing storage capac-
ity and minimizing costs. Metaheuristic optimization can
be employed to identify optimal storage materials based on
various criteria such as storage capacity, cost, weight, and
safety considerations.
4.3. Applications of metaheuristic optimization
techniques for hydrogen storage
In this section, we focus on the applications of metaheuristic op-
timization techniques for hydrogen storage, specifically for the
identified challenges. We refer back to the general pseudo-code
and metaheuristic optimization techniques discussed in the pre-
vious section and concentrate on the objective functions and con-
straints for each challenge.
(i) Storage facility layout optimization: The objective func-
tion can be formulated to minimize capital and operational
costs, maximize space utilization, and minimize energy
consumption during storage and retrieval processes, while
satisfying constraints on safety regulations, storage capac-
ity requirements, and facility dimensions.
(ii) Hydrogen compression and liquefaction optimization:
The objective function can aim to minimize energy con-
sumption, maximize throughput, and optimize operating
conditions, subject to constraints on pressure and temper-
ature limits, equipment specifications, and safety require-
ments.
Disadvantages Opportunities
High energy consumed, safety concerns A, B, C
High cost & weight, high complexity A, C, D
High cost, low volumetric density A, B, D
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(iii) Temperature and pressure control optimization: The ob-
jective function can be designed to ensure the stability
of stored hydrogen, minimize energy losses due to leak-
age or evaporation, and minimize energy consumption for
temperature and pressure control, while adhering to con-
straints on temperature and pressure ranges, equipment
specifications, and safety requirements.
(iv) Optimal storage material selection: The objective func-
tion can focus on maximizing storage capacity, minimizing
costs, minimizing weight, and ensuring safety, considering
constraints on material availability, material compatibility
with hydrogen, and performance requirements.
In conclusion, applying metaheuristic optimization techniques
for hydrogen storage can lead to significant improvements in sys-
tem performance, cost-effectiveness, and sustainability. As the
demand for green hydrogen continues to grow, researchers and
practitioners can explore new ways to leverage these techniques
to develop more advanced and efficient hydrogen storage solu-
tions. Potential future research directions include investigating
the applicability of emerging metaheuristic algorithms, develop-
ing hybrid approaches that combine the strengths of different
techniques, and exploring the integration of machine learning
methods to further enhance optimization performance.
5. Transportation of Hydrogen
Hydrogen transportation plays a crucial role in the green hydro-
gen supply chain, connecting production facilities to end-users.
Ensuring the efficient and safe transportation of hydrogen is es-
sential to enable the widespread adoption of green hydrogen as
an energy carrier. This section will discuss the challenges associ-
 Journal of Computational Design and Engineering, 2023, 10(3), 1143–1157
ated with hydrogen transportation, compare different transporta-
tion methods, and illustrate its potential in addressing the unique
challenges associated with transporting hydrogen.
5.1. Overview of hydrogen transportation:
challenges and comparison of different
methods
Safe, efficient, and cost-effective transportation methods are es-
sential for the large-scale deployment of hydrogen as an en-
ergy carrier. The main challenges associated with hydrogen trans-
portation include high costs, safety concerns, energy losses, and
the need for specialized infrastructure. Additionally, the physical
properties of hydrogen, such as its low density, high flammability,
and potential for embrittlement, further complicate transporta-
tion. The common hydrogen transportation methods include:
(i) Pipeline: Hydrogen can be transported through pipelines
similar to natural gas. However, due to its low density and
high flammability, hydrogen pipelines require specific ma-
terials and safety measures. Pipeline transportation is gen-
erally suited for long distances and large volumes but has
high initial infrastructure costs.
(ii) Compressed gas trucks: Compressed hydrogen gas can
be transported in high-pressure tanks mounted on trucks.
This method is flexible and suitable for short to medium
distances but has high compression losses and costs.
(iii) Liquid hydrogen trucks: Liquid hydrogen can be trans-
ported in cryogenic tanks on trucks. This method is more
energy-dense than compressed gas trucks but requires ad-
ditional energy for liquefaction and has higher costs.
(iv) Liquefied hydrogen ships: Liquefied hydrogen can be
transported in large quantities over long distances us-
ing specialized ships with cryogenic storage tanks. This
method is suitable for intercontinental transportation but
