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Biology (Std. XII) 1
Reproduction in
1
Lower and Higher Plants
(Total Marks : 06) (Marks with Option : 08)

MEMORY MAPS

Reproduction
The process by which organisms produce one or more individuals resembling its parents.

Asexual Vegetative reproduction Sexual

Uniparental Type of asexual reproduction in Fusion of two
types flowering plants haploid gametes
(i) Binary fission e.g. Bacteria
(ii) Budding. e.g. Yeast
Natural Artificial
(iii) Sporulation - by spores
(a) Motile spores
e.g. Chlamydomonas Tuberous root Stem tuber Runner Leaf
(b) Non-motile spores e.g. Sweet Potato e.g. Potato e.g. Cynodon e.g. Bryophyllum
Conidia
e.g. Penicillium
(iv) Fragmentation
e.g. Filamentous algae
Artificial Vegetative Propagation

Cutting Budding Grafting

e.g. Rose/Mulberry
(a) Stem cutting (a) Tongue or Whip grafting
e.g. Sugarcane e.g. Rose
(b) Root cutting (b) Wedge
e.g. Apple e.g. Apple
(c) Leaf cutting (c) Crown
e.g. Peperomia e.g. Citrus
(d) Inarching
e.g. Mango

(1)
2 Reliable Series

Flower - Modified shoot meant for Sexual reproduction

Floral Whorls

Accessory Whorls Essential Whorls

Calyx Corolla Androecium Gynoecium

Male - Stamen Female - Carpel
Anther (2n) Ovule (2n)

Microsporogenesis Megasporogenesis

Pollengrain (microspore) Megaspore

(n) (n)

Pollination
Transfer of pollengrains from anther to the stigma

Self pollination Cross pollination

(a) Autogamy (a) Xenogamy
(b) Geitonomy (b) Hybridisation

Anemophily - Pollination by wind

Entomophily - Pollination by insects
Hydrophily - Pollination by water
Ornithophily - Pollination by birds
Chiropterophily - Pollination by bats

Double Fertilization
Steps (a) Development of male gametophyte → two non-motile male gametes
(b) Development of female gametophyte → 7 celled, 8 nucleated
Syngamy → Zygote(2n)
(c) Development of female gametophyte → 7 celled, 8 nucleated
Triple fusion → PEN(3n)
(d) Post fertilization changes
Biology (Std. XII) 3

Post fertilization changes

(i) Development of Embryo
Zygote (2n) → 2 celled embryo → Basal cell → Suspensor
2 celled embryo → Apical cell (Embryonal Octant Spherical
(small) cell) stage mass of cells
Plumule (Embryo shoot)
heart shaped horse shoe shaped Embryonal Radicle (Embryo root)
embryo embryo axis
Cotyledons
(i) Two Cotyledons → Dicot
(ii) One Cotyledon → Monocot
(ii) Development of Endosperm (3n) - nutritive tissue

Nuclear Cellular Helobial

(iii) Formation of fruit and seed

An independent daughter plant is produced from any vegetative part of mother plant under
favourable conditions as follows.

By Roots By Stem By Leaf

by tuberous roots - modified roots for (i) by stem tuber - The apex e.g. (i) Bryophyllum - In this
storage and vegetative reproduction of underground branch leaf, adventitious
through adventitious buds (slips) swells - it has ‘eyes’ - buds at the notches -
develops into new plant independent plants
e.g. Potato (ii) Begonia - Foliar buds
Simple tuberous Fasciculated (ii) Runner - prostrate on the surface of the
roots (simple) e.g. Asparagus subaerial branch leaf
e.g. Sweet potato e.g. Oxalis

(i) Cutting (ii) Grafting (iii) Budding

 Small pieces of the plant
parts develop into new
plant.
 Convenient cheap method.
(a) Stem cutting
e.g. Chinarose, Citrus
(b) Root cutting
e.g. Guava, apple
(c) Leaf cutting
e.g. Peperomia,
Bryophyllum
It is a technique of joining A kind of grafting in which
together parts of two different a single bud with bark and
plants - unite and continue as living tissue is grafted on the
one plant. particular stock.
(a) Tongue or whip grafting e.g. Mulberry, Rose etc.
e.g. Citrus, Mango
(b) Wedge of cleft grafting
e.g. Apple, Pear etc.
(c) Crown grafting
e.g. Citrus
(d) Approach grafting
e.g. Mango, Chikoo etc.
4 Reliable Series

Types of Pollination

Abiotic (non-living) Biotic (living)

Anemophily Hydrophily Entomophily Ornithophily Chiropterophily

(Wind) (Water) (Insects) (Birds) (Bats)
e.g. Grasses, Maize e.g. Jasmine e.g. Bombax e.g. Bauhinia

Hypohydrophily Epihydrophily
(Below the water surface) (On the water surface)
e.g. Zostera e.g. Vallisneria

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 Reproduction in
2
Lower and Higher Animals
(Total Marks : 06) (Marks with Option : 08)

MEMORY MAPS

Introduction
 The process of formation of life from pre-existing life is called reproduction.

