CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

The quantum development in the telecommunications industry all over the world is very

rapid as one innovation replaces another in a matter of weeks. A major breakthrough is

the wireless telephone system which comes in either fixed wireless telephone lines or the

Global System of Mobile Communications (GSM). Communication without doubt is a

major driver of any economy. Emerging trends in socio-economic growth shows a high

premium being placed on information and communication technology (ICT) by homes,

organizations, and nations.

Nigeria is not left out in this race for rapid development as the nation’s economy

has been subjected to years of economic reversal via mismanagement and bad leadership.

The Nigerian telecommunications sector has been grossly underdeveloped over the past

few years. Nigerian telecommunication market looks forward to achieve a tele-density of

100% by 2020 driven by massive telephone and mobile communication improvements,

calling for a huge growth in the ICT sector. Nigeria, with a population of nearly 140

million people being serviced by 60 phone Lines, a 45% success rate in a development

where in it will boost the Nigerian economy and infrastructure. No modern economy can

thrive without an integral information technology and telecommunications infrastructure.

This is because ICTs provide the veritable platform for development across the economic

and other sectors if well harnessed.

If the goal is achieved, Nigeria would then have as many phone lines which can

impressively improve the lives of the local people in as far as communication through

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telephone, cell phone and internet is concerned. Today the ratio stands at 1:1 implying

that a Nigerian individual living in an urban center owns three communication lines in the

sense that at work and home an individual will be serviced by telephone lines and a

mobile cellular phone, to make it three gadgets of communication At the moment, there

are five major Global System for Mobile (GSM) Telecommunicationoperators in Nigeria:

GLO, Airtel, GloMobile, Etisalat and MTEL. GLO enjoys the greatest patronage, with

over 35.1 million subscribers. It was predicted that between 2003 and 2006, Nigeria's

GSM market would be Africa's fastest growing mobile market, and this prediction had

long been fulfilled. The competition is getting fiercer by the day as operators have to

compete desperately for the same potential subscribers.Congestion is a problem all GSM

service providers are facing and trying to solve; the first issue that needs to be tackled by

a G.S.M operator is the provision of network coverage to the target population. Calls

cannot be made or received in areas where there is no network. Again, where a network

exists but has poor connectivity; calls may be difficult to make or receive. However, poor

connectivity of call may occur as a result ofa number of factors such as Handoff, Dead-

zone, Construction material from the environment, A damaged cell phone Antenna,

weather, Cell phone Roaming Software is not updated or corrupted,Cell phone Power

supply(Jeff, 2012; Wikipedia, 2012) chief among, which is congestion. Congestion is a

situation that arises when the number of calls emanating or terminating from a particular

network is more than the capacity that the network is able to cater for at a particular time.

1.1 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

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 In 2012 as noted by Mughele and Olatokun (2012),Congestion is a situation that

arises when the number of calls emanating or terminating from a particular network is

more than the capacity that the network is able to cater for at a particular time”.

Asidentified by Kuboye (2010),that Congestion is the unavailability of network to the

subscriber at the time of making a call. Congestion causes call signals to queue on the

transmission channel. It is the situation when the blocking occurs and no free path can be

provided for an offered call (Syski, 1986).Consequently, the rate of transfer of voice

signals is reduced or quality of signals received become distorted or both. At worse, the

calls will not connect at all. There are technical mechanisms along the transmission link

that tend to create or worsen congestion. When a number is dialed on a G.S.M phone, the

call is routed to the nearest base station where the Base Transceiver Station (BTS)

receives, amplifies, and reroutes the call to the Base Station Controller (BSC). TheBSC

controls and manages single or multiple BTSs and communicates directly with the

Mobile service Switching Center (MSC) with an interface called the “A” Interface .The

MSC finally routs the calls to its destination after the credit statusof the call have been

confirmed by the pre-billing software. The balance of the capacity of these interfacing

devices vice a vice the demand from subscribers determine the condition of congestion.

Except where there are emergency calls and power outage, calls are transmitted at the

required speed.

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1.2 METHODOLOGY

In this study the following steps would be undertaken to achieve the required aim

of this research paper, which to develop possible solution to reduce congestion on the

GSM networking system.

1. Carry out a literature review on congestion as a problem in the network

2. Study the architecture of the GLO network and its possible problem

3. Identify the possible causes of congestion; study the causes of congestion on the

user(subscriber) side and causes of congestion on the network side

4. Discuss the existing congestion control mechanism on the network

5. Discuss the models by researchers who have worked on the problem

6. Using cell-splitting to decongest the network by applying mathematical model

formula to check the call blocking probability using the Erlang B Formula and

assigning by using the Fixed Channel Allocation scheme

7. Design a model of how cell-splitting can be implemented on the network

1.3 OBJECTIVE OF STUDY

The study intends to determine the causes of congestion in the GLO network, and

to proffer likely solution that will reduce the problems associated with

networkCongestion on the GLO Network.

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1.4 SCOPE OF STUDY

This study covers network connectivity and traffic control of GLO network in

Nigeria. The system covers all forms of voice calls across the network,the causes of

congestion, the solutions to congestion and the implementation.

1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY

This study will help us to know the status of GSM network(GLO) resource

allocation in Nigeria with a view to knowing the congestion model to be used for better

performance of their network.This research work will aid Telecommunication Company

to achieve the following:

 Keep records of calls in their network

 Using Cell-Splitting as the Major method of control of congestion in the network

 To also enlighten Nigerians to understand the issue of Congestion and the reasons

for poor connectivity

1.6 LIMITATIONS OF STUDY

Some of the constraints encountered during this project design include the

following:

Inadequate power: as a result I will have to wait for power to able to run my Laptop to

research.

Internet: unavailability of internet and the high cost of subscribing just to get access to

the web.

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Scarcity of research materials: it was difficult getting hold of research materials

especially on the ones which are concentrated on our Nigerian GSM operators (for

instance GLO) which required me trying to get expert help from people in the field; that

is I will have to wait for them to create an appointment with me.

1.7 DEFINITIONS OF TERMS

HANDOVER (sometimes called Handoff): Process by which a phone connects to the

nearest BTS whiling walking or moving(in a car) from one location to another.

BTS(Base Transceiver Station): usually known as Tower (Mast) that provide a GSM

reception/signal to the subscriber.

Dead zone: A place or region of low signal reception or no signal at all

MS(Mobile Station):This is known as a mobile phone or mobile computer. The term MS

is mainly used in the 2G system in GSM

Cell:The area covered by a BTS.

USER EQUIPMENT:Mobile phones and mobile computers. The term User Equipment

(UE) is used in the 3G GSM system

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 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 THE GLO NIGERIA NETWORKING SYSTEM

GLO Nigeria like every other GSM network provider follows the standard of the

International Telecommunication Union (ITU) standardization sectorof the “global

telecommunications standards”. ITU was founded in 1865 to coordinate the shared use of

radio spectrum, promotes international cooperation in assigning satellite orbits, works to

improve telecommunication infrastructure in the developing world and assists in the

development and coordination of worldwide technical standards.(Wikipedia 2013).

The global telecommunication standards and infrastructural design define the

different elements within the GSM network architecture. It defines the element and the

ways in which they interact to enable the overall system operation to be maintained.

Despite the development in the system, the basic GSM system architecture has been

maintained. GLO Nigeria has been able to develop such a network system which is been

describe below.

The GLO network architecture as defined in the Global Telecommunication

Standard can be grouped into 4 main areas (Poole, 2013).

 Mobile Station (MS)

 Base-Station Subsystem (BSS)

 Network and Switching Subsystem (NSS)

 Operation and Support Subsystem (OSS)

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Mobile Station (MS): The Mobile Station (MS) comprises of all user equipment and

software needed for communication with a mobile network. The mobile station refers to

global system connected to the mobile network, i.e. mobile phone or mobile computer

connected using a mobile broadband adapter. This is the terminology of 2G systems like

GSM. In the 3G systems, mobile station(MS) is now referred as User Equipment (UE).