has high initial costs and infrastructure requirements.
(v) Chemical carriers: Hydrogen can be transported in the
form of chemical carriers, such as ammonia or methanol.
These carriers can be converted back to hydrogen at the
destination. This method offers flexibility and high energy
density but may have higher costs and additional complex-
ity.
(vi) Material carriers: Hydrogen can be stored and transported
in porous materials, such as metal-organic frameworks,
which adsorb hydrogen at high pressure and release it at
lower pressure. This method can offer high storage capac-
ity and safety but may require further costs and research.
Table 4 presents a comparison of the different hydrogen trans-
portation methods in terms of cost, safety, energy loss, infras-
tructure requirements, flexibility, and transport distance. Each
method has its advantages and disadvantages, and the choice of
the most appropriate transportation method depends on various
factors, such as the scale of the hydrogen supply chain, the dis-
tance between production and consumption sites, and the avail-
ability of existing infrastructure.
Factors influencing the choice of transportation method for dif-
ferent regions include distance, infrastructure, geographical and
political constraints, and the available transportation methods.
For example, regions with an extensive pipeline network may pre-
fer using pipelines, while regions with limited infrastructure may
rely on trucks or ships. Geographical constraints, such as the pres-
ence of mountains or water bodies, may also dictate the choice
of transportation method. Political considerations, such as cross-
| 1149
border agreements and regulations, may further influence the se-
lection of hydrogen transportation methods. As a result, it is cru-
cial for decision-makers to evaluate these factors when choos-
ing the most suitable transportation method for their specific re-
gion. The regional suitability of hydrogen transportation methods
is presented in Table 5.
As the hydrogen economy grows, it is essential to develop effi-
cient and cost-effective transportation methods that can cater to
different regions and their specific requirements. Future develop-
ments may include the expansion of pipeline networks, advance-
ments in truck and ship transportation technologies, and the ex-
ploration of novel transportation methods like chemical carriers
or porous material carriers.
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5.2. The need, role, and impact of metaheuristic
optimization in improving hydrogen
transportation
Hydrogen transportation is a critical aspect of the hydrogen econ-
omy, and it requires efficient solutions to overcome various chal-
lenges associated with different transportation methods. Meta-
heuristic optimization techniques can play a significant role in
addressing these challenges and enhancing the overall efficiency
and cost-effectiveness of hydrogen transportation. Some of the
key challenges in hydrogen transportation that can benefit from
the application of metaheuristic optimization techniques include:
(i) Refuelling station location planning: Choosing optimal lo-
cations for hydrogen refuelling stations is crucial to en-
sure adequate coverage, minimize transportation costs,
and maximize the utilization of hydrogen infrastructure.
Metaheuristic optimization techniques can help in identi-
fying the most appropriate locations for refuelling stations
based on factors such as demand, accessibility, and exist-
ing infrastructure.
(ii) Multi-modal transportation optimization: Integrating dif-
ferent transportation methods, such as pipelines, trucks,
and ships, can provide a more efficient and cost-effective
solution for hydrogen transportation. Metaheuristic opti-
mization techniques can be employed to find the best com-
bination of transportation modes while considering factors
like cost, distance, and infrastructure availability.
(iii) Hydrogen supply scheduling: Efficiently scheduling the
supply of hydrogen to different end-users is essential to en-
sure reliable service and minimize operational costs. Meta-
heuristic optimization techniques can be utilized to opti-
mize supply schedules by taking into account factors like
demand, transportation constraints, and storage capaci-
ties.
(iv) Hydrogen pipeline network design: Designing an optimal
pipeline network for hydrogen transportation involves con-
sidering multiple factors such as pipeline routes, materi-
als, safety, and cost. Metaheuristic optimization techniques
can aid in the design of efficient pipeline networks by opti-
mizing these factors and identifying the most suitable so-
lutions.
Addressing these challenges through the application of meta-
heuristic optimization techniques can lead to significant improve-
ments in the efficiency, reliability, and cost-effectiveness of hydro-
gen transportation systems. This, in turn, can contribute to the
overall growth and success of the hydrogen economy.
1150 | Challenges and Opportunities in Green Hydrogen Supply Chain