Types of Reproduction

Asexual Reproduction Sexual Reproduction

Human Male Reproductive System

 Male reproductive system consists of organs for production of gametes and copulation.
 Male gonads are known as testes which produce male gametes known as sperms.

 Parts of sperm  Male reproductive system consists of the following parts :

Head Scrotum : It protects the testes.
Neck Pair of testes : These are the primary sexual organs.
Middle piece Epididymis : It is a thick compact body lying behind testis in scrotum.
Tail Vasa deferentia : These are a pair of tubular structures arising from
cauda epididymis.
Ejaculatory duct : It is formed by joining of vas deferens and seminal
vesicle.
Urethra : It provides common pathway for the flow of urine and semen.
Penis : It is cylindrical, erectile and pendulous copulatory organ.
Seminal vesicle : It secretes seminal fluid rich in fructose, fibrinogen
and prostaglandins.
Prostate gland : It secretes prostatic fluid.
Cowper’s glands : They secrete a viscous fluid which neutralizes
acidity of urethra.
Semen : It is ejaculated during sexual intercourse.

(5)
6 Reliable Series

Human Female Reproductive System

 The female reproductive organs are divided into external organs and internal organs.

External Organs Internal Organs

Labia majora : They are 2 large folds forming
the boundary of vulva.
Labia minora : They are lip-like folds located
medially to labia majora.
Mons pubis : It is a fleshy elevation.
Clitoris : It is a small erectile organ.
Vestibule : It is a depression of vulva enclosing
the vagina and the urethral opening.
Hymen : It is a thin layer of mucous membrane.
Vestibular glands : They secrete a lubricating
fluid.
Breast : Milk is released from the breast.
Ovaries : They are the primary sex organs of
the female reproductive system.
Fallopian tube : It conducts egg or ovum
discharged from the ovary to the uterus.
Uterus : It receives the ovum from the fallopian
tube.
Vagina : It is a copulatory passage as it
receives the erect penis during intercourse.

Menstrual cycle
 It starts at the time of puberty and is called menarche.

Menstrual cycle includes four phases

 Menstrual phase    Proliferative phase     Ovulatory phase   Luteal phase

Gametogenesis
 The process of formation of gametes in sexually reproducing animals is called gametogenesis.
 The process of formation of male gamete is called spermatogenesis.
 The process of formation of female gamete is called oogenesis.

Spermatogenesis Oogenesis
It includes 3 phases : It includes 3 phases :
 Multiplication Phase  Multiplication Phase
 Growth Phase  Growth Phase
 Maturation Phase  Maturation Phase

Fertilization
 The fusion of haploid male and haploid female gamete to form a diploid zygote is called
fertilization.
 Mixing of chromosomes of male and female pronucleus is known as karyogamy.
Biology (Std. XII) 7

Embryonic development upto 3 germinal layers

 Cleavage converts the zygote into a mass of cells called morula.
 It occurs during the passage of zygote from fallopian tube to uterus.

Cleavage and blastulation Implantation Gastrulation

A rapid mitotic division of
zygote forms a hollow spherical
multicellular developmental
stage called blastula.
After the formation of Formation of gastrula
blastocyst by the 6th to 7th day from blastula is known as
of fertilization, the embryo gets gastrulation.
attached deep inside the wall of
the uterus and this process is
called implantation.

Pregnancy
 The condition of carrying one or more embryos in the uterus is called pregnancy or gestation.
 It is divided into 3 trimesters : (a) First trimester (b) Second trimester and (c) Third trimester.
 The process of formation of female gamete is called oogenesis.

Placenta
 The intimate connection established between foetal membrane and uterine wall is known as
placenta.
Parturition
 The act of expelling a full-term baby from mother’s uterus at the end of pregnancy is called
parturition.
 Parturition is divided into 3 stages :
(a) Dilation or first stage (b) Expulsion or second stage and (c) Placental or third stage.

Lactation
 The process of production of milk by mammary glands at the end of pregnancy is called
lactation.