In GSM, the mobile station consists of four main components (TTC Mobile,2012):

o Mobile Termination (MT) – offers common functions such as: radio transmission

and Handover, speech encoding and decoding, Error detection and correction,

signaling and access to the SIM. The IMEI code is attached to the MT. it is

equivalent to the network termination of an ISDN access

o Terminal Equipment (TE) - is any device connected to the MS offeringServices

to the user. It does not contain any functions specific to GSM

o Terminal adapter (TA) - Provides access to the MT as if it was an ISDN network

termination with extended capabilities. Communication between the TE and MT

over the TA takes place using AT commands.

o Subscriber Identity Module (SIM) - is a removable subscriber identification

token storing the IMSI a unique key shared with the mobile network operator and

other data.

Base Station Subsystem (BSS):is the section of a traditional cellular telephone network

which is responsible for handling traffic and signaling between a mobile phone and the

network switching subsystem. The BSS carries out transcoding of speech channels,
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allocation of radio channels to mobile phones, paging, transmission and reception over

the air interface and many other tasks related to the radio network. It is made up of

several BTSs and BSC(introduction to GSM engineering, TTC Mobile, 2013).

1. The Base Transceiver Station, or BTS, contains the equipment for transmitting

and receiving radio signals (transceivers), antennas, and equipment for encrypting

and decrypting communications with the base station controller (BSC).

2. The Base Station Controller (BSC) provides, classically, the intelligence behind

the BTSs. Typically a BSC has tens or even hundreds of BTSs under its control. The

BSC handles allocation of radio channels, receives measurements from the mobile

phones, and controls handovers from BTS to BTS (except in the case of an inter-

BSC handover in which case control is in part the responsibility of the anchor

MSC).A key function of the BSC is to act as a concentrator where many different

low capacity connections to BTSs (with relatively low utilizations) become reduced

to a smaller number of connections to BTSs (with a high level of utilizations).

Overall, this means that networks are often structured to have many BSCs

distributed into regions near their BTSs which are connected to large centralized

MSC sites.

Network Switching Subsystem (NSS) orGSM core network): is the component ofa

GSM system that carries out call switching and mobility management functions

formobile phones roaming on the network of base stations. It is owned and deployed

bymobile phone operators and allows mobile devices to communicate with each otherand

telephones in the wider Public Switched Telephone Network or (PSTN). Thearchitecture

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contains specific features and functions which are needed because thephones are not

fixed in one location.

The NSS basically consist of Mobile Switching Center (MSC), Home Location

Register (HLR), Visitor Location Register (VLR), Equipment Identity Register (EIR),

and Authentication Center (AUC) (TTC Mobile, 2013).

o Mobile Switching Center (MSC): is the primary service delivery node for

GSM/CDMA, responsible for routing voice calls and SMS as well as other services

(such as conference calls, FAX and circuit switched data).

The MSC sets up and releases the end-to-end connection, handles mobility and

hand-over requirements during the call and takes care of charging and real time prepaid

account monitoring.

o The Home Location Register (HLR): is a central database that contains details of

each mobile phone subscriber that is authorized to use the GSM core network also

contains all the administrative information about each subscriber along with their last

known location. In this way, the GSM network is able to route calls to the relevant

base station for the MS. When a user switches on their phone, the phone registers

with the network and from this it is possible to determine which BTS it

communicates with so that incoming calls can be routed appropriately. Even when

the phone is not active (but switched on) it re-registers periodically to ensure that the

network (HLR) is aware of its latest position. There is one HLR per network,

although it may be distributed across various sub-centers for operational reasons.

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The HLRs store details of every SIM card issued by the mobile phone operator. Each

SIM has a unique identifier called an IMSI which is the primary key to each HLR

record.

Examples of other data stored in HLR are:

1 GSM services that the subscriber has requested or been given.

2 GPRS settings to allow the subscriber to access packet services.

3. Current location of subscriber (VLR and serving GPRS support node/SGSN).

4. Call diverts settings applicable for each associated MSISDN.

o The AUthentication Centre (AUC): is a function to authenticate each SIM card

that attempts to connect to the GSM core network (typically when the phone is

powered on). Once the authentication is successful, the HLR is allowed to manage

the SIM and services described above. An encryption key is also generated that is

subsequently used to encrypt all wireless communications (voice, SMS, etc.)

between the mobile phone and the GSM core network.

o Equipment Identity Register (EIR):The EIR is the entity that decides whether a

given mobile equipment may be allowed onto the network. Each mobile

equipment has a number known as the International Mobile Equipment Identity.

This number, as mentioned above, is installed in the equipment and is checked by

the network during registration. Dependent upon the information held in the EIR,

the mobile may be allocated one of three states - allowed onto the network, barred

access, or monitored in case its develop problems.

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 o Visitor Location on Register (VLR): This contains selected information from the

HLR that enables the selected services for the individual subscriber to be provided.

The VLR can be implemented as a separate entity, but it is commonly realised as

an integral part of the MSC, rather than a separate entity. In this way access is

made faster and more convenient.

Operation Support Subsystem: The OSS or operation support subsystem is an element

within the overall GSM network architecture that is connected to components of the NSS

and the BSC. It is used to control and monitor the overall GSM network and it is also

used to control the traffic load of the BSS. It must be noted that as the number of BS

increases with the scaling of the subscriber population some of the maintenance tasks are

transferred to the BTS, allowing savings in the cost of ownership of the system (Ian

Poole).

The GSM network is made up of geographic areas. These areas include cells,

location areas (LAs), MSC/VLR service areas, public land mobile network (PLMN) areas

and GSM service areas.

Thelocation area (LA) is a group of cells. It is the area in which the subscriber ispaged

(Figure 2.1. Each LA is served by one or more base station controllers, yet only by a

single MSC. Each LA is assigned a location area identity (LAI) number.

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 Figure 2.1 The location area (TTC Mobile,2012)

The MSC/VLR Service area represents the part of the GSM network that is covered by

one MSC and which is reachable in Figure 2.2, as it is registered on the VLR of the MSC.

Figure 2.2 MSC/VLR service area. (TTC Mobile,2012)

The PLMN service area is an area served by one network operator. Currently the GLO

PLMN is approximately the whole of Nigeria

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 Figure2.3 PLMN Service Area.(TTC Mobile 2012)

GSM Service Area is the collection of PLMNs in which one can use a single MS.

Figure 2.4 GSM Service Area (TTC Mobile,2012)

GLO and every telecommunication company in Nigeria could have difficulty in

providing the level of service they have at the same cost if they didn’t implement the

some technologies known as Multiplexing Technologies, though this is a widely

acceptable technology as it is in the standard of the Global

TelecommunicationStandardization. These methods are basically known as Frequency

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Division Multiplexing Access (FDMA) and Time Division Multiplexing Access

(TDMA).

FDMA or Frequency Division Multiplexing Access is a method of dividing a single

band into 30 discrete channels. Each channel would then be capable of handling separate

traffic, whether it’s a call or a data transfer. This is a higher level of multiplexing and

should not be confused with FDM (Frequency Division Multiplexing) which is a low

level multiplexing process and occurs on the physical layer. To achieve its purpose,

FDMA hardware includes high performance filters that also aid it in avoiding near-far

problems which can deteriorate the call quality.

Where frequency-division multiplexing is used as to allow multiple users to share a

physical communications channel, it is called frequency-division multiple access

(FDMA).

Time Division Multiplexing Access or TDMA is the second form of high level

multiplexing that also allows more subscribers to use the same frequency band.

TDMA divides a single channel into 3 discrete time partitions. Each time partition is only

for a few milliseconds at a time, therefore each channel is sending data in a round robin

fashion. In order to ensure that the data is properly synchronized, each time packet

contains data in between 2 guard periods. The processes of TDMA are a little bit more

difficult to implement due to the timing required so that the data packets are

distinguishable. It also requires a little bit more overhead in synchronization due to the

multiple packets that need to be put back together in order to form a single signal.

15
When it allows several users to share the same frequency channel by dividing the signal

into different time slots it is known as Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA). The

users transmit in rapid succession, one after the other, each using his own time slot. This

allows multiple stations to share the same transmission medium (e.g. radio frequency

channel) while using only a part of its channel capacity. TDMA is used in the digital 2G

cellular systems such as Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM), IS-136,

Personal Digital Cellular (PDC) and iDEN, and in the Digital Enhanced Cordless

Telecommunications (DECT) standard for portable phones. It is also used extensively in

satellite systems, and combat-net radio systems. For usage of Dynamic TDMA packet

mode communication.