Table 4: Comparison of hydrogen transportation methods.

Compressed Liquid Liquefied Chemical Material

Method Pipeline H2 trucks H2 trucks H2 ships carrier carrier

Efficiency High Medium Medium High Medium Medium

Safety High Medium Medium High Medium High
Infrastructure Low Medium Medium High Medium Medium
Flexibility Low High High Medium High High
Cost Medium High High Medium High Medium

Table 5: Regional suitability of hydrogen transportation methods.

Compressed Liquid Liquefied Chemical Material

Region Pipeline H2 trucks H2 trucks H2 ships carrier carrier

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North America Preferred Suitable Suitable Suitable Suitable Limited
Europe Preferred Suitable Suitable Suitable Suitable Limited
Asia Suitable Suitable Suitable Preferred Suitable Limited
Africa Limited Suitable Suitable Suitable Suitable Limited
South America Limited Suitable Suitable Suitable Suitable Limited
Oceania Limited Suitable Suitable Preferred Suitable Limited

5.3. Applications of metaheuristic optimization
techniques for hydrogen transportation
Metaheuristic optimization techniques have been successfully
applied to various aspects of hydrogen transportation, helping to
address the challenges mentioned in the previous subsection. In
this section, we discuss the application of metaheuristic optimiza-
tion techniques to the following aspects of hydrogen transporta-
tion:
(i) Multi-modal transportation optimization: The objective
function for multi-modal transportation optimization fo-
cuses on minimizing the total cost of hydrogen transporta-
tion, including the costs associated with different trans-
portation modes and infrastructure. Constraints may in-
clude transportation capacities, distances, and the avail-
ability of different transportation modes. By applying meta-
heuristic optimization techniques, an optimal combination
of transportation methods can be identified that meets the
required demand while minimizing costs.
(ii) Hydrogen supply scheduling: The objective function for
hydrogen supply scheduling aims to minimize the total
operational costs, which may include transportation, stor-
age, and production costs, while meeting the hydrogen de-
mand of end-users. Constraints in this context can involve
transportation and storage capacities, as well as demand
and supply variations over time. Metaheuristic optimiza-
tion techniques can be used to find efficient supply sched-
ules that satisfy the constraints and minimize operational
costs.
(iii) Hydrogen pipeline network design: In the case of hydro-
gen pipeline network design, the objective function focuses
on minimizing the total cost of the network, including cap-
ital, operational, and maintenance costs. Constraints may
involve pipeline route restrictions, safety regulations, and
material requirements. Metaheuristic optimization tech-
niques can help identify optimal pipeline network designs
that meet the constraints and minimize overall costs.
(iv) Refuelling station location planning: The objective func-
tion for refuelling station location planning seeks to min-
imize the total cost of establishing and maintaining refu-
elling stations while ensuring adequate coverage and ac-
cessibility. Constraints can include the number of stations,
their capacities, and geographical restrictions. By applying
metaheuristic optimization techniques, optimal locations
for refuelling stations can be determined that satisfy the
constraints and minimize costs.
Figure 4 illustrates the transportation of green hydrogen across
the world, highlighting the key aspects where metaheuristic opti-
mization techniques can be applied to address the challenges. In
summary, metaheuristic optimization techniques can play a cru-
cial role in improving the efficiency and cost-effectiveness of hy-
drogen transportation systems. By addressing various challenges
in transportation planning, scheduling, and design, these tech-
niques contribute to the development of robust and reliable hy-
drogen transportation networks.
6. Consumption of Hydrogen
Hydrogen consumption is a critical aspect of the hydrogen econ-
omy, as it involves using hydrogen as an energy carrier in various
applications such as transportation, heating, and industrial pro-
cesses. In this section, we will discuss the different methods of
hydrogen consumption, the challenges associated with them, and
the role of metaheuristic optimization in addressing these chal-
lenges.
6.1. Overview of hydrogen consumption:
challenges and comparison of different
methods
Hydrogen consumption methods encompass a variety of tech-
nologies that convert hydrogen into useful forms of energy. These
methods include fuel cells, hydrogen combustion turbines, hydro-
gen internal combustion engines, H2-based heating systems, and
chemical processes such as ammonia and methanol production.
The challenges associated with hydrogen consumption are di-
verse, ranging from technological limitations to integration issues
with existing energy systems. These challenges have been listed
in Table 6 and are summarized as follows:
 Journal of Computational Design and Engineering, 2023, 10(3), 1143–1157 | 1151

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Figure 4: Schematic representation of a green hydrogen production microgrid, highlighting key aspects for metaheuristic optimization.

Table 6: Comparison of hydrogen consumption methods.