Reproductive Health : Birth Control

 The birth control methods which deliberately prevent fertilization are referred to as
contraceptives.
 These methods are of two types :
v Temporary method :
(1) Rhythm method (2) Coitus interruptus (3) Chemical means
(4) Mechanical means (5) Physiological device (6) Other contraceptives
v Permanent method :
Surgical intervention : It blocks gamete transport and prevents pregnancy.
8 Reliable Series

Sexually Transmitted Diseases

 They are also known as Veneral Diseases and are spread by sexual intercourse with the
infected person.
 Syphilis and gonorrhoea are the example of veneral diseases.
v Syphilis is caused by Treponema pallidum and affects mucous membrane in genital, rectal
and oral regions and causes lesions.
v Gonorrhoea is caused by Neisseria gonorrhoeae and victim feels burning sensation and
pain during urination.

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 3 Inheritance and Variation
(Total Marks : 04) (Marks with Option : 06)

MEMORY MAPS

(1)

(2)

(9)
10 Reliable Series

(3)

(4)

(5)
Biology (Std. XII) 11

(6)

(7)

(8)
12 Reliable Series

(9)

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 4 Molecular Basis of Inheritance
(Total Marks : 04) (Marks with Option : 06)

MEMORY MAPS

DNA as a Genetic Material - Following experiments using Bacteria and virus.

(i) Griffith’s experiment of Transforming principle.
(ii) Avery, MacLeod and McCarty experiment - proved transforming principle is nothing but DNA.
(iii)Hershey - Chase experiment - Proved DNA is the genetic material.

Packing of genetic material - Nucleosomes [DNA and histone octamer]

DNA Replication (Semi conservative)

Activation of nucleotides.

Unwinding of DNA strand - formation of Replication fork.

Synthesis of new stands - leading and lagging strands.

Formation of DNA daughter molecules.

(13)
14 Reliable Series

Genetic code having triplets of nucleotides called codons.

Total number of codon - 64
Termination codons - 03 UAG (amber). UAA (ochre) and UGA (opal)
Remaining 61 codons are sense codons - code for 20 amino acids.
Central dogma of Protein synthesis

Gene expression and gene regulation :

Operons → Clusters of genes with related functions.
→ Structural genes and their control elements (i) promoters (ii) operators
Lac Operon → Proposed by Jacob and Monad which explains gene expression and
regulation in E.coli.
→ An example of negative control of transcription initiation.

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 5 Origin And Evolution Of Life
(Total Marks : 04) (Marks with Option : 06)
a. Theory of Special Creation
b. Cosmozoic theory/ Theory of Panspermia
Origin of life c. Theory of spontaneous generation (Abiogenesis)
d. Theory of biogenesis

Chemical Evolution of Life Darwinism Mutation Theory

● Self assembly ● Postulates ● Postulates
● Theory of Origin of Life ● Evidences of ● Objections to
● Urey and Miller Experiment Darwinism Mutation theory
● RNA World Hypothesis ● Drawbacks and
Objections to Darwinism

Origin of Evolution Mechanism of Organic Evolution

Modern Synthetic Theory
● Mutation
A. Genetic variations
● Gene Recombinations
(i) Gene mutation
● Gene flow
(ii) Gene Flow
● Genetic drift (Founder effect)
(iii) Genetic recombination Types of Natural
● Natural selection
(iv) Genetic drift Selection:
● Isolation
(v) Chromosomal aberration a. Stabilizing
● Speciation
B. Natural Selection b. Directional
● Hardy- Weinberg principle
Industrial Melanism c. Disruptive
● Adaptive Radiation
C. Isolation
(i) Geographical
(ii) Reproductive
(Types of isolating Evidences of Organic Evolution
mechanisms)

Palaeontological evidences Morphological Evidences

● Types of fossils
● Significance of Palaeontology
● Connecting links
Speciation
● Homologous organs
● Analogous organs
● Vestigial organs
● Molecular evidences
a. Intra-specific speciation
(i) Allopatric speciation
(ii) Sympatric speciation
b. Interspecific speciation
Hybridization
Geological time scale

Human Evolution
(15)
 6 Plant Water Relation
(Total Marks : 05) (Marks with Option : 07)

MEMORY MAPS

Movement of substances

Short distance movement Long distance movement

Occurs by Occurs by

Diffusion Mass or Bulk

Active transport flow (Translocation)

Types of transpiration

Cuticular Stomatal Lenticular

transpiration transpiration transpiration

● Occurs through lenticels

● Occurs through cuticle ● Contributes to 0.1-1% of total
● Contributes 8 - 10% of total transpiration. transpiration.

● Occurs through stomata.

● Contributes 90-93% of total transpiration.

