Chapter

p 4 - Linear Measurement Direct Method

- using tapes and accessories to measure the distance
one of the fundamental measurements in
surveying
depending on the type of instruments used,
there are three basic methods of determining
g
distance:
Direct Measurement
Indirect Measurement and
Electronic

Linear Measurement 1 Linear Measurement 2

Indirect Method Electronic Method

- using optical means (i.e. stadia or tacheometry) to measure the -using an instrument known as Electromagnetic Distance
distance Height can also be determined using this method
distance. method. M
Measuring
i (EDM) iinstrument
t t tto measure di
distance
t

EDM Reflector

A B C
- Measuring Principles:
Distance AC = Speed of EM wave x time

Linear Measurement 3 Linear Measurement 4

 Comparison
p of Different Methods METHODS OF MEASUREMENT

Method Instrument Precision Usage Pacing:

 rapid
a id means off approximately
i t l checking
h ki more precisei
measurements of distance
Direct Tape 1/500 to General distance used on reconnaissance surveys
1/30000
/ measurement, baseline
b li relative precision around 1/100 to 1/200
measurement distance = individual pace distance x number of pace

Indirect Theodolite 1/300 to Topographic survey, Odometer:

or Level 1/20000 general traversingg
g Distance = number of revolutions of the wheel x circumference
off the
th wheel
h l

Optical:
p Stadia or Tacheometry y
El i EDM or
Electronic 1/10000 to Trilateration,
T il i General
G l involves measuring the interval between the stadia hairs as
Total 1/300000 distance measurement shown on a leveling staff held vertically at a point
Station Distance = (UH – LH) x 100

Linear Measurement 5 Linear Measurement 6

Types
yp of Tapes
p Synthetic/Fibre-Glass
y Reinforced Tape
p
Taping made of fibre-glass
involves direct measurement of the distance with coated with P.V.C..
tapes which are graduated in metres, decimetres, hard-wearing, durable
centimetres and sometimes in millimetres andd water
t proof.
f
the most popular nominal length is 30 m, but 50 m materials can easily be
and 100 m stretched when tension is
usually reeled up in either boxes or open-reel frames. applied.
Four kinds of tapes are used: used for measurements
1) Synthetic/Fibre-Glass Reinforced Tape that do not need to be
g yp
highly precise
2) Steel/Plastic
St l/Pl ti Composite
C it Tape
T
3) Steel Tapes
4) Invar
I tapes
t
Linear Measurement 7 Linear Measurement 8
Steel/Plastic Composite
p Tape
p Steel Tapes
p

thin steel strip

p coated with made from high-quality
g q y
P.V.C. is used. steel which is thicker and
more precise than the heavier than steel/plastic
fibre-glass tape because composite
it tape
t
the steel strip inside can more precise and more
be well-controlled
well controlled to give stable
a uniform dimension nominal length:
temperature and tension  temperature = 20°C
20 C and
variations can be  applied tension between
corrected. 50 N to 80 N

Linear Measurement 9 Linear Measurement 10

Invar Tape
p Ancillary
y Equipment
q p ((1))
most precise tape
made from an alloy of
36% nickel and 64% iron
l
low coefficient
ffi i t off
expansion (only 1/13 that
of steel tape)
price is ten times more
expensive than steel tape

Linear Measurement 11 Linear Measurement 12

Ground Taping or Surface Chaining – taping on level ground Ground Taping or Surface Chaining – taping on level ground
Minimum of two people are required of whom one is the leader and
the other is the follower.
Wh making
When ki a measurement, t the
th leader
l d performs
f the
th following
f ll i
functions:
 holds the tape reel and move towards the distant end point; Leader

 sets the direction off travel; and Follower

 does the booking.
The follower performs the following: Surveyor - directing the alignmnet

 holds the zero end of the tape precisely against the ground mark; and
 sometimes, helps to define the straight line.
 Notes:
 To avoid mistakes, holding zero and taking the reading should be done
simultaneously.
 When the follower has brought
g the zero end of the tapep against
g the
ground point, he has to shout "GOOD!" or "READY!" to indicate to the
leader that tape reading can be taken. If not, he has to remain silent.

Linear Measurement 13 Linear Measurement 14

Ground Taping or Surface Chaining – taping on level ground Step Chaining on Sloping Ground
at least 3 or 4 readings should be taken for each Distance AB = S1 + S2 + S3
leg to ensure reliability of measurement
different "zero" point should be used for each
reading e
reading, e.g..
g first reading starts with 0
0, second
reading starts with 0.100, etc., to avoid
systematic error.
error
difference between the leader and the "zero" of
th ffollower
the ll gives
i th
the di
distance
t
Point A

mean of all the individual measurements gives a

more accurate result and will eliminate most of
the gross errors in linear measurement
Point B

Linear Measurement 15 Linear Measurement 16

Slope Distance : Height Difference & Slope Angle Errors in Taping
Distance AB =  L2 – (h)2 OR Distance AB = L * cos a Sources of Error
Instrumental Error :
• tape is not standardized, chaining arrow or ranging pole is
Point A not properly plumbed
H
Human E
Error:
• reading or recording error, insufficient tension etc.
N t
Natural
l Error:
E
L
• tape being influenced by temperature, wind and gravity
h
Accuracy in Distant Measurement
 Using fraction to indicate the relative precision of the measured distance,
the numerator should be set to 1 while the denominator should be as


Point B
large as possible.