Figure 2.5 TDMA (TTC Mobile,2012)

Characteristics of TDMA:

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 1. Shares single carrier frequency with multiple users

2. Non-continuous transmission makes handoff simpler

3. Slots can be assigned on demand in dynamic TDMA

4. Less stringent power control than CDMA due to reduced intra cell interference

5. Higher synchronization overhead than CDMA

6. Advanced equalization may be necessary for high data rates if the channel is

"Frequency selective" and creates Inter-symbol interference

7. Cell breathing (borrowing resources from adjacent cells) is more complicated than

in CDMA

8. Frequency/slot allocation complexity

9. Pulsating power envelop: Interference with other devices

The two multiplexing technologies are the major buildingblocks of every GSM

network in the world. So far the architecture of a standard GSM have been discussed and

these is the architecture GLO and every GSM provider I the world has implemented.

2.2 COMMON PROBLEMS OF THE NETWORK

The GSM network is a large and complex network and with so much equipment

and elements to connect with, such a network must encounter problems from time to time

as the number of users that subscribe with the network increases. GLO been the largest

GSM network in Nigeria by the number of users subscribed to the network have some

common problems which we are going to be looking at but first lets discuss some of the

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 reasons the GSM network was accepted in Nigeria (Kuboye, 2010; Guardiannews ,

2014):

1. Quality: It produces a sharp and clear sound quality. The noise and distortionsare

reduced and drop out calls are fewer than analog.

2. Security: Everything you send and say within the digital network is safe because of its

authentication encryption key distribution that guarantees the privacy of the call and

caller identification restrictions

3. Capacity: The digital network service allows more calls to be handled at a time than

analog, thereby accommodate more users than analog systems.

4. Convenience: GSM battery charge life span is twice that of analog therefore more

convenient to use than that of analog and not as bulky as the analog mobile phone.

5. Data service: The data service like SMS fax, offered by GSM makes things easier for

people.

6. The reduction in the tariff: No matter the distance within the country the service rate

remains the same. This has really had an edge over the wired telephone that depends on

the distance for service rate.

7. Roaming: GSM subscribers are able to use their mobile phones in a number of

countries around the world where GSM network is in operation. The international

roaming allows service access outside the home network coverage area. Therefore,

when traveling abroad, you only need to know if your home country GSM operator has

roaming agreement with any of the operators in that country you are visiting.

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8. The low acquisition rate: In Nigeria the amount of money needed to acquire a GSM

line and phone cannot be compared to the one you will use to have wired telephone

before, so this has really attracted many subscribers.

Now that we have seen the reason for the acceptance of GSM in the country we should

look at the common problems associated with GLO in the country.

Poor Quality of Service (QoS): At some times during a call, there could be noises in the

background which could be caused by several reasons like interference, bad weather etc.

Slow Data Services: At some points data services are not available or might be slow due

to multiple accesses by users. They could improve on that by increasing the bandwidth

given out for internet services.

Congestion: This is a problem associated with voice calls, which could lead to call drop

or no connectivity. This is a very serious issue with Most GSM companies in Nigeria.

Poor connectivity: this could be due to Low reception/Signal, lower power of MS (user

side) and some times during Hand-over and Bad weather.

GLO should improve on these problems and device solution for the problems. So

far the issue of congestion has been the biggest problem of all GSM companies in the

world as d number of subscriber increase they need to provide more resources to cater for

the subscribers.

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2.2.1 CONGESTION PROBLEM OF THE GLO NETWORK

After noting the common problems of the network, congestion which is the most

common of them and also a problem usually associated with the network side not really a

user-side problem is going to be treated in detail.

What is Congestion?

Congestion is the unavailability of network to the subscriber at a time of making a

call.it is a situation when a blocking occur and no free path can be provided for an offered

call (Syski, 1986). That is, when a subscriber cannot obtain a connection to the wanted

subscriber immediately.

2.2.2 FINDINGS OF CONGESTION ON THE GLO NETWORK

The system’s capacity of the GLO network was obtained from the Radio

Frequency Analyzer Manager, Engr. Wasiu Otukoya of the GLO National Networking

Headquarters in Victoria Island Lagos. Otukoya (2009) explained that the base

transceiver station (BTS) cabinet of the GLO network can take twelve transceivers .On

the average, the BTS of the GLO network deploys two cabinets and each cabinet contains

twelve transceivers. It therefore consists of twenty-four transceivers and each of them is

sectorized into three parts. There are eight transceivers per sector. This implies that one

transceiver can accommodate eight-time slot. Meaning eight calls can be received

simultaneously at a time, this can be expressed as 8*8 = 64, but not all the 64 are

available for callcommunication, others are used for call set up, so four of the time slot

20
are used for the call set up, hence we have 60 slots available, there are 60*3 time slot for

each of the sectors, by implication, one GLO site can handle 180 calls simultaneously.

This is the average capacity of BTS. On the other hand, the base station controller

(BSC) capacity depends on how busythe transceivers are.Typically on the average, a BSC

can handle between 30 to 50 BTSs’. One mobile switching Centre can handle one base

station controller. On the average, it is a ratio of 1: 1. Each of the BTS,BSC, and MSC in

the various parts of the country has the same capacity except Ojota, which is GLO’s

biggest Switching Centre in Nigeria (Otukoya, 2009).A data was carried out for the

number of calls attempted, established and congested on a daily basis throughout Nigeria

for 91 days (3 months). , the total number of calls attempted in the GLO network for

91days is 13,249,678,058, the total number of call established is 12,965,155,325, and the

number of call congested is 284,522,733. The average number of call attempted per day

is 147,218,645, average number of calls established is 144,057,281 and congested calls

are 3,161,364. Comparing the above data with the maximum capacity of the GLO

network; which is the number of calls the BTS deployed all over the country can handle

within a time slot. The GLO network has about 2,500 BTS nationwide; this implies that

at peak period the BTS can accommodate 180*2,500 calls. This gives 450,000 which is

the maximum capacity of the BTS at a time nationwide. When every transmission link is

utilized, the extent of adequate available capacity can be evaluated when we compare the

number of calls the network is capable of taking within a time slot which, as 450,000, and

the average number of call that the network receives per day which, is 147,218,645. This

21
implies that on the average per day 3,161,364, number of calls or subscribers suffer from

congestion resulting from the GLO network.

2.2.3 SOME COMMON CAUSES OF CONGESTION

On the network side four elements are related to congestion or indicate that a call

could not be completed as itemized by Kuboye (2006):

1. Traffic channels congestion (TCHC): Traffic channels (TCH) represent a voice

channel and each call uses TCH. There are eight channels defined for each radio

frequency carrier and most are used for traffic channels and some for control

channels (Mehrotra, 1997). When there is no free voice channel (TCH), then, we

have traffic channels congestion (TCHC).

2. Dedicated control channel congestion (DCHC): Standalone dedicated control

channel (SDCCH) is to provide authentication to mobile station, location updating

and assignments to voice channel (TCHs) during idle periods (Mehrotra, 1997).

When making a call or responding to paging message for the allocation of an

SDCCH for authentication, if there is no vacant SDCCH to use at that time, the call

will be terminated. This failure is called the dedicated control channel congestion.

3. Common control channels congestion (CCCHC): Common control channel is a

group of control channels that support the establishment and maintenance of

communication links between the mobile stations and base stations (Harte et al.,

1999). It consists of random access channel (RACH), paging channels (PCH) and

access grant channel (AGCH). RACH is used to make request for network

22
 assignment, PCH is used to alert the mobile station of incoming call and AGCH is

used to assign mobile station to a specific DCCH or SDCCH for onward

communication. When any of these three control channels is congested, there cannot

be any call establishment between the sender and receiver, then, we have CCCH

congestion

4. Pulse code modulation congestion (PCMC): Pulse code modulation (PCM) or E1

is the link required to connect the base station (BS) and mobile-switching center

(MSC) together. Each PCM can carry between 1 and 32 calls. When there is no free

PCM to carry the call signals between the BS and MSC, then we have pulse code

modulation congestion.

Other factors that could lead to congestion are:

1. Inadequate radio channels and infrastructure to support the vast number of

subscribers on the network.