(16)
Biology (Std. XII) 17

Factors affecting translocation of solutes

Temperature Light

25°C to 35°C is optimum temperature. Reduction in light intensity reduces

translocation.

Oxygen Metabolic control

It is aerobic condition, so O2 As this process requires energy, so all the
is must. factors which affect respiration also affect
translocation.

Moisture stress

It reduces rate of translocation.

Means of Transport

Diffusion Facilitated Active transport

diffusion

● Against concentration gradient

● Along concentration gradient ● Uphill transport
● Passive downhill transport ● ATP used.
● No energy is utilised. ● Utilizes carrier
protein
● Faster than passive

● Along concentration gradient

● Passive downhill transport
● No energy is utilised.
● Through fixed membrane transport proteins

Carrier Proteins Channels proteins

● Bind to the particular solute to be ● Allow diffusion of the solutes.

transported.
● Some allow two types of molecules to
move across the membrane.
Ion channel Porins

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 7 Plant Growth and Mineral Nutrition
(Total Marks : 05) (Marks with Option : 07)

MEMORY MAPS

Growth

Quantitative Qualitative
(Increase in size, volume) (Development and differentiation)

Phases of Growth

Cell division Cell enlargement Cell maturation

● 1st phase
● Formative phase
● Takes longer time
● Represents Log phase
● Cell divides by mitosis
● 2nd phase ● 3rd phase
● Elongation phase ● Maturation phase
● Takes place quickly ● Slower phase
● Exponential phase ● Stationary phase
● Cell elongates in size ● Cell matures and
differentiates

Conditions of Growth
(All the parameters are required at optimal levels)

Temperature Oxygen Water Light Nutrients

Growth Rate

Absolute growth rate Relative growth rate

● Ratio of change in number of cells ● Growth of particular system per
over time. unit time.
● AGR : dn/dt ● RGR : AGR/n

Types of growth

Arithmetic growth Geometric growth

● One daughter cell divides into two ● Growth takes place through 3 phases
● Linear growth curve ● Sigmoid ‘S’ shaped growth curve

(18)
Biology (Std. XII) 19

Growth Curve

Lag phase Exponential phase Stationary phase

● Initial growth phase ● Second growth phase ● Third and last growth phase
● Preparatory stage ● Maximum growth ● Growth remains steady
● New cells formed ● Cell elongates ● Cell differentiation

Development in plants
Seed germination
Meristem
Cell division
Plasmatic growth
Cell elongation
Cell maturation
Mature cell
Senescence
Death

Growth Hormones
Hormone helps in the overall growth and development.
There are 5 growth hormones. Also called as phytohormones or growth regulators.
Abscisic acid, Auxin, Gibberellin, Cytokinins, Ethylene

Photoperiodism
The response of plants towards the photo period for inducing the flowering.
Plants are classified into three types on the basis of the photo period

Long day plants Short day plants Day neutral plants

● Require more sunlight
for flowering
● Also called short night
plants
● Darkness inhibits
flowering
● Eg : Spinach, Wheat.
● Require less sunlight
for flowering
● Long night plants
● Takes place quickly
● Light inhibits flowering
● Dahlia, Marigold
● Duration of sunlight
does not matter
● Photo neutral plants
● Flowering is not
disturbed by light or
dark
● Cucumber , Tomato

Vernalization
(The cold/ chilling treatment given to the plants in order to break dormancy of seed, bud or induce
flowering)
(Advantages : Crops can be produced earlier, in any season, disease free, fungal resistant)
20 Reliable Series

Mineral Nutrition
(Minerals help in the overall growth and development. The minerals as per
the requirement are classified into two types.)

Macro nutrients Micro nutrients

● Required in large quantity ● Required in trace quantity
● C, H, O, N, K, Ca, S, Fe, Mg. ● Cu, Zn, Mo, Mn, Cl.
● Part of cell structure ● Acts as the activators of enzymes.

(Deficiency of these mineral nutrients causes Chlorosis, Necrosis, Senescence or even death of the tissue
whereas excess causes toxicity)

Nitrogen cycle
Atmospheric nitrogen

Biological fixation Industrial fixation Electrical fixation Denitrification

Nitrification
NH3 NO2 NO3
Soil ‘N’ Pool

Ammonification Uptake

Decaying biomass Plant biomass

Animal biomass

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 8 Respiration and Circulation
(Total Marks : 07) (Marks with Option : 10)