Accuracy = (error in distance) / total measured distance

Linear Measurement 17 Linear Measurement 18

Corrections in Taping
p g Correction for Calibration (Standardization)
( )
First of all, the field tape must be calibrated and Prior to any measurement, the servicing tape, i.e.
corrected
t d for
f slope.
l IIn addition,
dditi tape to be used, must be calibrated with a
For precision of 1/5000 or above : apply temperature, standard length, i.e. baseline, or a more precise
tension and sag corrections
tape. Measurements made with a tape found to
For precision of 1/50 000 or above : distance must be be in error can be corrected using the formula:
reduced to Principal Datum of Hong Kong
True distance = Actual length of tape
Measured distance Nominal length
g of tapep

Linear Measurement 19 Linear Measurement 20

 Correction for Temperature Change Correction for Tension Variation

Correction = L * (Pm - Ps) / AE

Correction = L *  * (tm - ts)

where
where
L = measured length F = force applied or change in tension, measured
by a spring balance or a tension handle
 = coefficient of expansion, (0.000 012 per oC for
steel and 0.000 000 9 per oC for invar) L = length measured
tm = temperature at measurement ti
A = cross-sectionall area off th
the ttape
ts = temperature at standardization E = Young's modulus, from 200 to 250 kN/mm2
Pm = tension at measurement
Ps = tension at standardization
Linear Measurement 21 Linear Measurement 22

Correction for Slope

p Correction for Sag
g
if the slope distance has to be converted to the
distance, then either h,
horizontal distance h the height difference
When the tapep is suspended,
p as in catenaryy
between end-points, or the angle a, the angle of taping, the unsupported part will sag giving an
elevation ((or depression),
p ), must be measured. observed readingg which will be too g
great.
If height difference h is measured, the correction will be
w 2 L3
h 2 correction =
  24 p 2
 2L 
w = unit weight of tape
If slope angle a is known correction = L - L cos a =
L ( 1 - cos a)) p = tension applied
pp to the tape
p
L = length measured

Linear Measurement 23 Linear Measurement 24

 Reduction to Mean Sea Level Example
p
Correction = L - L' A 50 m steel tape which had previously been
standardized in catenary at a tension of 10 kg and at a
= temperature of 20oC was found to be 0.005 m too long. It
R L was used to measure the first 50 m bay of a base line.
line
L 
H  R Determine the correct length of the bay reduced to mean
= sea level from the following data:
H  L  R L  R L
The recorded length was 49.9915 m when it was
H R measured in catenary y at a temperature
p of 15oC and at a
= tension of 8 kg. The difference in height between
H  L supports was 0.52 m and the base was 308 m above
H  R mean sea level,
l l

Linear Measurement 25 Linear Measurement 26

Example
p Example
p
where Mean radius of the earth = 6370 Km Tension, C = L * (tm - ts) / AE
Mass of tape = 0.021
0 021 kg/m
Cross-sectional area of the tape = 3.21 mm2 = (49.9915 * (8 - 10) * 9.81) / 2.2 * 105 * 3.21)
Young's
Young s modulus E = 2.2 * 105 N/mm2 = -0.0014 m
Coefficient of expansion  = 12 * 10-6/oC
Sag,
Solution :
C
w 2 L3  1 1   0.021   49.9915 
2 3
1 1 
Temperature, C = L *  * (tm - ts) 24  Tm2  Ts 2  
24  82  102 


= 49.9915 * 12 * 10-6 * (15 - 20) = -0.0030 m

= -0.0129
0 0129 m
HL 308  50
Mean Sea Level,
Level C= 
Slope, C = -h2/2L = (0.52)2 / 2 * 49.9915 HR 308  6370 ,000
= -0.0027 m
= -0.0024 m
Linear Measurement 27 Linear Measurement 28
 Example
Obstacles
No. Types of Correction + -
1 Standard 0.0050 When both end points are invisible from
2 Temperature 0.0030
0 0030 intermediate points on the line:
3 Slope 0.0027
4 Tension 0.0014
5 Sag 0.0129
6 Mean Sea Level 0.0024
0.0050
0 00 0 0 0224
0.0224
-0.0224
-0 0174
-0.0174

Correct length = 49.9915 - 0.0174 = 49.9741 m

Linear Measurement 29 Linear Measurement 30

Obstacles Obstructing Chaining

Obstacles Obstructing
g Both Chaining
g and Ranging
g g

Linear Measurement 31 Linear Measurement 32

Perpendicularity
p y ((Offsets)) Cross Staff

P P

B
Chain
Chain Line
Line
i A B
A Q Q

15m
9m Cross Staff
Chain Line
Chain line

A P
12m
Linear Measurement 33 Linear Measurement 34

References
Allan, A.L. (1997). Practical Surveying and Computations. 2nd Ed.,
Butterworth- Heinemann.

Bannister, A., Raymond, S. and Baker, R. (1998). Surveying. 7th Ed., Longman.

Irvine W
Irvine, W. & Maclennan F
F. (2006)
(2006). Surveying for Construction.
Construction 5th Ed
Ed.,
McGraw Hill.

Kavanagh Barry F
Kavanagh, F. & Bird
Bird, Glenn S
S.J.
J (2000)
(2000). Surveying Principles and
Applications. 5th Ed., Prentice Hall.

Leick A
Leick, A. (2004)
(2004). GPS Satellite Surveying
Surveying. 3rd Ed
Ed., John Wiley & Sons
Sons.

Petrie, G. & Kennie, T.J. (1994). Engineering Surveying Technology. J. Wiley

& Sons.

Schofield W. & Breach M. (2007). Engineering Surveying. 6th Ed.,

Butterworth- Heinemann.

Linear Measurement 35