2. Redialing of subscribers when they experience blocking.

3. Too many users on the network.

4. Marketing strategies and pricing schemes also affect traffic behaviour since this

would have increased the number of subscribers on the network

5. Use of the old equipment facilities instead of new ones.

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2.3 MODELS TO CONTROL CONGESTION PROBLEM OF THE

NETWORK

Some of the models that have been developed to manage and control congestion

have been discussed in Chapter one earlier but we are going to share more light on them

in this section. The models are listed as follows:

 Dynamic allocation without time slicing

 Dynamic allocation time slicing with signal sensing

 Block time sharing

 Priority Allocation

 Frequently recent call allocation

 Multi Band

 Cell Splitting

 Micro Cell

1. Dynamic allocation without time slicing: This will allow calls to occupy the channel

without given any time range. Any call that enters the channel will finish it work

before allowing any other call to the channel. Also it allows any call that is ready to

seize the channel without any consideration. the following program help to illustrate

how the dynamic allocation without time slice can be implemented on the gsm side by

Kuboye (Kuboye et al 2011).

24
The Advantage of this method

 It allows the call to finish its work before any other call can be allowed to the

channel

The Disadvantage of this method

 Is that sometimes some calls might occupy the channel unnecessarily thereby

denying others from entering.

2. Dynamic Allocation Time Slicing with Signal Sensing: this method allows calls in a

channel with a maximum time interval. It is done by the Carrier sending a signal to all

available time slots to check if there is any call waiting and supposedly there is a call

waiting then the signal will interrupt (preempt) any call that has exhausted it time

interval given to it but if no call is waiting at that time then the call continues to use

the channel. This method could be shown by the following program provided below.

25
The Advantage of the Method

 it does not allow the system to be occupied unnecessarily

 it allows the subscriber to continue calling as long as they wish provided there is

no call waiting

The Disadvantage of this method

 It does not consider any call as important thereby essential calls will be pre-

empted without finishing the call

3. Block Time Sharing: This model is quite easy since it requires a call to have full

access according to the given time allocated to it. In this method the call cannot be

interrupted except the time interval has expired. But immediately the call time

allocated is expired the call will be disconnected to allow other calls. This couldbe

represented by the program below.

26
The Advantages of this Method are:

 It does not allow any call to a channel more than the allotted time.

 It also gives access to the call without interruption from any other call within the

time limit.

 It allows equal sharing among the call

The Disadvantage of this method

 it wastes service time. For those calls that do not finish their allotted time before

they exit the channel, the remaining time will be wasted

4. Priority allocation: In this method everybody should have a level of priority and this

priority should have been integrated into the SIM card. So, anytime anybody buys a

SIM card and activate it on the network, the priority level registered automatically.

The priority level will be used throughout the period of subscription of the subscriber

to the network. The level of priority will be determined by the nature of your service.
27
 This model will be able to take care of the executive essential duties officers like

President, Governors, fire fighters, police and so on. In other words principles of

arithmetic operation preferences will be used where the highest priority will gain

access to the channel before the lower priority. Also, people of the same priority will

follow any other model for managing equal priority. So this model is meant especially

for essential duties officers. In this model, time interrupt preemption will not apply;

their access to the network will not be terminated until they terminate it themselves.

The Advantage of this Method

 It will allow the essential duties calls to complete their calls without any interrupt

and thereby forestalls casualties that might occur if they were not given attention

The Disadvantage of this Method

 Is that so many calls will be denied access during the time when the essential

duties are on. Also, some calls that may be very important to some subscribers

might be dropped and immediate reconnection may not be possible easily.

28
5. Frequently recent call allocation: This method will give preference to some calls

that were denied access but immediately redial within a specified time. What that

means is that if there is any call that was among the one that came recently, the

system will give a higher preference above the ones that are just appearing for the first

time. This can be achieved by creating a small memory that will register the calls that

were not given any service. So if any of these calls comes again, the system will first

search the memory called cache if there is any of the call number has been registered

in the cache before and if there is, the call will be served first. No call number should

be allowed to stay more than a specified time interval like 1 minute in the cache so

that some calls will not have undue privilege over the other. Also, higher preference

will be given to numbers present in the cache. The memory should be created in the

BSC as this is the gateway of every call to MSC. This memory will not affect the
29
 performance of BSC negatively since only a minimal number that will be here due to

a purging mechanisms that will be removing the calls that have exceeded their I

minute duration time in the memory.

The Advantage of this Method

 It will not allow some calls to be starved for too long period of time

The Disadvantage of this Method

 It might lead to waste of service time because there might be a need to check every

call against the already registered call in the memory (Konstain et al, 2003)

6. Cell Splitting: So as the number of subscribers increases in a particular cell site and

the present channels could not carry them, the engineers should increase the number

of channels until the maximum number of channels per base station is exhausted. If

this is exhausted, then the engineers should think of cell splitting. The engineers

sometimes ought not to wait till the maximum number of channels are exhausted

30
 before doing the cell splitting because, too much of channels in a base station can

cause interference.

The Advantage of this Method

 Users in different geographical areas (in differentcells) may simultaneously use

the same frequency.

The Disadvantage of this Method

 Cost of implementation

 Interference could arise as a problem

7. Multiband: Operators who have access to spectrum in other frequency bands should

start deploying equipment to use those frequencies. In the situation where 900 GSM

type is installed, the operator should be thinking of 1800 GSM. This phenomenon is

referred to as multi-band system. That means, the 1800 GSM can be installed, so that

1800 bands will automatically handle some of the calls thereby relieving the 900

GSM type (Kuboye, 2006).

GSM-900 uses 890–915 MHz to send information from the mobile station to the base

station (uplink) and 935–960 MHz for the other direction (downlink), providing 124

RF channels (channel numbers 1 to 124) spaced at 200 kHz. Duplex spacing of 45

MHz is used. Guard bands 100 kHz wide are placed at either end of the range of

frequencies (Wikipedia, 2014) and GSM-1800 uses 1,710–1,785 MHz to send

information from the mobile station to the base transceiver station (uplink) and 1,805–

1,880 MHz for the other direction (downlink), providing 374 channels (channel

numbers 512 to 885). Duplex spacing is 95 MHz GSM-1800 is also called DCS

31
 (Digital Cellular Service) in the United Kingdom, while being called PCS in Hong

Kong[3] – to avoid confusion with GSM-1900 which is commonly called PCS in the

rest of the world. Mobile Communication Services on Aircraft (MCA) uses

GSM1800. Generally, the GSM-1800 has more frequency channels than the GSM-

900 so the switch could easily help in controlling or reducing the congestion level to a

minimal point.

The Advantage of this Method

 It eases congestion on a particular cell

The Disadvantage of this Method

 it is very costly to implement on the side of the GSM operators.

 Mobile phones which are not multi-band will not be supported on the network

(Cell) that has a different band in that area.

8. Micro Cell: In a situation where there is constant abnormal increase in the number of

subscribers for some interval of days consistently like in an airport environment,

stadium, churches (like camps), micro- cellular systems can be installed so as to take

care of the sudden increase in the number of subscribers. The use of micro cells to

cover hot-spots cell offload the macro cells, and help operators to avoid the cost of

having to split cells. As traffic increases, the number of micro cells and indoor cells

will also continue to grow (Kuboye, 2006). By adding more capacity to the micro

cells, operators can achieve an extreme boost in capacity.

The Advantage of this Method

 Increased system capacity.

32
  Hand-over is reduced i.e no call drop is experienced during roaming.

The Disadvantage of this Method

 Implementation cost

 Too much power will result in interference

2.4 RELATED WORKS

In 2003, Konstain (2003) proposed the Frequently Call Allocationmodel,this

method simply gives preference to some calls that were denied access but immediately

redial within a specified time. This can be achieved by creating a small memory that will

register the calls that were not given any service. So if any of these calls comes again, the

system will first search the memory called cache if there is any of the call number has

been registered in the cache before and if there is, the call will be served first. No call

number should be allowed to stay more than a specified time interval like 1 minute in the

cache so that some calls will not have undue privilege over the other. Also, higher

preference will be given to numbers present in the cache. The memory should be created

in the BSC as this is the gateway of every call to MSC. This memory will not affect the

performance of BSC negatively since only a minimal number that will be here due to a

purging mechanisms that will be removing the calls that have exceeded their I minute

duration time in the memory.

