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Clothing Comfort

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Introduction to Clothing Comfort Psychology and Comfort

Need and Selection of Clothing Psycho-physiological Factors of Clothing

Comfort
Basic elements of clothing comfort
o Four basic elements Psychophysics and Clothing Comfort
Clothing Comfort and Wearer’s Wear Trial Techniques
Attitude
 Psychological Aspects of Aesthetic Comfort
Human-Clothing Interactions
Understanding Clothing Comfort
 Neurophysiological Processes in Clothing Comfort
Neurophysiological Perceptions
Sensory system of human skin
Nerve endings in human skin
Mechanical and Thermal Receptors
Sensations related to mechanical stimuli
Sensations related to thermal stimuli
Sensations related to humidity stimuli
Sensory Perceptions of Human Body
Transmission of neurophysiological sensations
Physiological Requirements of the Human Body
Metabolic heat and body temperature
Metabolic heat loss and sweating
Tactile Aspects of Clothing Comfort
Tactile Comfort Sensations
Human tactile responses
Tactile characteristics of clothing
Fabric Handle Attributes for Expressing Tactile Comfort
Assessment of Fabric Handle Characteristics
Subjective assessment
Objective assessment
-KESF and FAST methods
- Nozzle extraction principle
Fabric Parameters Affecting Tactile Sensation

Thermal Transmission

- Thermo-regulation in Human Body

- Thermal Distress
- Thermoregulation through Clothing System
Moisture Transmission
- Thermal Comfort of Clothing
Heat exchange through clothing and
- Transient Heat Flow and Warm-cool Touch of Fabrics Clothing Comfort
-Measurement of Thermal Transmission Characteristics
- Parameters for Expressing Thermal Characteristics
Met, Clo, tog etc.

- Thermal Transmission Characteristics of Fabrics

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 Introduction Sweat Rate
 Perspiration from human body
transmits through the clothing
to the atmosphere in two forms,
 Liquid (sensible)

 Vapour (insensible)

 Transmission in Liquid form

involves two stages
 Wetting (initial process) and
Wicking
Transmission in Vapour form involves four principles
Diffusion
Absorption-desorption
Adsorption-transmission
Convection 9 10

Sweat Rate
Factors Affecting the Moisture
The volume of water lost in sweat daily is highly Transmission
variable, ranging from 100 to 8,000 mL/day.
 Factors affecting the moisture transmission
Exercise simulation, walking, running or through textiles are
bicycling, to induce the SRmax was conducted in a  Moisture content of the fabric

hot climatic chamber or in the desert.  Type and structure of material used

 Perspiration rate
 The SR max due to marathon running were 1,000  Atmospheric conditions (humidity,
to 1,200 g/h in the cold season and 1,500 to 2,000 temperature and wind speed)
g/h in the hot season.

11 12
 Principles of Transmission through
Clothing
 In normal activity level, the metabolic heat
produced by the body is transferred to the
atmosphere by
 Conduction, Convection and Radiation; and
 Vapour form of perspiration

 In high activity level, the production of heat is high,

which causes the body to sweat in liquid form

Metabolic rate and environmental temperature in a fasting dressed human at rest.

The wet and the dry heat loss, as well as the metabolic heat and the basal
13
metabolic rate (BMR) is measured in Watts. 14

Sense of comfort
Comfort and Discomfort Sensations
Moisture Accumulation
material absorbs sweat and moisture well
in microclimate and
}
Perspiration in Liquid &

Fabric Layer material disperses moisture to the open air well

Perspiration in Liquid &
Vapour Form

Humidity in the skin-clothing

Vapour Form

Moisture Build up &

layer remains low

Heat Stress ?

Sense of coldness
Cotton
Human
Body
Atmosphere
Human Atmosphere
 material absorbs moisture and sweat well
 material disperses moisture poorly
}
Body Human Atmosphere
Produced Perspiration Body
Produced Perspiration Warmth is lost rapidly
passes through the
clothing results in does not pass through Moisture Accumulation
the clothing completely results in Sense of dampness
‘Comfort’ ‘Discomfort’
Polyester
 material absorbs moisture and sweat poorly
 sweat and moisture remains in the micro-space
}
A clear understanding of the role of moisture transmission
between skin and clothing
through clothing is required Humidity is high
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Clothing results in a bad microclimate (Dampness) Clothing results in a bad microclimate (Coldness)

100 % Normal Polyester 100 % normal cotton

17 18

Clothing results in a good microclimate

100 % special shaped Polyester

Moisture Transmission

Liquid Water Transmission

Moisture Vapour Transmission

19 20
 Contact Angle & Young’s Equation
Liquid Water Transfer: Wicking and
Water Absorption
 Liquid water transmission through clothing
primarily depends on fibre properties
 Fibre–Water molecular attraction
Which is decided by the Surface tension
 Capillary pore distribution – Structure of
Yarns and fabrics

 Liquid water transfer takes place in 2 stages

 1st Stage: Wetting (Initial Process)
 2nd Stage: Wicking
21 22

Liquid Water Transfer through Textiles: Wetting

 It involves in fluid spreading, where fibre-air interface is replaced
with fibre-liquid interface Wetting
Young’s Equation Wettability increases when surface tension (γSL) and
contact angle (θ) decreases,
γSV – γSL = γLV cosθ

γSL ↓ ~ θ ↓

 Forces acting at a solid-liquid boundary under equilibrium is

γSV – γSL = γLV cosθ
 Where, γ represents the tension at the interface between the
various combinations of solid (S) (i.e. fibre), liquid (L) and
vapour (V)
 θ is the contact angle between the liquid drop and the surface of 1st Phase: Wetting
the solid to be wetted (Low contact angle means high
23 24
wettability)
 Factors Affecting Wettability Liquid Water Transfer through Textiles: Wicking