Method Efficiency Cost Emission Compatibility Versatility Applications

Fuel cells Medium- High Low Good High Transportation, stationary power
high
H2 combustion turbines Medium- Medium Low Fair Medium Power generation, industrial
high
H2 internal combustion Medium Low Medium- Good High Transportation, stationary power
engines high
H2 -based heating Medium Medium Low Fair Medium Residential, industrial
systems
Chemical processes Varies Varies Varies Good High Ammonia, methanol, & other chemicals

(i) Fuel cell performance optimization: Fuel cells are devices ronmental performance of hydrogen-based chemical pro-
that convert the chemical energy stored in hydrogen di- cesses, such as ammonia and methanol production.
rectly into electricity through an electrochemical reaction.
Optimizing fuel cell performance involves improving their 6.2. The need, role, and impact of metaheuristic
efficiency, durability, and cost, as well as addressing issues optimization in improving hydrogen
related to hydrogen purity and operating conditions. consumption
(ii) H2-based heating systems design: Hydrogen can be used After investigating the challenges associated with hydrogen con-
for heating purposes in residential, commercial, and in- sumption, it is essential to investigate the comparison of different
dustrial settings. Designing H2-based heating systems in- hydrogen consumption methods further:
volves optimizing the system’s efficiency, safety, and relia-
bility while minimizing costs and environmental impacts.
(i) Fuel cells: Fuel cells convert hydrogen into electricity di-
(iii) Energy conversion technology choice (including combus-
rectly through an electrochemical reaction. They are highly
tion process optimization): The choice of energy conver-
efficient, have low emissions, and are suitable for a wide
sion technology, such as hydrogen combustion turbines
range of applications, including transportation, stationary
or internal combustion engines, depends on factors such
power generation, and portable power devices. Fuel cells
as efficiency, cost, and environmental impact. Combustion
come in various types, such as proton exchange membrane
process optimization involves improving the performance,
fuel cells (PEMFCs), solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs), alkaline
efficiency, and emissions of hydrogen combustion tech-
fuel cells, and molten carbonate fuel cells, each with its
nologies.
own advantages and limitations. PEMFCs, e.g., have a low
(iv) H2 Integration in multi-energy systems (including chemi-
operating temperature and quick start-up, making them
cal process optimization): Integrating hydrogen into multi-
suitable for transportation applications. In contrast, SOFCs
energy systems requires careful planning and coordina-
operate at high temperatures and are more suitable for sta-
tion, taking into account the interactions between different
tionary power generation with high efficiency and fuel flex-
energy carriers and infrastructures. Chemical process opti-
ibility. However, fuel cells can be expensive and sensitive to
mization involves improving the efficiency, cost, and envi-
impurities in hydrogen fuel, which may require additional
1152 | Challenges and Opportunities in Green Hydrogen Supply Chain
purification steps or more robust fuel cell designs to ensure
long-term performance and durability.
(ii) Hydrogen combustion turbines: Hydrogen combustion
turbines burn hydrogen to generate electricity, offering a
cleaner alternative for large-scale power generation. They
have the potential for high efficiency and low emissions
due to their ability to operate at higher temperatures and
pressures. However, they may require modifications to ex-
isting natural gas turbines and face challenges related to
hydrogen’s low energy density and high flame speed. Ad-
ditionally, the scalability of hydrogen combustion turbines
can be limited by their complexity and higher capital costs
compared to internal combustion engines.
(iii) Hydrogen internal combustion engines: Hydrogen can be
used as a fuel in internal combustion engines, either by
replacing or blending with conventional fuels like gaso-
line. These engines have the advantage of leveraging ex-
isting infrastructure and technology, making them more
easily scalable and cost-effective. However, they generally
have lower efficiency and higher emissions compared to
fuel cells and hydrogen combustion turbines, mainly due
to incomplete combustion and lower thermodynamic effi-
ciency.
(iv) H2-based heating systems: Hydrogen can be used for heat-
ing purposes in residential, commercial, and industrial set-
tings. These systems can provide low-emission heating so-
lutions but may require modifications to existing natu-
ral gas infrastructure and the development of hydrogen-
specific appliances.
(v) Chemical processes (e.g., ammonia production and
methanol production): Hydrogen is a crucial component in
the production of chemicals like ammonia and methanol,
which can be used as fuels or feedstocks for other in-
dustrial processes. These processes can help create value-
added products from hydrogen and contribute to the over-
all hydrogen economy. However, they may involve energy-