Robin Coombs and Raymond Steele (1999) proposed Microcells system. The

analysis of the is for time-division multiple access (TDMA) with frequency hopping,

power control, and discontinuous transmission, and the radio channel is composed of an

33
inverse fourth power path loss law with log-normal fading. We commence by introducing

a single microcell into a hexagonal cluster of macro-cells before considering clustered

microcells. Both omnidirectional and sectorized cells are examined. We find that high

reuse factors are required when channel sharing is employed. When channel partitioning

is used, no co-channel interference occurs between the microcells and the macro-cells

allowing themto be planned independently since it can increase the number of channels

per cell without an increase in co-channel interference. The co-channel interference

problems of sharing frequencies between microcells and existing macro-cells have been

investigated. Based on the assumptions made, it was found that an isolated microcell

could operate under a macro-celllayer of cluster size greater than 12.

Kuboye (2006)proposed the Block Time Sharing scheme where each call would

be given a maximum block of time and when the actual time allocated to the given call

expires, the call will be dropped. The merits and demerit of this model has already been

stated above. He also proposed the Dynamic allocation without time slicing.

Harte (2009) proposed Dynamic half rate techniques which involves the process

whereby only half of the normal data rate (full rate) is assigned to a user operating on a

communication channel (typically a cellular). By reducing the data rate, the number of

users that can share the radio communication channel can be increased. Creating half rate

can double radio channel’s capacity. GSM is designed so that it can easily accommodate

a half rate speech coder. The use of this higher data compression rates reduces the

amount of data required per user and this increases the number of users that can share a

radio channel. Considering the benefit to be gained by the operator (the subscribers

34
number will doubled and improved network that will be enjoyed by the subscribers), a

campaign should begin to let the operators and subscribers know this benefit so that they

can go and buy half-rate enabled equipment.

Kuboye et al (2011) proposed the process of simulating the network using the

Erlang B formula traffic model. It explores the use of Erlang-B in determining the

appropriate probability level for some range of subscribers. When a network is properly

dimensioned, the channels will be used more efficiently and will produce greater user

satisfaction. On the other side, poor modeling of traffic characteristics can actually affect

system performance. When cells are un-der-dimensioned, not enough radio channels are

installed. This will lead to congestion in the cell, and it also may affect overall system

performance. The network planning is built around three variables:

• Servers: This is the channel that handles calls.

• Traffic: This is the use of radio channels.

• Grade of service: The probability that all servers will be busy when a call is

attempted.

When networks Engineer already know the blocking probability in advance, then

he will be able to plan ahead the means of increasing the number of channels when the

number of users to cause this blocking ratio is approaching.

Afolabi, and Olabiyisi used Dijktra’s routing algorithm to propose a congestion

control mechanism. The Dijktra’s algorithm is one of the standard algorithms that

determine the shortest route between any two nodes, towns or villages in a Local Area

network, road network respectively. It also determine the most efficient message route

35
betweeneach, two geographic area in a GSM network. The Dijktra’s algorithm uses a

special labeling convention to label the various nodes of the network. It begins by

labeling the nodes temporary and proceeds until all the nodes have been labeled,

permanent. The Dijkstra’s algorithm terminates when you have labeled all the nodes as

permanent labels, but it begins by labeling the source node with the permanent label,

P[0,-]s, 0, in this label means that the distance from the source node to the node s, P,

denotes a permanent label, while, -, means that there is no sequence node to the source

node. Therefore, application of Dijkstra’s routing algorithm model is needed to control

congestion in GSM network by finding the shortest route path between the source and the

destination. Dijkstra’s routing algorithm models are in their simplicity and easy to use,

which are very appropriate. The importance of the subscribers’ retrials and redials cannot

be overlay emphasized in the network planning since the GSM network operators charge

users when the call set-up is successful, the blocking affect the revenues and leads to

customers’ dissatisfaction.

36
 CHAPTER THREE

SYSTEM ANALYSIS

As noted earlier in chapter two, Cell splitting is the process of subdividing a

congested cell into smaller cells each with its own base station and a corresponding

reduction in antenna height and transmitter power.

Cell splitting involves installing smaller cells there by increasing the capacity of

the original cell which is achieved because it increases the number of times the channels

are reused. This concept simply means the macro cell which was installed in a geography

area which covers that area would be shared amongst smaller cells to cover that same

area. The advantage of these is that these new cells would each have its own independent

channels assigned to it. Also there is room for frequency reuse.

Take note that the area covered by a BTS is called a cell. Cell splitting just

involves the splitting of that cell (area) into smaller cells. This is achieved by reducing

the Radius of the original cell with the mathematical expression (R/2). This is achieved

by reducing the power of transmission of the smaller cells.

Fig 3.1 Original cell Splitted cell

Figure 3.1 cell splitting

37
 Hexagonal geometry is used to represent a cell because by using hexagonal

geometry, the fewest number of cells can cover a geographic region, and hexagon closely

approximates a circular radiation pattern which would occur for an Omni-directional

antenna and free space propagation.

Earlier in chapter two it was discussed that GLO uses the GSM 900 technology

which is the most popular of all the cellular mobile technology. The GSM 900 has a

frequency bandwidth at 890-915MHz in uplink to send information from the Mobile

Station to the Base transceiver station (BTS) and 935- 960 MHz in downlink in the

opposite direction there by GSM 900 provides 124 carrier Radio Frequency (RF)

channels for voice.

Dividing a cell into smaller cells in Figure 3.2 will increase the number of

channels in that area and thereby increasing the capacity.

Figure 3.2 Cell splitting (Kumar and Verma 2014)

38
 By following cell splitting, the new small cells are reassigned new frequencies that

do not cause co‐channel interference with adjacent cells as shown in the above figure. In

addition, the power transmitted in the small cells is reduced compared to the power

transmitted in the large cells as it would require much less power to cover the cell

compared to the large cells (Kumar and Verma 2014).

Knowing cell splitting is about splitting an original cell into parts by introducing

smaller cells by reducing their power. The consequence of cell splitting is that the

frequency is going to be assigned again, which affects neighboring cells.

Frequency Reuse: The concept of frequency reuse is based on assigning to each cell a

group of radio channels used within a small geographic area called cell. Cells are

assigned a group of radio channels that is completely different from neighboring cells.

The coverage area of cell is called the footprint. This footprint is limited by a boundary

so that the same group of channels can be used in different cells that are far enough away

from each other so that their frequencies do not interfere. This is a very important aspect

of cell splitting. An example of frequency reuseis as shown in the Fig 3.1 above. No

adjacent cells can have same frequency.

For the new cells to be smaller in size, the transmit power of these cells must be

reduced. The transmit power of the new cells with radius half that of the original cells can

be found by examining the received power ,Pr, at the new and old cell boundaries and

setting them equal to each other. This is necessary to ensure that the frequency reuse plan

for the new small cells (SC) behaves exactly as for the original cells.

Pr[original cell] α Pt1(R)-n - - - - - - 1

39
where Pt1 is the Transmitter Power of the original cell

R
Pr[small cell]α Pt2( )-n- - - - - - - 2
2

Where Pt2 is the Transmitter Power of small cell

Where n is the Path loss

Therefore, if we take n=4 and set the Received Power equal of equation 1 and 2

(assuming perfect power control)

Pt 1
We get that Pt2 = - - - - - - - 3
16

In other words, the transmit power must be reduced by 12 dB in order to fill in the

original coverage area with small cells (SC), while maintaining the S/I requirement

3.1 RELATED WORKS ON CELL SPLITTING

Afsana andAditya (2013) proposed that the capacity and coverage area of GSM

system have been studied and presented the importance of using link budget calculations,

determining the path loss and cell range for RF coverage planning and improving

capacity using cell splitting.The major contribution is to estimate the coverage of GSM

system which depends on BS antenna height, transmitting antenna gain, output power of

BS for propagation environment such as rural, sub-urban and urban case. MATLAB has

been used for simulation and performance evaluation of capacity and coverage in GSM

system. Path loss for uplink and downlink has been calculated using Link

Calculator.Analysis reveals that coverage area improves significantly considering

spectral efficiency, interference cell sectoring and cell splitting.

40
 Sohrab et al (2013) proposed cell splitting by undergoing the following process of

calculating the processing gain, number of subscribers requesting for service within each

type of cell, user-transmitted in-band signal power to achieve desired SNR, probability

that a call attempt fails and also compared the results by simulating their equations using

MATLAB simulation software.Processing gain is the ratio of chip rate to the data rate or

information bit rate. Processing gain measures the interference sensitivity for CDMA

receivers. Processing gain is also sometimes known as spreading gain. As we split the

larger congested macro cell into smaller micro, pico and femto cells, more number of

subscribers are handled by more than one base station, due to which processing gain of

the site to process the traffic generated by subscribers increases from a lower value in

case of macro cell to higher value in case of micro and pico cells and highest value in

case of femto cell.