 Surface tension (γSL) reduces (means higher wettability)

with
 Wicking
 Increase in temperature of the liquid
 Liquid wets the fibre
 Decrease in density and viscosity of liquid  It reaches the interspaces of the fibre
 Contact angle reduces (means higher wettability) with  Produces capillary pressure
 Rougher the surface of the fabric, faster the
 By this pressure, the liquid is dragged along the capillary
due to the curvature of the meniscus in the narrow confines
spreading of water, due to the troughs offered by the of the pores
rough surface reduces the apparent wetting angle  The magnitude of the pressure (P) is given by Laplace
 Wettability is also depends on the chemical nature of equation,
fibres – higher hydrophilicity means higher wettability
 Fibre roundness and diameter ↓ ~ θ ↓ ~ cosθ ↑ ~  Where, γSV – γSL = γLV cosθ
Surface wettability increases
 Finer fibres or fibres with shaped cross-section  P is the capillary pressure developed in a capillary
have higher wettability 25 tube of radius Rc 26

Liquid Transfer Process through a Porous Media Liquid Transfer Process through a Porous Media
P   LV cos 
The magnitude of the capillary pressure through a channel is
given by the Laplace equation, Where, P is the capillary pressure developed in the channel when the liquid enters in it,
θ is the contact angle between the liquid drop and fibre surface, and
θ ↓ ~ cosθ ↑ ~ P ↑  LV
P   LV cos 
is the resultant surface tension between liquid-vapour interface
[γSV – γSL = γLV cosθ]

Perimeter of the capillary

where, ψ = = (2π Rc/π Rc2 ) = 2/Rc For a particular liquid, at constant pressure
Area of the capillary
and temperature, the surface tension at liquid -
vapour interface (  LV ) is constant regardless
whether or not the surface area is being changed
So,
As the fibre cross sectional shape
and fibre type change the contact
angle get changed which alters the P
value
2nd Phase: Capillary Wicking 27
2nd Phase: Capillary Wicking 28
 Liquid Transfer Process through a Porous Media Liquid Transfer Process in Horizontal Direction

P   LV cos   The distance travelled by a liquid flowing under

capillary pressure, in horizontal capillaries, is
The amount of water that wicks through the channel is
given by the Washburn-Lukas equation
directly proportional to the pressure gradient (P)
The capillary pressure (P) increases as the surface tension in
the solid-liquid interface decreases [γSV – γSL = γLV cosθ] and
the capillary radius decrease

 Where,
 L is the distance travelled in horizontal capillary in time t,
and
 η is the viscosity of the liquid.
2nd Phase: Capillary Wicking 29 30

Studies on Wicking of Liquid in Textile Material

Studies on Wicking of Liquid in

Effect of Presence of Hydrophilic Fibre in Blend
Textile Material

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 Effect of viscose proportion on vertical wicking of fabric (At 1 min) Studies on Wicking of Liquid in Textile Material
With the increase in
viscose proportion,
wicking height along the
warp and weft directions of
the fabric reduces.

This behaviour can be

Effect of Fibre Diameter and Cross Sectional
explained by absorption
and wicking phenomena. Shape on
Moisture Transmission Behavior through Fabrics
Viscose is a highly hydrophilic fibre; it has a good
absorbency but due to its high affinity to water when
water molecule reaches in the capillary and forms bond
with the absorbing group of the fibre molecules.
This inhibits the capillary flow along the channel formed by the fibre
surfaces
33 . 34

Studies on Wicking of Liquid in Textile Material Studies on Wicking of Liquid in Textile Material

Materials SAMPLE DEVELOPMENT Effect of FIBRE DIAMETER

Following variables were taken to design the experiment - Polyester Multifilament Normal Denier, Micro Denier

 Fibre cross-section (Poly) – Circular, Triangular and

Trilobal Number of filament - 32, dpf – 4.72 Number of filament - 200, dpf – 0.85

 Fibre denier (Poly) – dpf – 4.72 and 0.85

Polyester filaments with the above specifications and

same total linear density have been used to see the effect
of fibre shape and fibre diameter. The polyester yarns
have been used only in the weft direction of the woven
fabric.
35 36
 Studies on Wicking of Liquid in Textile Material Studies on Wicking of Liquid in Textile Material

Effect of FIBRE PROFILE

Fabric Parameters
Polyester Multifilament Circular, Triangular, Trilobal
Cross- Fibre Warp Weft Fabric Fabric
Sample Ends Picks Fabric
sectional fineness count count wt Thickness
Number of filament - 32, dpf – 4.72 Name
shape (dtex) (Tex) (Tex)
/dm /dm cover
(g/m2) (mm)

Trilobal Trilobal 5.24 36.92 16.84 358 174 0.8317 184.03 1.01
Shape Factor- 1, 1.156, 1.271
Triangula Triangul
5.24 36.92 16.84 365 181 0.8451 188.47 1.04
r ar

Circular Circular 5.24 36.92 17.11 360 178 0.8361 193.83 1.05

Microden
Irregular 0.93 36.92 18.62 370 186 0.8571 207.33 1.05
ier

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Studies on Wicking of Liquid in Textile Material Studies on Wicking of Liquid in Textile Material
Effect of fibre shape factor
Vertical wicking test
Effect of fibre diameter

10

Height of water reached (cm)

30 7

Height reached by water (cm)

12 8 y = 2.505x + 2.6848
6
Water uptake (g)

24 R2 = 0.827
Height reached by water (cm)

6 Trilobal 5
18 9
y = 2.8715x + 0.2793
4
4 R2 = 0.9492
12 Triangular
Microdenier 6
3 3 min
Normal-circular 2
6 1 min
Microdenier Circular 2
3 0
0 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4
Normal-circular 0 5 10 15
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Time (min) Poly. Shape factor
0
Time (min) (Trilobal)
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Time (min) Poly.
(Triangula
In-plane wicking test Vertical wicking test r)
Poly.
39 40
(Circular)
 Studies on Wicking of Liquid in Textile Material Studies on Wicking of Liquid in Textile Material
Effect of fibre shape factor
Conclusions
In-plane wicking test

30
23  With increase in fibre shape factor wickability
y = 10.459x + 6.199
of fabric increases

Water uptake (g)

R2 = 0.8636
Water uptake (g)

20 17
Trilobal

10 Triangular
3 min
y = 3.8175x + 3.7449
1 min  With decrease in fibre diameter wickability of the
11 2
R = 0.9985
fabric increases, as the number of capillaries
Circular
0
0 2 4 6
5 increases along with reduction in capillary
0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4
Time (min) Poly.
(Trilobal) Shape factor radius (Rc)
Poly.
(Triangular
)
Poly.
41 (Circular) 42

Fabric structure

All samples were knitted structures made up of PET

Study on the fabric construction filament having non-circular cross section.
parameters on Wicking properties of
high activity knitted sportswear Microscopic observations of fabric structure show that
the majority of the fabrics are inlerlock structures.