MEMORY MAPS

Respiration and Circulation

Organs of Respiratory Human Respiratory Mechanism of Regulation of

Exchange system respiration Breathing

Gaseous exchange in Nostrils, Pharynx, Herring-Breuer reflex

plants and Respiration Larynx, Trachea,
in animals. Bronchi, Lungs, Alveoli

Modified Respiratory Common Respiratory Artificial ventilation

Movements Disorders and ventilator

Coughing, Sneezing, Emphysema,

Yawning, Laughing, Bronchitis,
Crying, Hiccuping Pneumonia, Asthma,
Occupational
Respiratory
Disorders

A. Breathing B. External respiration C. Internal respiration D. Cellular respiration

Inspiration Gaseous exchange i. Transport of oxygen:
Expiration at alveoli Bohr effect, Haldane
Pulmonary volumes effect, O2 dissociation
and Lung volumes curve
ii. Transport of CO2:
by plasma, by
bicarbonates, chloride
shift (Hamburger’s
phenomenon), by red
blood cells

(21)
22 Reliable Series

Transportation in living organisms

Circulatory System in Blood Related

Circulation in Animals Blood Pressure
Human Disorders

Blood vascular system,

Types of blood vascular
system : Open and
closed circulation,
single and double
circulation

Blood and Coagulation Heart Blood Vessels Lymphatic System

(i) Plasma ● External structure of ● Artery ● Lymph
(ii) Blood cells/corpuscles heart ● Vein ● Lymph capillaries
● Internal structure of ● Portal vein ● Lymph vessels
heart ● Capillary ● Lymph nodes
● Pumping action of ● Pulse
heart
● Heart rate
● Stroke volume
● Cardiac output
● Conducting system of
heart
● Working mechanism
of human heart
Cardiac cycle :
(a) Atrial Systole
(AS), (b) Ventricular
Systole (VS), (c) Joint
systole
● Regulation of cardiac
activity
● Electrocardiogram
(ECG)

Erythrocytes Leucocytes Thrombocytes

(Red blood corpuscles) (White blood corpuscles) (Blood Platelets)

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 9 Control and Coordination
(Total Marks : 08) (Marks with Option : 11)

MEMORY MAPS

Human Brain and Structure

(1) CNS is dorsal, hollow, non-ganglionated in human beings.

(2) CNS is site of information.
(3) CNS : (a) Brain (b) Spinal cord.
(4) Brain is protected by cranium.
(5) Meninges of brain : (a) Dura mater (b) Arachnoid mater (c) Pia mater.
(6) CSF is between meninges.
(7) Brain is divided as follows :

Brain (Encephalon)

Forebrain Midbrain Hind brain

(Prosencephalon) (Mesencephalon) (Rhombencephalon)
(A)Olfactory lobes (A)Optic lobes (A) Cerebellum
(Rhinencephalon) (Corpora quadrigemina) (Metencephalon)
(B)Cerebrum (B)Cerebral peduncle (B)Pons Varolii
(Telencephalon) (Crura cerebri) (C)Medulla oblongata
(C)Diencephalon (Myelencephalon)
(Thalamencephalon)

(8) Ventricles of brain :

(a) Olfactory lobe : Rhinocoel.
(b) Cerebral Hemisphere : I and II Ventricles.
(c) Diencephalon : III Ventricle / Diocoel.
(d) Medulla Oblongata : IV Ventricle / Myelocoel.
(e) Cerebellum : Epicoel.
(f) Openings and narrow channel : Foramen of Monro and Iter.

(23)
24 Reliable Series

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Brain Spinal Cord

Forebrain Midbrain Hind brain

(Procencephalon) (Mesencephalon) (Rhombencephalon)

Optic lobes Cerebral peduncle Cerebellum Medulla oblongata

(Corpora quadrigemina) (Crura cerebri)

Anterior Colliculi Posterior Colliculi

Audio reflex Visual reflex

Olfactory part Cerebrum

Olfactory bulb Olfactory tract Left cerebral hemisphere Right cerebral hemisphere
Function :
Detection of smell
Corpus callosum Cerebral cortex

Gyri Coverings

Types of lobes : Types of sulci :

Frontal, Parietal, Central, Lateral,
Temporal, Occipital Parieto-occipital

Hind brain

Cerebellum Pons varolii Medulla oblongata

(1) Second largest part. (1) Floor of upper part of (1) Below cerebellum.
(2) Below occipital lobe. medulla oblongata. (2) Vital centres present
(3) Three lobes : (2) Short, thick mass of in medulla oblongata.
2 lateral cerebellar transverse bundle of nerve
hemisphere, 1 median vermis. fibres connecting cerebrum,
(4) In vermis : arbor vitae. cerebellum and medulla
oblongata.
Biology (Std. XII) 25