Coombs and Steele (1999) used the performance in terms of signal-to-

interferenceratio (SIR), tele-traffic, and spectral efficiency of a combined macro-cellular

and microcellular network is investigated when either both types of cells share the same

channel set, or when the channel set is partitioned between the macro-cells and the

microcells. The analysis is for time-division multiple accesses (TDMA)with frequency

hopping, power control, and discontinuous transmission, and the radio channel is

composed of an inverse fourth-power path loss law with log-normal fading. The SIR in

the macro-cell was not degraded significantly by the presence of a microcell provided the

microcell had a radius less than one quarter that of the macro-cell, and was placed at a

distance greater than two macro-cell radii away from the co-channel BS. Implementation

41
of multiple microcellsin existing macro-cells can only be achieved in a practical situation

by employing frequency partitioning.

Lee and Kang (2009) proposed a way implementing new smaller by using the

Tabu Search Approach. The cell planning of new base station is formulated as an integer

linear programming problem and solved by a Tabu Search algorithm. In the tabu search

intensification by add and drop move is implemented by short term memory embodied by

two tabu lists. Diversification is designed to investigate proper capacities of new base

stations and to restart the tabu search from new base station locations. Computational

results show that the proposed tabu search is highly effective. 10% cost reduction is

obtained by the diversification strategies. The problem decides the location and capacity

of each new base station to cover expanded and increased traffic demand. The objective

is to minimize the cost of new base stations. The coverage by the new and existing base

stations is constrained to satisfy a proper portion of traffic demands. The received signal

power at the base station also has to meet the receiver sensitivity.

ZTE Corporation (2003) proposed that by applying cell splitting, each cell has its

own base stations. The antenna should be shortened and the transmitter power should be

reduced accordingly,because cell splitting increases the re-use times of the channel.

Suppose each cell is split by half of its radius, as shown in Figure 3.5 below. In order to

cover the whole service area with these smaller cells, about 4 times of the original cells

are needed. Draw a circle with the radius R to make it easier to understand. The circle

with radius R covers an area 4 times as large as that covered by the circle with radius R/2.

42
The increasing number of cells increases the number of clusters in the coverage area and

then the channel number in the coverage area, thus the capacity is increased.

Figure 3.5 cell splitting (ZTE Corporation, 2003)

The above figure is an example of cell splitting; the base station is placed on the

corner of the cell. Suppose that the traffic in service area of the base station A is saturated

(namely the congestion of base station A is over the acceptable value). Therefore new

BTSs are needed to increase the number of channels in the area and reduce the coverage

area of each single BTS. It can be seen in the figure that the original BTS is surrounded

by 6 new micro-cell BTSs. In the example shown in Figure 3.5, smaller cells are added

on the precondition that the frequency reuse plan of the system remains the same. For

example, the micro-cell BTS marked with G is set between two larger BTSs using the

same channel and also marked with G. It is the same with other micro-cell BTSs in the

figure. It can be seen from Figure 3.5 that cell splitting is the proportional reduction of

the geometrical shape of the cluster.

43
3.2 ANALYSIS OF PROPOSED SYSTEM

The proposed system which is cell splitting used to improving coverage area by

applying Relay theory and Fixed Channel Allocation (FCA). In this paper Relay theory is

going to be thoroughly analyzed and how it going to be used to get the total number of

channels to allocate to a cell. The fixed channel allocation scheme will be used to set up

static channels to the new cells i.e. after splitting is accomplished. The relay theory will

enable us determine the number of channels needed to cater for the traffic of subscribers

in the region and then using the FCA scheme to assign the channels.

3.2.1 SYSTEM PARAMETERS

3.2.1.2 Fixed Channel Allocation: in GSM, two schemes are used to assign frequency

channels to Cells. With FCA, a set of channels is permanently assigned to eachcell,

according to the allowed reuse distance. Each cell is given a predetermined set of

frequency channels. FCA requires manual frequency planning, which is an arduous task

in TDMA and FDMA based systems since such systems are highly sensitive to co-

channel interference from nearby cells that are reusing the same channel (Wikipedia,

2003). The major drawback of this scheme is that the numbers of channel remain

constant irrespective of the number of customers in that cell.

The Dynamic Channel Allocation (DCA) scheme is the second method of channel

allocation. This method involves when channels are not assigned permanently to the cell,

instead for every call request base station request from MSC (Wikipedia, 2003)

44
Comparison of Channel Allocation Scheme

The method of channel allocation of DCA requires that the MSC does the

assignment of channels. By studying the MSC we can find that the duties of the MSC is

associated with the communication switching functions, such as call set-up , Release and

Routing. However it also performs a host of other duties, including routing SMS,

conference calls, fax, service billing as well as interfacing with other networks, such as

the PSTN and also handles Hand overs (Janssen, 2010).

With the many duties of the MSC, would be an overload to allow the MSC to be

responsible for channels assignments to base stations as this can also lead to delay, where

by a user might be needing a channel for communication.

3.2.1.2 Relay Theory:The cellular network system uses relay to meet the requirements of

large-capacity subscribers when radio spectrum is limited, because relay makes it

possible for a great many subscribers to share limited channel resources. Every

subscriber, when originating a call, can occupy a channel via the relay network, and at the

end of the call, the channel will be released and become available again for other

subscribers. Relay network can be set up based on the statistics of subscriber status, so

that a fixed number of channels or circuits will be able to bear a great deal of random

subscriber requirements.

The relay theory is dedicated to studying how to serve a great number of

subscribers by limited service grade (Grade of Service, GOS) capability. GOS is a

measure of the subscriber’s ability to enter the system when the system is the busiest.

Busyness is based on the requirements of a customer in a week, a month or a year. GOS

45
is used as the reference of the preset performance of a certain relay system. The work

here is to estimate the maximum communications capacity (Channels) needed by GOS

and allocate an appropriate number of channels. GOS is usually defined as the probability

of call blocking or the probability when the call delay time is longer than a given queuing

time.

Table 1: Relay Theory Parameters

Traffic Intensity (T)
Set up time( wait time)
Grade of Service
Load
The call that fails to complete in the request
time due to congestion. Also called call loss
The time needed to allocate a relay wireless
channel for a requesting subscriber.
A measure of congestion, defined as call
blocking probability (unit: Erlang, expressed
as B) or the probability when the delay time
exceeds a given time (unit: Erlang,
expressed as C).
The traffic intensity of the whole relay
system, unit: Erlang

In a relay system with C channels, the traffic intensity is a calculated using the formula

which stated below:

T= N*M/3600

Where, N= number of call

M= service time

The Grade of service (GOS) is directly proportional to Blocking Probability

(Pr[blocking]). Blocking probability is the probability that a call will be blocked and the

highest is 1.0, meaning its too high which leads to call blocking due to unavailability of

46
channels. A Blocking probability of 0.01 and 0.8 means 1% and 80% of subscribers will

be blocked at a given time.

And this calculated using the Erlang B formula below:

( ∑ | )-
n
The Erlang B formula:Pr [blocking] =( T |n ! ) /
n i
T i! - 1
i=0

Where, T is the traffic intensity

N is the number of channels.

The calculations of the Relay Theory is going to be carried out using the Telligent Erlang

B calculator

3.2.1.3 Methodology

Before Cell splitting can be implemented there must be an existing system that has

been set-up but must be congested. This congestion or extreme traffic would be greater

than what the macro cell capacity in that area can handle.

STEP 1:The area covered by the network or the cell must be congested by knowing the

blocking probability level of the Traffic using the Erlang B Calculator.

Figure 3.6: Teligent Erlang B calculator (Telingent 2011)

STEP 2:Analyze the cell site by knowing the channel capacity and frequency analysis

47
 Parameters involved here are: Number of channels, Traffic intensity, blocking

Probability.

STEP 3:The Radius (R) of the cell involved must be noted. i.e. the size of the cell.