Some of the fabric samples (S3, S4, S5 and T5) are of plaited
constructions which are knitted by using two sets of yarns
with different deniers and shape factors.

Samples T6 and S6 are two layer fabrics. It was found

that inner and outer layers were made up of same
filament.

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 Sample code. Fibre
Details of fabric samples
Fabric Fibre cross Shape Filament Yarn linear
Fabric structure
type structure sectional factor linear density
shape density denier
denier
T1 PET Interlock Elliptical 1.087 1.50 85.5
T2 PET Interlock Elliptical 1.096 1.50 82.2
T3 PET Interlock Elliptical 1.083 1.70 81.0
T4 PET Interlock Hexagonal , 1.053, 0.80, 165
Triangular 1.095 4.90 177
S1 PET Interlock Hexagonal 1.054 1.50 96.9
S2 PET Interlock Hexagonal 1.055 1.40 83.5
S3 PET Plain plaited Flat , 1.240, 1.34, 53.3,
Figure 1. Microscopic images and
structure of interlock fabrics Figure 3. Microscopic images and
Hexagonal 1.047 0.84 166 structure of float plaited fabrics
S4 PET Float plaited 2/1 Flat, 1.240, 1.34, 53.3,
Hexagonal 1.047 0.84 166
S5 PET Float plaited 1/1 Hexagonal, 1.072, 1.50, 61,
near circular 1.021 1.00 170

T5 PET Float plaited 2/2 Hexagonal, 1.065, 1.50 85.2, Figure 2. Microscopic images and
Elliptical 1.087 1.50 245 structure of plain plaited fabrics
T6 PET 2 layer Hexagonal 1.054 1.20 77
S6 PET 2 layer Hexagonal 1.055 0.92 82.8
45 46

Figure 5. SEM images

Fibre cross Shape factor
filament cross section
ofFibre
tennis t-shirts
cross Shape factor
Fibre cross section sectional
(series T) shape
sectional
shape Elliptical 1.087
Elliptical 1.096
Elliptical 1.087
Elliptical 1.083
Elliptical 1.096
Hexagonal , 1.053,
Elliptical 1.083
Triangular 1.095
Hexagonal , 1.053,
Hexagonal 1.054
Triangular 1.095
Hexagonal 1.055
Hexagonal 1.054
Flat , 1.240,
Hexagonal 1.055
Hexagonal 1.047
Flat , 1.240,
Flat, Hexagonal 1.240,
Hexagonal 1.047
1.047
Flat, Hexagonal 1.240,
Hexagonal, 1.072,
1.047
near circular 1.021
Hexagonal, 1.072,
near circular 1.021 Hexagonal, 1.065,
Elliptical 1.087
Hexagonal, 1.065,
Hexagonal 1.054
Elliptical 1.087 Figure6. SEM images filament cross section of
Hexagonal 1.055
Hexagonal 1.054 Soccer t-shirts (series S)
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Hexagonal 1.055
 Vertical wicking
Table 2. Properties of fabric samples
Sample code Fabric mass Fabric Fabric Porosity Wpi Cpi Vertical wicking height Time for Specific
per unit area Thickn cm horizontal wicking absorbent
The red path defines one course
g/m2 ess Sec capacity Wale wise wicking was
mm

Walewise Coursewise
found to be more than
T1 168 0.500 75.82 48 56 11.1 10.3 60 2.36
course wise wicking for
T2 167 0.490 75.47 46 53 11.5 10 52 2.47
all the interlock fabrics.
T3 156 0.520 78.41 46 54 9.9 9 54 3.26
Wicking height was
T4 206 0.600 75.29 35 33 10.35 8.8 59 2.47

S1 157 0.480 76.46 48 53 6.8 6.2 63 2.55

observed more for
S2 154 0.480 76.91 41 58 8 6 73 3.16
samples having elliptical
S3 182 0.516 74.61 33 50 11.1 10.8 62 2.46
cross section of filament
S4 186 0.572 76.60 33 50 7.8 9.1 49 2.59 with high shape factor.
S5 136 0.419 76.64 46 46 7.5 8.6 42 1.77

T5 147 0.610 82.66 35 35 9 9 42 2.82

T6 184 0.812 83.69 44 66 6.3 6.5 89 3.33

S6 139 0.600 83.33 40 42 9.1 9 49 2.88

Wale-wise and course-wise vertical

wicking characteristics of interlock
49 50
fabrics

Vertical wicking
For float plaited, course In-plane wicking
wise wicking was found to
be similar or higher than
wale wise wicking.
In-plane wicking took place in pattern of ellipse
In float plaited samples for interlock fabric – due to difference in course
(S4, S5 and T5) the and wale wicking
sample S4 with maximum
shape factor show
highest wicking height
which is due to high The samples with elliptical cross section fibres
specific surface area.
took less time to wick same distance as
compared to samples with hexagonal cross
Among two-layer fabrics, section due to higher surface area offered by
sample S6 with fine them.
Wale-wise and course-wise
filament denier have
vertical wicking characteristics of
higher wicking as plaited fabrics
compared to other. 51 52