Ventricles in Human brain

Ventricles : Filled with CSF

I in cerebral hemisphere II in cerebral hemisphere Ventricle /

Common opening Lateral
ventricle
Foramen of Monro III ventricle in Diencephalon

Narrow channel Iter IV ventricle in Medulla oblongata

which continues into central canal of spinal cord

Internal structure of Pituitary gland (L.S. / Sagittal Section(

Pituitary gland

Adenohypophysis Neurohypophysis

Pars tuberalis Pars distalis Pars intermedia Hypophygeal stalk Pars nervosa

(1) Lowermost part
(2) Pituicytes
(non-sensory cells)
Chromophobes Chromophils

Median eminance Infundibulum

(It is swollen median (Helps in attachment
Acidophils Basophils part of hypothalamus to of pituitary gland to
Hormones Hormones which stalk is attached.) hypothalamus.)
STH and LTH ACTH, TSH, FSH and LH

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 10 Human health and diseases
(Total Marks : 03) (Marks with Option : 04)

MEMORY MAPS

Concept of Immunology

The study of structure and function of immune system is called basic immunology.

Immunity

Immunity refers to the general ability of a body to recognize, neutralize, destroy and eliminate
foreign substance and resist a particular infection.

Types of Immunity

Innate Immunity Acquired Immunity

Innate immunity is the inborn capacity of body The immunity that individuals acquire during
to resist invasion of microbes in the body. their life is called acquired immunity.

Acquired Active Immunity Acquired Passive Immunity

It is a resistance developed by an individual Passive immunity is acquired when readymade
as a result of antigenic stimulus of invading antibodies are received by the body.
pathogens or vaccine.

Natural Acquired Artificial Acquired Natural Acquired Artificial Acquired

Active Immunity Active Immunity Passive Immunity Passive Immunity
 This immunity is  This immunity is  It is acquired before  This immunity
acquired due to acquired artificially birth and at birth is acquired by
infection. by vaccination. through maternal injecting previously
antibodies. prepared antibodies
using serum from
humans or animals.

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Biology (Std. XII) 27

Structure of Antibody Antigen-Antibody Antigens on Blood Cells

 The protective chemicals
produced by immune cells
in response to antigens
are called as antibodies.
 The are glycoproteins.
 Antibody is a Y-shaped
structure.
Complex  Landsteiner found two
 Combining site of antigen antigens on surface of
to antibody is called RBCs and named them as
epitope. Antigen A and Antigen B.
 Combining site of
antibody to antigen is
called paratope.

Pathogens and Parasites

 The term pathogen is restricted to living agents like fungi, yeast, bacteria, virus etc. capable of
causing disease.
 The term parasite refers to an organism who lives in or derives its nourishment from another
organism.
Diseases

Amoebiasis Malaria Filariasis Ascariasis Typhoid Pneumonia Common cold Ringworm

Cancer and AIDS

 Cancer is a class of disease characterised by uncontrolled cell growth.

 AIDS is caused by HIV and it leaves the immune system vulnerable to variety of life-threatening
diseases.

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 11 Enhancement of Food Production
(Total Marks : 04) (Marks with Option : 06)

MEMORY MAPS

Steps of plant breeding

Collection of variability from gene bank / germplasm

Evaluation and selection of parents

Hybridisation

Selection and Testing of superior recombinants

Testing and release of new cultivars

Objectives of plant breeding

Resistance to Resistance to
Higher yield Improved quality
disease and pest abiotic stress

Indian Hybrid crops and their varieties

Wheat Rice Sugarcane Millets

Sonalika Jaya CO - 419

Kalyansona Padma CO - 421 Hybrid maize Jowar Bajra
Ratna CO - 453
Ganga-3 CO-12 Niphad

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Biology (Std. XII) 29

Mutagens

Natural or physical mutagen Chemical mutagen

(1) High temperature (1) Nitrous acid

(2) High concentration of CO2 (2) EMS
(3) X-rays (3) Mustard gas
(4) UV rays (4) Colchicine

Mutation Breeding

Plant varieties developed by mutation breeding

Rice Wheat Cotton Cabbage

E.g. Jagannath E.g. NP836 E.g. Indore-2 E.g. Regina-II

Application of plant tissue culture

Production of Disease Micropropagation Production of

free plants secondary metabolites

Production of haploids Plant tissue culture Production of stress

and polyploids Applications resistant plants

Culture of rare plants Protoplast culture Somaclonal variation

Microbes producing SCP

Fungi Yeast Algae Bacteria

● Aspergillus niger ● Saccharomyces ● Spirulina spp. ● Methylophilus

● Trichoderma viride cerevisiae ● Chlorella pyrenoidosa methylotrophus
● Candida utilis ● Bacillus megasterium