STEP 4:Let the Radius of the newer cell be R/2. i.e. the radius of the original cell should

be divided by 2.
n
P transmitted ∈small cell R small
8 =( )
P transmitted ∈large cells R large

Which we assume that for a perfect power control, the equation becomes:

N= path loss exponent is 4

Pt 1
Pt2 = - - - - - - - 2
16

STEP 5:Get the number of small cells that can fill up the area of the original cell.

STEP 6:The numbers of channels gotten from the GOS calculation should be assigned

to the cell.

STEP 8:The steps should be repeated for subsequent cells that would be replaced

48
 CHAPTER FOUR

SYSTEM DESIGN AND IMPLEMENDATION

4.1 DESIGN OF CELL-SPLITTING

The design of cell splitting, which have been analyzed in the methodology in the

previous chapter follows that there must an existing system and this system must be

congested in nature. The congested nature of the cell must be verified by the

mathematical models outlined previous like the Erlang B formulator which has its

calculator and after the verification of congestion on the cell site, the design of this

system can begin.

Example;

1. Let assume an GLO base station which is located at main gate in university of

Benin main campus has been congested due to the increment of users in that area

and there’s a heavy traffic each day and the traffic engineers wishes to use the cell

spiting model to enhance the channel capacity in that area.

Let’s verify the congestion level by using the Erlang B calculator.

(∑ | )
n
The erlang B formula:Pr[blocking]=( l |n ! ) /
n
li i ! ,
i=0

Where the Pr[blocking] is the call blocking probability

Where n= number of lines

8Where l = offered traffic in Erlang

49
STEP 1: Calculating the Call Blocking Probability Analysis from Erlang B formula

Call Blocking Probability: The probability that a new call is blocked given by the

Erlang B formula was evaluated for different value of channels in ascending order using

Telligent Erlang B calculator. We are working towards achieving a Grade of Serviceof

Pr(0.05). The following parameters used are;

1. Resources (channels): the number of channels available (n)

2. Traffic (offered traffic): the expected number of call at a time which is given by

the equation; l=m*n/3600

Example:

Loading a finite number of subscribers of 800 per hour (95 channels) and we

recorded each call was been served for maxi-mum of 20 minutes averagely.

Applying Erlang traffic, we would be able to determine the probability of

blocking.

(∑ | )
n
Pr [blocking]=( l |n ! ) /
n i
l i! ,
i=0

(ℓ) = (N * M) / 3600

If n=800, m=20 minute =1200 seconds, then

(ℓ) = 800*1200) / 3600 = 266.7

(∑ | )
n
Pr [blocking]=( 266.7 |95! ) /
95
266.7 i ! ,
i=0

Expanding this will give,

Pr [blocking] = 0.645 approximately, number of channels was 95

50
 From the above result, it is clearly seen that 64.5% of the subscribers there would

be blocked from making calls. Thus the Grade of service is not acceptable because

it is closer to 1, which is what we are trying to avoid

Call Delay Probability

This is probability that a call will be delayed due to lack of channels. It calculation

of the delay probability is done using the Erlang C formula stated below
N
T N
N ! N −T
Erlang C = Pr[blocking] = n−1 i
T T n
n , where
∑ i! n ! n−T
❑ +
i=0

N is number of channels

T is traffic intensity or offered traffic

This is going to be achieved by using the Erlang C online calculator (source:

site2241.net/erlang.htm

4.2 IMPLEMENTATION: CHOOOSING A TARGET GRADE OF SERVICE

FOR CALCULATION

From here we would be choosing a grade of service we feel can cater for the

traffic intensity of 266.7, meaning that we will have to determine the number of channels

our new cells are going to have. We will be working towards achieving a Grade of

Service of 4% meaning our Pr [blocking] should be 0.04.

NOTE: When choosing a GoS, we should have in mind if this proposed GoS can be

afforded by the GSM operator (GLO). A low Grade of service means more resources

(cost) have to be channeled to achieve it.

51
 Table 4.1: Relay theory parameters calculated

S/N RESOURCES TRAFFIC Blocking Delay Offered

(Channels) INTENSITY probability probability load
(Pr[blocking]) (Pr[delay])
1 95 266.7 0.645 0.579 91
2 112 266.7 0.582 0.527 107
3 122 266.7 0.546 0.50 117
4 135 266.7 0.498 0.49 129
5 160 266.7 0.405 0 160
6 178 266.7 0.340 0 178
7 187 266.7 0.307 0 187
8 230 266.7 0.156 0 230
9 250 266.7 0.092 0 250
10 267 266.7 0.047 0 267

The above table 4.1 results were evaluated using the Erlang B calculator. The
values of call blocking probability against the resources (number of channels) are shown
in the table 1 above. The Probability of Delay (waiting time) reduces as the number of
channels increases thus it is clearly seen that adding more channels to the cells helps
reduces the delay of customers on the network. As the number of channels increases the
offered load increases, meaning that the system can carry more load.
The Probability of Delay (Pr [blocking]) in Table 4.1 reduces, it shows that as the
number of channels increases the delay is minimized to a point it tends to zero (Ohaneme
et al, 2012).
The delay probability gotten from the work of Ohaneme et al (2012) is shown in
table 4.2.

Table 4.2: Delay probability against channels (Ohaneme et al., 2012)

52
s/n Pr [Delay] channels
1 0.5954 12
2 0.0464 18
3 0.0013 21

The delay probability by Ohaneme et al shows that as the number of channels increases
the Delay probability reduces which means that there is a low level of call delay due to
increase in the number of channels.
NOTE: Cell-Splitting increases the number of channels and also improves the signal
strength of the coverage area, so it is a very important strategy to take to achieve great
Quality of Service (QoS).

Table 4.3 shows the use of the channels of Table 4.1 to simulate the offered traffic of
Ohaneme et al system. The comparison still shows that an increase in fixed channel
capacity still reduces the Pr [blocking] of the system and also the delay probability still
reduces as the channels increases until a point it becomes constant ( Zero 0). The graph of
Channels against Pr [blocking] of both the proposed system and Ohaneme et al is plotted
in figure 3.6 the slopes shows the drop in blocking probability of the system. The
comparison of the Probability of Delay (Pr [delay]) is shown in Figure 4.1.

53
 Table 4.3: Comparison of proposed system channels with Ohaneme et al Offered traffic
S/N RESOURCES
(Channels) Proposed System Parameters [Relay Theory] Ohaneme et al system

TRAFFIC Blocking Delay Offere Offered Pr Pr

INTENSITY probability probabilit d load Traffic [blocking] [Delay]
(Pr[blocking]) y
(Pr[delay]
)
1 95 266.7 0.645 0.579 91 500 0.81 0.770
2 112 266.7 0.582 0.527 107 500 0.777 0.692
3 122 266.7 0.546 0.50 117 500 0.757 0.757
4 135 266.7 0.498 0.49 129 500 0.731 0.716
5 160 266.7 0.405 0 160 500 0.681 0
6 178 266.7 0.340 0 178 500 0.645 0
7 187 266.7 0.307 0 187 500 0.627 0
8 230 266.7 0.156 0 230 500 0.542 0
9 250 266.7 0.092 0 250 500 0.502 0
10 267 266.7 0.047 0 267 500 0.463 0

1.6

1.4

1.2

0.8 Pr [blocking]2
Pr [blocking]
0.6

0.4

0.2

0
95 112 122 135 160 178 187 230 250 267

54
 Figure 4.1 Graph of Channels against Pr [blocking] from Table 4.3

1.6

1.4

1.2

0.8 Table 1 delay

Table 3 delay
0.6

0.4

0.2

0
95 112 122 135 160 178 187 230 250 267

Figure 4.2: Graph of channels against Pr [delay] of Table 4.1 and Table 4.3

4.3 SUMMARY OF THE RESULT

The probability that a new call is blocked represented as Pr[blocked] is plotted
against channel capacity in Figure 4.1. The result shows that as the channel capacity
increases, the call blocking probability Pr[blocking] reduces until a point when it
becomes constant. Since the value of Grade of service is achieved, the number of
channels that would be assigned to that cell is known. In this case the number channels is
267.

Comparison of both systems.