In-plane wicking characteristics
In-plane wicking
of plaited fabrics
characteristics of 2 layer
fabrics
Absorbency characteristics of
plaited fabrics
Absorbency
Absorbency characteristics of
interlock fabrics
Absorption capacity of all fabric
samples is high and saturation
completes in a few seconds.
Sample T4, was found to be
thickest among interlock
samples, shows highest
absorption.
For plaited and two layer fabric
in which sample T5 and T6 with
highest porosity were found to
have maximum absorbency
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OTHER Studies on Wicking of Liquid in Textile Material
 It is found that larger pores retain larger mass of
liquid but liquid advancement is limited.
 As the radius of the capillary decreases, the
pressure generated in the capillary will be higher
 Increase in packing co-efficient of yarn, results in
closer fibre to fibre distance, greater number of
capillaries with smaller diameter, increases capillary
flow.
Absorbency characteristics of 2  With increase in non-roundness of the fibre, specific
layer fabrics area increases, which causes increase in proportion
55
of capillary wall that drags the liquid 56
 Studies on Water Absorbency of Liquid in Textile Material
Studies on Wicking of Liquid in Textile Material

Fabric Wicking height, cm

144
Sample Fabric Water
Sample absorbency, 142
Warp Weft % 140

Normal Yarn 136.04 138

1 min 3 min 5 min 1 min 3 min 5 min 136
134 A
B
Normal 1.2 2.8 3.6 1.4 2.7 3.6 Twistless Yarn 129.23 132
C
Yarn 130
128
Twistless 1.0 2.9 3.4 4.9 6.8 8.7
Hollow Yarn 142.53
Yarn 126
124
Hollow 1.2 2.9 3.7 3.2 5.5 6.4
122
Yarn

57 58

Studies on Wicking of Liquid in Textile Material Studies on Wicking of Liquid in Textile Material

 With the increase in the tortuosity of the pores the

wickability reduces
 It depends on irregularities in fibre diameter along
the pores or arrangement of the fibre
 Natural fibres are irregular in diameter, shape, etc.
So, yarns produced from that also will have irregular Fabrics made of Cotton or any other
capillaries. natural staple fibres have these
 Similarly, in textured yarns, filament arrangement is problems
random, discontinuity in capillary. So, reduced
wicking.
 In spinning, at higher twist levels, slow migration of
fibres takes place results in discontinuity in length
and orientation of capillary, which result in reduced
wicking
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 Studies on Wicking of Liquid in Textile Material

 In woven fabric, wicking is affected by

 Weave Density and Geometry of fabric pores  Hydraulic conductivity can be given by
 Linear and slow steady-state flow through a porous media
can be described by Darcy’s law,

 Where,
 Q is the rate of flow of liquid
 ∆P is the pressure head  Where,
 L0 is the length of sample in the direction of flow
 k is the permeability of the porous medium
 K is the proportionality constant (i.e. hydraulic conductivity of
the porous medium), depends on properties of the fluid
(viscosity) and on the pore structure of the medium  η is the viscosity of the liquid

61 62

Studies on Wicking of Liquid in Textile Material Studies on Wicking of Liquid in Textile Material

Dynamic Surface Wetness

Liquid spreading & Liquid Retention
 Under normal conditions, a resting person
sweats 15 g / m2. h
 Initially, liquid spreading is achieved by
 Small, Uniformly distributed and Interconnected  In hot environment, the person sweats up to
pores 100 g / m2. h
 Liquid retention is achieved by
 Large number of pores, and
 Perspiration rate increases with level of
activity
 High total pore volume

63 64
 Studies on Wicking of Liquid in Textile Material
Studies on Wicking of Liquid in Textile Material
Dynamic Surface Wetness and Type of Fibre
Dynamic Surface Wetness
 In cotton (High Sweating Condition)
 Presence of moisture between skin and clothing layer

 Creates discomfort even at low moisture content of 3  Moisture uptake is good

to 5%
 Reduces insulation of clothing by 2 to 8%
 To avoid these drawbacks
 Mobility of the thin films of condensed moisture from
skin to clothing layer and further to subsequent
layers i.e., Dynamic surface wetness is important
factor
65
 But the transfer of liquid moisture is not
spontaneous due to low capillary pressure
(???)
 Results in poor dynamic surface wetness
 Creates clammy feeling in high sweating
condition
66

Studies on Wicking of Liquid in Textile Material

Dynamic Surface Wetness and Type of Fibre

 In polyester (high sweating condition)

 Capillarity pressure is good

 But wettability is poor results in discomfort. Evaluation of Liquid Water Transfer

 In micro-denier Polyester,
 Presence of higher number of capillaries Liquid water transfer takes place in 2 stages
results in higher moisture uptake 1st Stage: Wetting (Initial Process)
 Dry and comfort feel to wearer.
2nd Stage: Wicking

 In shaped Polyester ???

67 68
 Evaluation of Liquid Water Transfer Evaluation of Liquid Water Transfer

Measurement of Wettability: Measurement of Wettability: Tensiometry

 Wettability
can be measured by  Tensiometer is an instrument used to measure the
wettability of the fabric by measuring the wetting
 Tensiometry
force by Wilhelmy method.
 Goniometry  In this method the wetting force (force applied by
the surface, when liquid comes in contact with the
surface) is measured.
 The contact angles are calculated indirectly from
the wetting force when a solid is brought in
contact with the test liquid using Wilhelmy
69 principle. 70

Measurement of Wettability: Tensiometry Measurement of Wettability: Tensiometry

 Wilhelmy method.  Wilhelmy method.
The Wilhelmy plate consists of a thin plate
l is, unlike shown, NOT the height
usually on the order of a few centimeters
of the plate; the magnitude of force
square.
on the plate is instead directly
The plate is often made from glass which
proportional to the wetted perimeter
may be roughened to ensure
of the plate.
complete wetting.
The plate is cleaned thoroughly and
attached to a scale or balance via a thin metal
wire.
where l is the wetted perimeter (2w + 2d) of the Wilhelmy plate
The force on the plate due to wetting is measured and θ is the contact angle between the liquid phase and the
via a tensiometer or microbalance and used to
plate. In practice the contact angle is rarely measured, instead
calculate the surface tension (γ) using the Wilhelmy
either literature values are used, or complete wetting (θ = 0) is
equation:
assumed.
71 72
 Evaluation of Liquid Water Transfer Evaluation of Liquid Water Transfer