intensive processes and environmental concerns related to
their production and use.
As explained, each method has its advantages and limitations,
and the choice of a suitable method depends on various factors,
including efficiency, cost, environmental impact, and compatibil-
ity with existing infrastructure. As the hydrogen economy contin-
ues to develop, it is likely that a combination of these methods
will be employed, and advances in technology and optimization
techniques will help address their respective challenges and lim-
itations.
6.3. Applications of metaheuristic optimization
techniques in hydrogen consumption
In this subsection, the applications of metaheuristic optimiza-
tion techniques in hydrogen consumption are discussed, focusing
on the four main areas for optimization identified in Fig. 5: fuel
cell performance optimization, H2-based heating systems design,
energy conversion technology choice (including combustion pro-
cess optimization), and H2 integration in multi-energy systems
(including chemical process optimization).
(i) Fuel cell performance optimization: The objective here is
to maximize the efficiency and lifetime of fuel cells while
minimizing their cost. Metaheuristic optimization tech-
niques can be used to optimize parameters such as oper-
ating temperature, pressure, and flow rates, as well as the
design of individual components like the membrane, cat-
alyst, and electrodes. Constraints include material proper-
ties, durability, and safety requirements.
(ii) H2-based heating systems design: The goal is to de-
sign efficient, cost-effective, and environmentally friendly
hydrogen-based heating systems. Optimization techniques
can be employed to determine the optimal size, configu-
ration, and control strategies for these systems, consider-
ing factors such as heat demand, energy prices, and green-
house gas emissions. Constraints may include available
space, budget, and regulatory requirements.
(iii) Energy conversion technology choice (including combus-
tion process optimization): Selecting the most suitable
energy conversion technology for a specific application is
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critical for maximizing efficiency and minimizing costs
and emissions. Metaheuristic optimization methods can be
used to compare and select the best technology based on
various criteria such as efficiency, capital cost, operating
cost, and environmental impact. Constraints include tech-
nical feasibility, available infrastructure, and regulatory re-
strictions.
(iv) H2 Integration in multi-energy systems (including chem-
ical process optimization): In this area, the objective is to
optimally integrate hydrogen into multi-energy systems,
such as microgrids and industrial processes, to maximize
system efficiency and flexibility while minimizing costs
and environmental impacts. Metaheuristic optimization
techniques can help in determining the optimal schedul-
ing, control, and design of hydrogen production, stor-
age, and consumption components, as well as the opti-
mal use of hydrogen in chemical processes like ammonia
and methanol production. Constraints may include energy
demand, resource availability, and environmental regula-
tions.
In summary, metaheuristic optimization techniques offer sig-
nificant potential for improving the performance, efficiency, and
environmental impact of hydrogen consumption technologies. As
these technologies continue to develop and mature, the applica-
tion of optimization methods will play a crucial role in realizing
the full potential of hydrogen as a clean and sustainable energy
carrier.
7. Multi-objective Metaheuristic
Optimization for Green Hydrogen
Multi-objective optimization plays a crucial role in solving com-
plex problems that involve multiple conflicting objectives. Domi-
nant solutions, also known as Pareto-optimal solutions, represent
the optimal trade-offs among these objectives. In the context of
green hydrogen supply chains, multi-objective optimization can
help address the challenges and improve efficiency, cost, perfor-
mance, and safety (Alirahmi et al., 2021; Sharafi & ELMekkawy,
2014; Xu et al., 2020). In the following subsections, two detailed ex-
amples of multi-objective optimization problems are presented,
focusing on various stages of the supply chain, emphasizing an
algorithm-agnostic approach.
7.1. Example 1: production and transportation
Here, the focus is optimizing the green hydrogen production and
transportation stages using a multi-objective approach. The ob-
jectives for this optimization problem are:
 Journal of Computational Design and Engineering, 2023, 10(3), 1143–1157
Figure 5: Schematic representation of hydrogen consumption methods, highlighting key aspects for metaheuristic optimization.
(i) minimizing the total cost of hydrogen production (C1);
(ii) minimizing the total cost of hydrogen transportation (C2);
(iii) maximizing the efficiency of hydrogen production (E1); and
(iv) maximizing the safety of hydrogen transportation (E2).
The optimization problem can be formulated as follows:
minimize: C1 + C2
maximize: E1
maximize: E2
Subject to constraints related to green hydrogen production