Figure 4.1 shows the probability of blocking of both system, the slope of the proposed
system (broken lines) and Ohaneme et al have same slope steepness but the proposed

55
slopes a quicker drop in blocking because the number of channels could easily cater for
the traffic intensity (sometimes called Offered traffic), which at this case it is 266.7. This
graph proves that both system achieves a reduction the blocking probability of the
network.
Figure 4.2 shows the delay probability of both systems, the slope of the proposed
system (broken lines) and ohaneme et al tends to zero quick when the number of channels
is plotted against delay probability of both systems. This means the proposed system
works adequately well enough to remove any trace of delay from the system, thus making
the FCA system very efficient way to solving delay and blocking problems which causes
congestion in the network.

4.3.1 CELL SPLITTING PROCESS BEGINS

The number of channels needed has been determined now, the next phase would
be to replace the existing cell with the new small cells. the next step in the design phase is
explained below:

Step 1: Reducing Transmitter Power of Macro cell.

The power of a transmitter determines the extent to which the diameter of a BTS
covers an area. A low powered transmitter does not cover large area, but the extent also a
transmitter covers depends on the next adjacent BTS. This is so as to prevent interference
with the frequent of the next cell (area covered by BTS).
Transmitter power of this large cell in question should be noted as Pt 1 and to get the
radius of small cell, divide the radius of the large cell by R/2. i.e the Transmitter Power
of large cell is divided in this Pt2 = Pt1 /16.

Step 2: Replacement of Large Cell with the Small Cells

56
 This process is achieved after reducing the transmitter power of the large cell and
making sure the Radius is divided by 2 as stated above. The replacement is carried out by
dividing the lager cell in to the small cell by building base stations that with their
Transmitter power equal to what Pt2 gives after the calculation, making each small base
station have the same value as Pt2. The new cells will be of same size in radius as seen in
figure 4.3 below.

Figure 4.3: Replacement of the large cell with the small cells

Step 3: Frequency channel Allocation

The channel allocation scheme has been already been discussed previous, the
scheme chosen here is the Fixed Channel Allocation (FCA) scheme which is a manual
method of channel allocation done by the Traffic engineers. We have been able to
develop 3 cells and we have 267 channels that should be shared amongst them. From
figure 3.5 we have seen that:
Cell 1 has been assign 89 channels,
Cell 2 has been assigned 89 channels,
and Cell 3 has been assigned 89 channels.
These cells have been assigned fixed channels using the Fixed channel allocation
scheme. These channels will be able to cater for the traffic efficiencies that has risen in
that cell area.

57
 Advantage of this fixed allocation scheme for after splitting cell is
 that at any moment there is always an available channel present to any subscriber
that wishes to call.
 The waiting time or set up is almost negligible.

Disadvantage of this method

 There is a waste of resources since during the non-busy hour some of the channels
might be left idle whereas somewhere along the cellular system a BTS is
requesting for a channel. And since it is fixed, it cannot be removed automatically
except the manual process is carried out again. This is the advantage of the
Dynamic system.

Cell Splitting Pseudo-code

BEGIN CELL-SPLITTING PROCESS
\\ Check Traffic congestion status at the Original site
Int Maximum = 1, Minimum= 0.04, T=266.7, n=95
\\ If traffic increases unexpected .i.e when traffic grows beyond acceptable level.
Goto “EVALUATE” ELSE Goto END

(∑ | )\\ using Erlang B calculator

n
EVALUATE Pr=( T |n ! ) /
n
T i i!
i=0

IF Pr EQUAL OR GREATER “maximum” then Goto START

ELSE Goto END
START
Goto EVALUATE
n++ UNTIL Pr EQUAL 0.047
\\ Cell splitting Processes start
GET Pt2
Pt 1
EVALUATE Pt2 =
16

58
 \\ BuildingBase Stations(Sc)
Pt2 EQUALS “R/2”
\\ Frequency planning processes Begin
Repeat BEGIN \\ Repeat for subsequent cell splitting processes
END
A flowchart for the step by step approach is shown below:

start

NO
if Traffic=>Max

YES
NO Evaluate Pr If Pr{Blocking} is =>
using calculator Maximum

YES
n++ until Pr =
0.04

Get num of Sc
needed

Pt2= R/2

Repeat BEGIN
Repeat for subsequent cell
sspltin

END

Figure 4.4: Flow chart for Cell-splitting processes

In conclusion, the capacity of a cellular communication system can be increased

using cell splitting. The increment in channel capacity after cell splitting helps to reduce
the call blocking probability and call delay or queuing probability. The results show that

59
when properly and orderly carried out, the cell splitting technique has the capability of
increasing the capacity of a congested cellular system.

60
 CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 CONCLUSION

There are problems of congestion in Nigeria telecommunication industry with respect

to GSM, such as difficulties in connecting subscribers and losing of resources by the

service providers. The different models have been analyzed thoroughly and this research

work was based on the decongesting of network using cell splitting. Cell splitting,

increases number of cells would increase the number of clusters over the coverage region,

which in turn would increase the number of channels, and thus capacity, in the coverage

area.From the literature review on Cell splitting in chapter three, it was clearly observed

that there are different approaches to implementing the cell splitting Processes. This

research work has been able to analyze the Traffic situation of a cell site and if the cell

site is congested, then the splitting process may begin depending on the Grade of service

GLO can afford. This was achieved by applying the Relay theory and using the Fixed

Channel allocation scheme to assign frequency channel unlike the popular Dynamic

Channel Allocation used by Most Operators including GLO.

In the chapter three of the research paper, the analysis of cell splitting was carry

out and later in chapter four, the design phase began, using the relay theory to analysis

the traffic status of the cell site involve. The result gotten from calculating the Call

Blocking Probability (Pr[blocking]) which was 0.645 shows that 64.5% of calls in that area

would be blocked and a time when all the traffic channels was occupied. This brings

61
about a very low Quality of Service (QoS) from the operators. The data that was used

from the analysis were assumed to be taken from a statistical period of 3months taken

into account the busiest hour of each day. Then from the number of traffic generated from

this busy hour we tried to work towards achieving a Grade of service of 0.04 meaning the

aim was to see a situation where on 4% of the users are blocked depending on which

grade of service GLO could afford as a small Grade of service would mean more

resources would be applied. The results in the Table 1 shows that as the number of

channels increases the blocking Probability reduces indicating an increase in capacity

until our Grade of service is achieved.

The number of channels to service the traffic intensity has be gotten and now the

channel allocation would be done using the FCA scheme. The FCA scheme helps to keep

the channels static so that when even a call is set up there would not be a waiting time,

the user would be given a channel immediately instead having to wait for the MSC to

send a channel to service the customer. The only drawback of the FCA scheme is that in

the non-busy hour, there will be a waste of resources as the channels would be left idle.

The method used in this research study was aimed at improving the cell capacity like

every other scientist in the “Related works” section of chapter three. They all used

physical and mathematical model such as antenna heights, receiver sensivity, spectral

efficiency, Tabu search algorithm, processing gain, link budget calculations, etc. to

achieve a very good coverage area capacity by improving the RF channels and signals.

They all result in improving capacity and increasing channels. My findings increased the

number of channels by knowing the grade of service, while link budget calculation of

62
another scientist increased the channels and capacity by making sure the new cells would

not have a loss of signal due to Path loss and making sure the interference-to-signal ratio

is making to avoid the interference with adjacent cell frequency which could lead to the

reduction of channels.

5.2 RECOMMENDATION

The results show clearly that Cell splitting can be used to decongest a congested

cell and it is very efficient because it improves the coverage area signal. This method

should be applied by GLO to ease the congestion flow in their network, thought the

building of base stations could be costly but what is cost compared to what the

subscribers could enjoy by giving them a good quality of service. By the FCA scheme

each subscriber is assured of making call at any moment and know the call would not be

blocked and also not having to wait on the queue to get a timeslot to make a call.

The cell splitting process should only be in well congested areas such as the urban

settlements while the regular big base stations can be used in the Rural areas (ZTE

Corporation, 2013). To avoid future congestion problems data analysis should be carried

out at the areas of likely congested situation like the cities and urban areas to determine

the GOS in that area, so that the necessary steps toward splitting the cell (s) can be

started.

For further researches, emphasis should be made on how to reduce the case of

regular handover experienced by a user due to the multiple base stations in the area. Cell

splitting brings about regular hand over which was suggested by Sohrab et al (2013),

63
though they developed a process of how the macro base station shouldn’t be removed so

as to handle the handover processes within the cell, more researches and works can be

done to remove such case as regular handover to cause a call drop as in a case of a fast

moving user (in a vehicle).

64
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