Measurement of Wettability: Goniometry Measurement of Wettability: Goniometry

 Dynamic contact angle
 It depends on the spreading velocity of the contact
 In this method, contact angle between the liquid
and the fabric is measured by image processing line `
technique  It can be measured by

 Direct method – by low power optics

 Two types of processes are there (involves manual error)
 Analytical method

 Static wetting angle measurement  Automated Contact Angle Tester (ASTM D

5725-99)
 Dynamic wetting angle measurement
 HTHP contact angle tester
 Drop analyzer tester

73 74

Evaluation of Liquid Water Transfer

Dynamic Wettability
Measurement of Wettability: Goniometry
 Skin dynamic wetness is a very important factor
determining the contact comfort feeling of the skin.
 Clothing vapour resistance (w) has been related by the
following equation,
 To observe the spreading of a droplet, high
resolution CCD camera equipped with a magnifying E sw
zoom lens was used w= + 0.06
 Apparatus has been developed to measure  Where, E max
wettability of filament specimen  Esw is the regulatory sweat evaporation rate,
 Emax is the maximum evaporation rate possible in the ambient
climate with a particular temperature for a totally wet skin,
and
 0.06 being the minimal skin wetness (or moisture evaporation)
due to diffusion through the skin
75 76
 Wettability Wettability
 ISO-7730 is used to determine skin temperature,
sweat rates and ambient temperatures for comfort at
various metabolic rates.
 In ISO-7730, required sweat evaporation at comfort is
given as a function of metabolic rate  By treating the fabric with cobalt

 
chloride, the change in the colour due to
E sw Wm 2  0.42 M  58 absorption of moisture can be observed.
 Where,
 M is the metabolic rate and Esw the sweat evaporation
(W/m2)  Thereby dynamic moisture change can
be measured subjectively

77 78

Wettability Methods of Measurement

 The general terms and units used for measuring
absorption (wettability) of fabrics are
 Wicking: After wetting of the fibre, when the
 Bulk Material Absorption (BMA) g.g-1 – records the liquid reaches in the capillary, a pressure is
total absorption capacity of the fabric
developed which forces the liquid to wick
 Bulk Absorption Rate (BAR) g g-1s-1 – calculates the
along the capillary
amount of water absorbed vertically by 1 gm of
fabric
 Bulk Absorption Time (BAT) s – records the time in
seconds it takes for the water to be absorbed
vertically into the fabric

79 80
 Measurement of Wicking Terms and Units
 Liquids generally used for wicking test,  The terms and units generally used for
 Should represent close to human sweat
measuring wicking of fabrics are
 Surface energy properties similar to human perspiration
 Amount of Water Wicked (AWW) g g -1 : determine the
wicking capacity of the fabric away from the
 Heated to human skin temperature of around 35°C
absorption zone
 Sweat include sodium, sodium chloride, potassium,
 Surface-Water Transport Rate (SWTR) gg-1s-1 :
potassium chloride etc.
calculates the amount of water wicked by 1 gm of
 Most human sweat contains at an average of 1000 mg/l, fabric per second
and at least 700 mg/l of sodium
 Wicking Time (WT) s : is the time in second for water
 0.0025 g NaCl/ml or a 0.25% solution may simulate the to wick across a specified distance (3.25 cm)
sweat
 The terms spontaneous transplanar or
 Sodium chloride (NaCl) has an atomic mass of 58 g/mol
transverse wicking are used when the
with the Na atom occupying 40% of that mass
transmission of a liquid is through the thickness of
 Therefore, 1 gram of sodium per liter equals 2.5 grams
the fabric, i.e. perpendicular to the plane of the
of NaCl per liter 81 82
fabric

Types of Wicking

 Transplanar or transverse
Evaluation of Liquid Water Transfer wicking
 In-plane wicking

Liquid water transfer takes place in 2 stages  Vertical or longitudinal wicking

1st Stage: Wetting (Initial Process)
2nd Stage: Wicking

83 84
 Types of Wicking Test Method for Transverse Wicking
Uptake of Water Uptake of Water along  Horizontal sintered glass plate kept moist by a water
through the thickness the thickness of the
of the Fabric Fabric supply
 It should be adjusted to keep the water level at the
upper surface of the plate
Controlled Water Controlled Water  Fabric can be kept over the sintered glass plate to
supply supply
Direction of water
Transverse Wicking In-plane Wicking
Wicking  Uptake of water is measured by suitable method
Fabric  By the movement of meniscus

 By loss in weight of water

Vertical Wicking  Contact of fabric throughout the area can be ensured

Water  By placing non-porous solid weight over the fabric

85 86

Schematic Diagram of Traverse Wicking Schematic Diagram of In-plane

Wicking
Fabric Siphon
tube
Cover plate Liquid
reservoir
Base
plate

Electronic
balance

Height
adjusting
knob

87 88
 Test Method for In-plane Wicking Test Method for In-plane Wicking

 Fabric is placed on the horizontal base plate which is
connected to the Siphon tube
 Fabric is covered with plate to ensure intimate contact
with the base plate
 Moment the fabric is placed, it starts wicking of liquid
 Wicking can be measured by
 Possibility arises that air bubble might be trapped in the
fabric or between the plates and fabric which can be
escaped from the edges of the fabric
 Two extra capillaries
 One is between Bottom plate and fabric

 Measuring by water uptake by the fabric sample  Another is between Fabric and Top plate

 Using image analysis technique to obtain the shape

and position of a radially advancing fluid front

89 90

Schematic Diagram of In-plane Test Method for Vertical Wicking

Wicking (Visual Technique)