Types of Breeding

Inbreeding Outbreeding

Outcrossing Cross breeding Interspecific hybridisation

30 Reliable Series

Breeds of milk animals

Cow Buffaloes

(1) Jaffarabadi
Indian breeds Exotic breeds (2) Mehsana
(3) Murrah
(1) Sahiwal (1) Jersy (4) Nagpuri
(2) Sindhi (2) Brown Swiss (5) Nili
(3) Gir (3) Holstein (6) Surati

Poultry breeds

Mediterranean
American Breed Asiatic Breed English breed Indian breed
breed

● Plymouth Rock ● Brahma ● Leg horn ● Australorp ● Chittagong

● New Hampshire ● Cochin ● Minorca ● Aseel
● Rhode Island Red ● Langshan ● Brahma
● Kadaknath

Types of Biofertilizers

Phosphate
N2 fixing Compost making Cyanobacteria as Fungal
solubilizing
Biofertilizers biofertilizers biofertilizers biofertilizers
biofertilizers

(1) Symbiotic N2 (1) Pseudomonas (1) Bacteria (1) Anabaena (1) Ectomycorrhizae
fixing bacteria striata (2) Fungi (2) Nostoc (2) Endomycorrhizae
eg. ● Rhizobium (2) Bacillus (3) Actinobacteria (3) Plectonema
● Anabaena polymyxa (4) Protozoa (4) Oscillatoria
● Frankia (3) Microccocus (5) Rotifers
(2) Non- Symbiotic (4) Agrobacterium
N2 fixing (5) Aspergillus
microbes
e.g.
● Azotobacter
● Nostoc
● Clostridium
● Klebsiella

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 12 Biotechnology
(Total Marks : 05) (Marks with Option : 07)

MEMORY MAPS

Tools of rDNA Technology

Restriction enzymes Gel Electrophoresis Cloning vectors Competent host

Restriction To separate and Carriers of desired Cloning organisms

Endonucleases isolate DNA DNA fragments ● Bacillus
↓ fragments e.g. ● Plasmids haemophilus
Recognises ● Cosmids ● E.coli
palindromic sequence ● Viruses and ● Helicobacter pyroli
of DNA and cut it ● Artificial
↓ chromosomes
E.g. EcoRI, Bam HI, like BAC, YAC
Hind III and MAC

(1) Isolation of DNA (gene) from donor organism

(2) Cutting of DNA at specific location

Steps in rDNA
(3) Amplification of gene of interest using PCR
Technology
(4) Insertion of rDNA into the host cell or organism

(5) Obtaining desired gene product

Advantages of Genetically modified crop plants

Modification Plants as Transgenic plants

Insect and pest
Biofortification in post harvest factories (or) producing edible
resistance
techniques Biopharmaceuticals vaccines

Effects of Biotechnology on Human Health

Allergies Longterm effect New proteins Food additives

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 13 Organisms and Population
(Total Marks : 03) (Marks with Option : 04)

MEMORY MAPS

Biomes of the world

Tropical rain Coniferous Temperate Arctic and

Grassland Desert
forest forest forest Alpine Tundra

Types of niche

Multidimensional niche (or)

Spatial niche or Habitat niche Trophic niche
Hypervolume niche

Based on physical space of an Based on trophic level in a food Based on biotic and abiotic
organism chain factors (Hyper volume)

Major abiotic factors affecting organisms

Temperature Water Light Soil

Response of organisms to abiotic factors

Regulation Conformation Migration Suspension

Immigration (I)

Natality (B) + Population Density (N) – Mortality (D)

Emigration (E)

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Biology (Std. XII) 33

Interaction between organisms

Prey-predator Competition Symbiosis

Commensalism Mutualism Parasitism

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 14 Ecosystems and Energy flow
(Total Marks : 03) (Marks with Option : 04)

MEMORY MAPS

Ecosystem

A self regulating, self sustaining,

structural and functional unit of nature

Natural ecosystem Artificial ecosystem

pond, river farm land,

ocean, desert. fish tank,
forest, grassland etc. fish rearing pond

Earth
(A big ecosystem)

Terrestrial ecosystems
Aquatic ecosystems

Spacial pattern (Biotic and abiotic

components vary due to space)

Stratification Zonation
● Productivity (It is the rate of generation of biomass in an ecosystem).