(such as electrolyser capacity, renewable energy availability, and
water consumption) and transportation (such as pipeline capac-
ity, refuelling station location, and transportation mode availabil-
ity), a Pareto-based multi-objective optimization technique can
be used to tackle this problem, according to algorithm 2. In this
example, dominant solution optimization aims to identify the
best trade-off between the conflicting objectives. By finding the
Pareto-optimal solutions, decision-makers can efficiently allocate
resources and make informed decisions on the production and
transportation of green hydrogen while balancing the economic,
environmental, and safety aspects.
7.2. Example 2: storage and consumption
In this example, the focus is on optimizing the green hydro-
gen storage and consumption stages using a multi-objective ap-
proach. The objectives for this optimization problem are:
(i) minimizing the total cost of hydrogen storage (C3);
(ii) minimizing the total cost of hydrogen consumption (C4);
(iii) maximizing the storage system efficiency (E3); and
(iv) maximizing the energy conversion efficiency (E4).
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The optimization problem can be formulated as follows:
minimize: C3 + C4
maximize: E3
maximize: E4
Subject to constraints related to green hydrogen storage (such
as storage capacity, pressure and temperature control, and stor-
age materials) and consumption (such as fuel cell performance,
H2-based heating systems design, and energy conversion tech-
nology choice), a Pareto-based multi-objective optimization tech-
nique can be used to tackle this problem, according to algorithm 2.
In this example, dominant solution optimization focuses on find-
ing the Pareto-optimal solutions that represent the best trade-
offs between minimizing costs (C3 and C4) and maximizing ef-
ficiencies (E3 and E4). Identifying these solutions allows decision-
makers to make informed choices on hydrogen storage and con-
sumption strategies while optimizing economic and efficiency as-
pects.
8. Conclusions and Future Trends
This section presents a recap of the main points covered in the
paper, followed by state-of-the-art research and development in
the optimization of the hydrogen supply chain.
8.1. Summary
In this paper, a comprehensive overview of the hydrogen supply
chain was provided, highlighting the challenges associated with
each stage and discussing the opportunities for metaheuristic op-
timization techniques.
For green hydrogen production, the primary method, i.e., wa-
ter electrolysis through renewable energy, was outlined, and the
importance of optimizing these methods to maximize efficiency
and minimize costs and environmental impacts was discussed.
In terms of storage, the primary methods such as compressed
1154 | Challenges and Opportunities in Green Hydrogen Supply Chain
Algorithm 2 Generic Metaheuristic Algorithm for Examples 1-2
1: Initialize a population of solutions S0
2: Evaluate the fitness of each solution in S0 according to the
objective functions and constraints (C1(C3), C2(C4), E1(E2),
E3(E4))
3: while termination criteria not met do
4: Apply selection, crossover, and mutation operations to cre-
ate a new population Snew
5: Evaluate the fitness of each solution in Snew according to
the objective functions (C1(C3), C2(C4), E1(E2), E3(E4)) and con-
straints
6: Combine S0 and Snew , then update the population S0 by se-
lecting the best solutions based on fitness values and con-
straints
7: end while
8: return the Pareto-optimal solutions
gas, liquid hydrogen, and material-based storage were covered,
emphasizing the need for optimization to improve safety, capac-
ity, and performance. Regarding hydrogen transportation, differ-
ent options were explored, including pipelines, trucks, and ships,
and factors that influence the choice of transportation methods
in different regions were identified. Additionally, various hydrogen
consumption methods were discussed along with their associated
challenges, such as fuel cell performance optimization, H2-based
heating systems design, and energy conversion technology choice.
Throughout the paper, the significant potential of metaheuris-
tic optimization techniques was highlighted as a key to addressing
these challenges and improving the overall efficiency and sustain-
ability of hydrogen-based energy systems.
8.2. Future trends and research
recommendations
This subsection presents an overview of the upcoming trends in
the hydrogen supply chain, with a focus on the key aspects of
production, storage, transportation, and consumption. As illus-
trated in Fig. 6a, the diagram demonstrates the potential losses
associated with each stage, emphasizing the importance of opti-
mization and innovative approaches in the green hydrogen supply
chain. Figure 6b also highlights the future trends and opportuni-
ties, which are investigated in more detail as follows:
8.2.1. Production
For green hydrogen production, advanced water electrolysis tech-
nologies, such as waste heat recovery and solid-state electroly-
sers, are being developed to improve efficiency and lower costs.
Additionally, the design and optimization of the electrolyser sys-