Fabric Siphon  Sample is hung vertically into a reservoir filled

tube
Cover plate Liquid
reservoir
with water.
Base
plate  Certain amount of load should be hung at the
Electronic lower end of the sample to keep it straight
balance

 Vertical wicking of liquid is measured by

 Visual observation of movement of the liquid
Height
adjusting along the sample (height) is observed
knob
(addition of suitable dye enhances visibility)
 Microscopic observation can be made

91 92
 Schematic Diagram of Vertical Present Techniques
Manual : Simple visual observation of travel of
Wicking 
liquid front and manual recording
Scale
- Chances of manual error
 Image processing : Becomes difficult in some
cases, e. g. in porous fabrics very accurate video
Fabric recording and shooting is required and thus
Clamp
becoming more complex. Also, imaging the actual
liquid travel is very difficult, particularly for thicker
fabrics
 A method and instrument called the moisture
Reservoir management tester (MMT) is developed by Hong
Kong Polytechnic University to evaluate textile
93 moisture management properties 94

Test Method for Vertical Wicking Present Techniques…. Cont

Moisture Management Tester (MMT)
 By measuring the electrical resistance of the PRINCIPLE
fabric (or) yarn  Variation of contact electrical

 Electrical conductivity of water is 18 times resistance of the fabric with

transport of moisture
that of air
 Depends on:
 The liquid wicks along the sample,
 the components of the water,
electrical resistance get reduced and
 Rise of the liquid water in the sample can  the water content in the
trigger an electrical circuit EXPERIMENT
fabric.
 So, distance of rise as a function of time is 1. The specimen held flat at a certain pressure
determined 2. Top and lower sensors
3. Computer dynamically records the resistance change between
each couple of proximate metal rings individually at the top and
95
lower sensors 96

Instruments based on Resistance
and Capacitance Principles
Underlying Principle of proposed testers
 The proposed idea is based on electrical resistance
offered by the fabrics in wet and dry conditions
 Dry fabrics are poor conductors of electricity,
whereas wet fabrics are better conductors. Wetted
fabrics conduct some electricity because of the

water ions present which act as carriers of electrons
When the textile fabrics come into contact with
water, it will start wicking and the presence of water
reduces the electrical resistance of the fabrics and
will start conducting electricity.
 This principle is exploited in detecting the water
travel front point.

97 98

Principle of Vertical Wicking Tester

Schematic diagram of Vertical oThis instrument taps the fact that when the water level
Wicking Tester reaches a particular height, the circuit at that level gets
complete as the electrical resistance offered by the
fabric decreases.

oAs a result the LED corresponding to that circuit

glows, indicating that water has reached that particular
height.

oWith the help of a microcontroller, the time gets stored

automatically.

oThe time Vs. wicking height curve also gets displayed

Play
99
on the computer screen. 100
 Vertical Wicking Tester

101 102
Vertical Wicking Tester

Vertical wicking tester

• It was observed that the difference in the results obtained by the

two methods was not significant.
• Thus validating the principle of the instrument.
Consistency testing of vertical wicking tester 103 104
 Schematic diagram of in-plane wicking Principle of In-plane Wicking Tester
tester
oIt consists of a circular block of insulating material

oSuitable electrical circuits was developed which sense

the in-plane flow of water

oThe water was supplied to the centre of the fabric

sample

oAs soon as the water reaches to a specified point, the

electrical circuit is completed and the signal is
transmitted to computer

oTime Vs. water front flow point was plotted in real time
105 106

Liquid flow : In-plane wicking tester Liquid flow : In-plane wicking tester

107 108
 In plane wicking measurement system
(Capacitance Principle)
 Flow of liquid through porous material
 Reason - Capillary action

109 110

 Flow of liquid through porous material  Flow of liquid through porous material
 Reason - Capillary action  Reason - Capillary action

111 112
 Basic body of the instrument Basic body of the instrument

 Top plate  Lower plate

113 114

Principle Capacitor plates

• In general the capacitance(C) depends upon 3
main parameters:
 Insulation to prevent discharging of capacitor
1) Dielectric constant (K)
2) Area(A)
3) Distance(d)

• Hence in general,

C = KAƐo/d ,

Ɛo = relative static permittivity of the material

115 116
Capacitance in Parallel Calculations

C(initial)=k ԐLW/(2*d1) = Constant = m

1/Cwet = d/ ( kwetԐLW) +1/m
Kwet = d m Cwet / (m – Cwet) …….1
1/Cdry = d/ ( kdryԐLW) +1/m
Kdry = d m Cdry / (m – Cdry)…….2
1/Cx = d/( (kwet-kdry)xԐW + kdryԐWL) +1/m
X = (Cx-Cdry)/(Cwet-Cdry)*(m-Cdry)/(m-Cx) L

117 118

Design Signal Amplification

119 120
 Moisture Transmission
Moisture Vapour Transmission
Liquid Water Transmission
through Textile Materials

Moisture Vapour Transmission

121 122

Moisture Vapour Transmission Different Layers Through which

Moisture Vapor Transports
 Vapour transfer through the fabric is
primarily by means of
Ambient air layer
 Inter yarn spaces

 Inter fibre spaces Boundary air layer

Fabric layer
 Vapour diffuses through the air spaces
between the fibrous materials Evaporating fluid layer