GPP – R = NPP
GPP = Gross Primary productivity
NPP = Net primary productivity
R = Respiratory losses

● Decomposition
The important steps of decomposition are
(1) Fragmentation
(2) Leaching
(3) Catabolism
(4) Humification
(5) Mineralization

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Biology (Std. XII) 35

● Energy flow
PAR – 50% of Total Radiation.
(PAR – Photosynthetically Active Radiation) 2-10 % PAR is utilized by autotrophs, photoautotrophs
● Energy flow is unidirectional.
Food Chain

Grazing Detritus Parasitic

food chain food chain food chain

Ecological pyramids

Pyramid of Pyramid Pyramid

Number of Biomass of Energy
(upright or (upright or (always
inverted) inverted) upright)

Nutrient cycle

Gaseous cycle Sedimentary cycle

Eg. Carbon, Eg - phosphorous,

Nitrogen sulphur, calcium

Reservoir is Reservoir is earth’s

atmosphere, fossil crust or rocks or soil
fuel or ocean

Carbon cycle

Respiration Sedimentation

Photosynthesis Decomposition Combustion

36 Reliable Series

Ecological Succession

Includes the processes

Nudation
Invasion
Ecesis
Aggregation
Competition and co- action
Reaction
Stabilization

Types of Ecological Succession

Primary succession Secondary succession

It is the succession
It is the succession
that begins in areas
that beings in an
where natural biotic
area where no living
communities have
organisms were
been destroyed. e.g.
present before. e.g.
abandoned farm
newly cooled lava,
lands, burned or cut
rocks, newly created
forests, lands that
pond or reservoir.
have been flooded.

Succession of plants

Hydrarch Xerarch

Succession in Succession in dry

water area
Biology (Std. XII) 37

Ecosystem services
(1) Supporting services
(Nutrient cycling, primary production, soil
formation, habitat provision, pollination.)

(2) Provisioning services

(food, raw materials, genetic resources,
water, medicinal resources and
ornamental resources)

(3) Regulating services

(Carbon sequestration, predation
regulates prey population, waste
decomposition, detoxification)

(4) Cultural services

(cultural, spiritual and historical,
recreational experiences, science and
education, and therapeutics)

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 Biodiversity, Conservation and
15
Environmental Issues
(Total Marks : 03) (Marks with Option : 04)

MEMORY MAPS

Biodiversity

Part of nature which includes differences in the genes among the individuals of a species, the variety and
richness of all plants and animal species at different scales in a space, local region, country and the world,
and the types of ecosystem both terrestrial and aquatic within a defined area.

Levels of Biodiversity

Genetic diversity Species diversity Ecological diversity

Patterns of Biodiversity

(1) Latitudinal and Altitudinal gradient

(2) Species - Area relationship : log S = log C + Z log A

Productivity - Stability Hypothesis

By David Tillman, Hypothesis explains rich diversity leads to lesser variation in biomass production, hence
brings stability in ecosystem.

Rivet Popper Hypothesis

By Paul Ehrlich, explains significance of biodiversity.

Loss of Biodiversity

Natural Manmade
(1) Habitat loss and fragmentation
(2) Over-exploitation
The Evil Quartet
(Causes of biodiversity losses) (3) Alien species invasion

(4) Co-extinctions

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Biology (Std. XII) 39

Reasons for Conservation of Biodiversity

(1) Narrowly utilitarian reasons (2) Broadly utilitarian reasons (3) Ethical reasons

How to Conserve Biodiversity ?

In situ conservation - (in house / natural place) Ex situ conservation - (special place)

Environmental Issues

Air Pollution Water Pollution Noise Pollution Thermal Pollution

■ CO2 ■ Sewage water ■ High decibel sound ■ Thermal plant effluent
■ CO ■ Industry waste ■ Loudspeaker ■ Radio-active plant effluent
■ NO2 ■ Heavy metals ■ Jet plane take off
■ CFC
■ Dust
■ Smog

Amrita Devi

■ Bishnoi woman of Rajasthan lost her life in Chipko movement.

Saalumara Thimmakka

■ Indian environmentalist of Karnataka, noted her work in planting thousands of trees.

■ She was awarded with Padma Shri in 2019.

Moirangthem Loiya

■ A middle class man from Manipur, dedicated his 17 years of life to restore Punshilok forest alone.

Sacred Groves
(1) Khasi and Jaintia hills – Meghalaya
(2) Western ghats – Maharashtra and Karnataka
Found in :
(3) Aravali hills – Rajasthan

(4) Bastar, Chanda and Sarguja – Madhya Pradesh

40 Reliable Series

Extinct Species
■ Dodobird ■ Stellar sea cow ■ Passenger pigeon ■ Great Indian Bustard

Invasive Species
■ Lantana ■ Water hyacinth ■ Carrot grass ■ African catfish ■ Predator fish Nile Perch

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