tems, including the development of more efficient and durable
catalysts and membranes, as well as the thermal management
of the system. Integrating these production methods with Direct
Current (DC) microgrids can further enhance efficiency, as Photo-
Voltaic (PV) panels, batteries, and electrolysers are all DC sources
and loads from an electrical perspective. In terms of power con-
version, utilizing more efficient materials such as gallium nitride
(GaN) and superconductive materials can significantly increase
the efficiency of power conversion processes, further contribut-
ing to the reduction of energy losses and improving overall sys-
tem performance. These trends are summarized as the following
items:
(i) Increased focus on green hydrogen;
(ii) Advanced water electrolysis technologies (waste heat re-
covery and solid-state electrolysers; Saufi Sulaiman et al.,
2019);
(iii) Renewable energy sources (solar and wind; Patel et al.,
2021);
(iv) DC microgrid (efficient interconnection of PV, battery, and
electrolyser; Moradi et al., 2022); and
(v) Advanced materials for power conversion (GaN or super-
conductors; Shahbazi et al., 2021).
8.2.2. Storage
For hydrogen storage, research is focusing on the development of
advanced storage materials such as metal-organic frameworks,
nano-structured materials, and solid-state materials, which can
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offer improved storage capacities, safety, and efficiency. Cryogenic
storage improvements and high-pressure vessels will contribute
to enhanced safety and storage capacities. Additionally, as these
advanced materials and technologies are accepted more widely,
economies of scale and technology advancements will lead to
lower costs associated with hydrogen storage. These trends are
summarized as below:
(i) Development of advanced storage materials (metal-
organic frameworks, nano-structured materials, and solid
oxide research; Srivastava et al., 2022);
(ii) Improved safety and storage capacities (cryogenic storage
improvements and high-pressure vessels); and
(iii) Lower costs (economies of scale and technology advance-
ments).
8.2.3. Transportation
An expansion of hydrogen infrastructure, including pipelines,
trucks, and ships, is expected to facilitate the distribution of hy-
drogen more effectively. The number of hydrogen refuelling sta-
tions will also increase, with modular designs and faster refuelling
technologies improving the accessibility of hydrogen fuel for end-
users. Advanced transportation systems, such as autonomous ve-
hicles and digital logistics platforms, will further optimize the
transportation process, as listed below:
(i) Expansion of hydrogen infrastructure (pipelines, trucks,
and ships);
(ii) Increased hydrogen refuelling stations (modular designs
and faster refuelling); and
(iii) Advanced transportation systems (autonomous vehicles
and digital logistics platforms).
8.2.4. Consumption
As for consumption, integration into existing energy systems,
such as hybrid systems and smart energy management, will be
crucial to optimize energy utilization. Advances in fuel cell tech-
nology, including improvements in efficiency, durability, and cost
reduction. Additionally, the development of more efficient and
scalable hydrogen-based power generation technologies, such as
advanced hydrogen turbines and internal combustion engines, is
essential for the broader adoption and integration of hydrogen
into various industrial and transportation sectors. These trends
are summarized below:
(i) Integration of hydrogen into existing energy systems (hy-
brid systems and smart energy management);
(ii) Advances in fuel cell technology (efficiency, durability, cost
reduction, PEMFCs, and SOFCs; Suresh et al., 2022); and
 Journal of Computational Design and Engineering, 2023, 10(3), 1143–1157
Figure 6: Green hydrogen supply chain and metaheuristic optimization: (a) Indicative losses in each stage, and (b) future research directions.
(iii) Growing demand for hydrogen in industrial processes (am-
monia, methanol, refining, steelmaking, and green chemi-
cals).
8.2. Optimization trends
In light of mentioned future trends, the role of metaheuristic op-
timization techniques in the hydrogen economy becomes even
more crucial. Metaheuristic optimization techniques can be ap-
plied to a wide range of problems in the hydrogen supply chain,
from optimizing the production process and ensuring efficient
storage and transportation, to maximizing the performance of
hydrogen consumption systems. By intelligently exploring the
search space and finding near-optimal solutions, these techniques
can help identify the best system configurations, material choices,
and operational strategies that maximize performance while min-
imizing costs, energy consumption, and environmental impacts.
Moreover, as the field continues to advance, novel metaheuristic
algorithms will be developed, allowing for even more effective op-
timization of complex hydrogen systems.
Conflict of interest statement
None declared.
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Received: March 27, 2023. Revised: May 1, 2023. Accepted: May 3, 2023
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