 Open fabric structure promotes the Human skin

diffusion process

123 124

Mechanisms
 Moisture in vapour form transmits through textile
materials by the following four mechanisms
1. Diffusion of the water vapour through the
air spaces between the fibres
2. Absorption, transmission and desorption
of the water vapour by the fibres
3. Adsorption and migration of the water
vapour along the fibre surface
4. Transmission of water vapour by forced
convection
125
Diffusion: Fickian Diffusion
 The diffusion which follows Fick’s law is called
Fickian diffusion
 In this case the diffusion coefficient (DAB) does
not alter
 with the changes in the moisture vapour
concentration within the material
 with the changes in temperature
 In case of air permeable fabrics and micro-
porous polymers this type of diffusion takes place
127
Diffusion
 Vapour pressure gradient acts as the driving force
 Occurs on a molecular level at lower speed
 Moisture vapour is transported from the higher
concentration zone to the lower concentration zone
 As per Fick’s Law, the relation between the flux of the
diffusing substance and the concentration gradient
(dCA/dx)
 Where,
 JAx is the rate of moisture flux (g/m 2.s)
 dCA is the concentration of moisture vapour (g/m3)
 dx is length (m)
 DAB is the diffusion coefficient or mass diffusivity of
one component diffusing through another media
126
(m2/s)
Diffusion: Non-fickian Diffusion
 The diffusion which does not follow this law
is called non-Fickian diffusion.
 The water vapour transmission rate of the
hydrophilic polymers conforms to the
following relationship
WVT = D.S. (p1-p2)/l
128
 Diffusion: Non-fickian Diffusion
WVT = D.S. (p1-p2)/l
 where,
 (p1-p2) = Partial pressure gradient between the two
surfaces
 l = Thickness of the material
 D = Diffusion coefficient (i.e. The diffusion coefficient is
the amount of a particular substance that diffuses across
a unit area in 1 s under the influence of a gradient of one
unit. It is usually expressed in the units m2/s.
 S = Solubility coefficient (The volume of a gas that can be
dissolved by a unit volume of solvent)
 Hydrophilic materials transfer water vapor according to
Non-Fickian diffusion. 129
Diffusion Along the Fibre (Non-Fickian )
Moisture vapour diffuses from one surface of the
fabric
Surface of fibre
Travels along the interior of the fibres
Reaches other surface of the fibres
Reaches the other surface of fabric
131
Principles of Diffusion through textile
medium
 Moisture vapour can diffuse through a
textile medium by two principles
 Simple diffusion through the air spaces
within the fibrous structure (Fickian
diffusion)
 Diffusion along the fibre itself (Non-
Fickian diffusion)
130
Diffusion Along the Textile Materials
 At a specific concentration gradient,
diffusion rate depends upon
 Porosity of the material
 Water vapour diffusivity of the fibre
 The diffusion coefficient of water vapour
 Through air is 0.239cm2/sec
 Through cotton fibre is around 10-7 cm2/sec
 Depends on rate at which moisture can
diffuse into and out of the fibres
132
 Diffusion Along the Textile Materials Diffusion Along the Textile Materials: Two Stage
Diffusion
The moisture diffusion through the air portion of the
fabric is almost instantaneous,  In the case of hydrophilic fibre assemblies,
two stage diffusion occurs
Whereas, through a fabric system it is limited by the rate at
 First stage: Fickian diffusion (through air gap)
which moisture can diffuse into and out of the fibres
 Second stage: much slower (follows an
exponential relationship between the
which is due to the lower moisture diffusivity of the concentration gradient and the vapour flux)
textile material
 Diffusion of vapour through fibres causes to
In the case of hydrophilic fibre assemblies, vapour diffusion absorb moisture and causes swelling results
does not obey Fick’s law in reduction of air spaces
 So, slows down diffusion process
It is governed by a non-Fickian, anomalous diffusion
133 134

Factors Affecting Diffusivity Diffusion Coefficient

 The diffusion coefficient of moisture vapour in air
 Diffusivity DECREASES with, can be given as a function of temperature and pressure
 Increases in fibre volume fraction by the following equation
(proportion of air reduces results in
reduction in diffusivity)
 Where,
 Increase in the flatness of the fibre cross-  D is the diffusion co-efficient of water vapour in air (m2/sec)

section  θ is the atmospheric temperature (°K)

 θ0 is the standard temperature of 273.15 °K

 With an increase in fabric thickness (the
 P is the atmospheric pressure
porosity of the material is reduced)  P0 is the standard pressure (bar)

 Water vapour diffusion has direct correlation  In general, the diffusion co-efficient of fibres increases
with the air permeability of the fabric with the increase in the concentration of water in the
fibres
135 136
 Sorption-Transmission-Desorption
 It is an important phenomenon of moisture
vapour transmission which is responsible for
maintaining the microclimate during transient
conditions
 Hygroscopic fibrous materials
 Absorb moisture from human skin
 Absorbing fabric works as a moisture source
to the atmosphere
 Release absorbed moisture in dry air
137
Sorption-Transmission-Desorption
 During absorption–desorption process the
absorbing fabric works as a moisture
source to the atmosphere.
 It also works as a buffer by maintaining a
constant vapour concentration in the air
immediately surrounding it, i.e. a constant
humidity is maintained in the adjoining air,
though temperature changes due to the
heat of sorption.
139
Sorption-Transmission-Desorption
 Reduce the moisture built up in the microclimate
 This process enhances the transmission of
moisture vapour from the human skin to the
environment.
 The transmission of moisture vapour (at lower
activity level) in case of hygroscopic materials is
higher than materials which do not absorb
moisture and thus reduce the moisture built up in
the microclimate (cotton is comfortable in low
activity, whereas polyester is not)
138
Adsorption-Migration
 Adsorption of water molecules takes place below
a critical temperature
 Van-der-Waals forces occurs between the
moisture vapour molecules and the solid surface
of textile fibres
 The higher the vapour pressure and the lower the
temperature, the higher is the amount adsorbed
140
 Factors Affecting Adsorption Factors Affecting Adsorption
 With the increase in fibre swelling the capillary
 The amount of moisture adsorption depends on channels between the fibres get reduced which
 Moisture regain
results lower vapour transmission
 The distortion caused by the fibre swelling
 Environmental humidity
results in built up of internal stresses which
 Sorption hysteresis
affects the moisture adsorption process.
 Temperature
 The adsorption hysteresis increases with the
 Dimensional changes
increase in the hydrophilicity of fibre

141 142

Forced Convection Forced Convection

Qm = - A hm (Ca - Cα)
 The transmission of moisture vapour that takes place
 where ,
while air is flowing over a moisture layer
 Qm is the mass of moisture vapour transmitted by
convection through the fabric area of A along the
 The amount of moisture transmission in this process is direction of the flow
governed by the difference in moisture concentration
 Ca is the moisture vapour concentration on the fabric
between the surrounding atmosphere and the source
surface
of moisture vapour
 Cα is the vapour concentration in the air

 The rate of moisture transmission can be controlled by

 The process is governed by the following equation
the difference in vapour concentration, (Ca - Cα), and
Qm = - A hm (Ca - Cα) the convective mass transfer coefficient, hm, which
depends on the fluid properties, mainly on its velocity
143 144
 Rel. water vapour permeability%
3.2

Forced Convection

Absolute vapour resistance

62
3.1

82.58 3
61 y=62.97-
x
R2=0.8666 2.9 y=3.57-0.098x0.5
 In a windy atmosphere the convection 60 R2=0.8781
2.8
method plays a very significant role in 2.7
59
transmitting moisture from the skin to the 2.6
20 40 60 80 100 0 25 50 75 100
atmosphere through clothing Viscose% Viscose%
With

Air permeability cm3/cm2/sec

the increase in 36
viscose% in P/V blended 30
fabrics, water vapour 24
permeability of the fabric 18
increases. 12
6
Mass per unit area of all the 0
fabrics is constant 20 40 60 80 100
Viscose %

145 146

So the difference in the water vapour

permeability of the fabric occurs because of
something else rather than the openness of the
material.  At a specific concentration gradient the
diffusion rate along the textile material depends
When vapour transmits through a textile layer on the porosity of the material and also on the
two processes are involved in that; diffusion and water vapour diffusivity of the fibre.
sorption-desorption.
Diffusivity of the material increases with the
Water vapour diffuses through a textile increase in moisture regain
structure in two ways, simple diffusion through
the air spaces between the fibres and yarns and
along the fibre itself.

147 148
 So as the fabric sett and structure of all the
fabrics are almost same, diffusion through air A hygroscopic fabric absorbs water vapour from
should not differs for the fabrics. the humid air close to the sweating skin and
releases it in dry air.
As the viscose proportion in the fabric
increases, moisture regain of the material This enhances the flow of water vapour from the
increases causing higher diffusivity. skin to the environment as compared to a fabric
which does not absorb and reduces the moisture
In the same way moisture transfer through built up in the microclimate.
sorption-desorption process increases with the
hygroscopicity of the material. Whereas fabric with less hygroscopicity will
provide higher resistance to the water vapour
transfer.
149 150

24.6 48
y = -2.8962x + 27.122
The results indicate that the fabric with circular filament
Rel. water vapour

Air permeability

y = -13.787x + 59.643
(cm3/cm2/min)

46
permeability%

R2 = 0.9769 2
24
has the highest water vapour permeability and it reduces with
R = 0.9998
44
23.4 the increase in fibre shape factor.
42

22.8
0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4
40
0.9 1.1 1.3
A good correlation has also been found between air
Shape factor Shape factor permeability and relative water vapour% of the fabrics.
30

25 25.5
As fibre shape factor increases the specific surface area of
Rel. water vapour
permeability%

the fibre also increases. Furthermore, the drag resistance to

Rel. water vapour
permeability, %

20 24
y = 0.132x + 17.92
R² = 0.962

15 22.5
air and the water vapour flow through the fibre surface
10 21
25 30 35 40 45 50
decreases with the increase in fibre shape factor, which
results in low air and water vapour permeability for these
5
Air permeability
0
Trilobal Triangular Circular Microdenier fabrics.
151 152
Air permeability and water vapour permeability decreases
with the decrease in fibre diameter.
This result can also be explained by higher specific area of
the fibres. Finer the specific area of the fibre is higher, lower
is the air and water vapour permeability of the fabric.
153
Moisture Evaporative and Condensation
 Evaporation and condensation also have significant
effects on moisture vapour transmission through
porous textile materials
 These depend on
 Temperature
 Moisture distribution in porous textile materials
 The importance of evaporative heat transfer in
maintaining thermal balance becomes more crucial
with the increase in the surrounding atmospheric
temperature
155
Moisture Evaporation
(Evaporative Heat Transfer)
and
Condensation
154
Moisture transmission & Evaporative Heat Transfer
 During the evaporation of liquid body perspiration
 Latent heat is taken away from the body, thus
body cools down
 Also, increase in the surrounding atmospheric
temperature (close to skin temperature)
 In this case, due to the low temperature difference
between the human body and the environment the
heat transmission through radiation, conduction and
convection reduces
156
 Moisture transmission & Evaporative Heat Transfer
 When a negative temperature gradient (i.e. in a very hot
climate) exists between the skin and the environment,
evaporative heat transfer becomes the only way to cool
down the body temperature
 Latent heat of evaporation of water is vary large (about 2300
kJ/kg)
 So, small amount of evaporation results in significant amount of
heat flow and cools down the body
 The presence of wind enhances the evaporative heat transfer
due to enhanced evaporation rate and results in additional
cooling that is desirable in periods of peak performance
Condensation of Moisture Vapour
Condensation of moisture vapour is a direct result of a
fabric being saturated by liquid perspiration and it generally
occurs within the fabric whenever the local vapour
pressure increases to saturation vapour pressure at
certain temperature
 It generally occurs when,
• the atmospheric temperature is very low
• the relatively warmer and moist air from the skin comes
into contact with relatively cooler fabric surface, the
fabric surface works as a cold wall and condensation
occurs

It has been reported that condensation can occur at

atmospheric temperatures below 10°C
157 158

Condensation of Moisture Vapour… Three Stages of Condensation

 Condensation of moisture vapour in an initially
cont dry porous fibrous material takes place in three
stages
 In case of waterproof fabrics the chances of  First stage: Velocity, temperature and vapour
condensation is very high because, concentration fields are developed within the
 Water vapour can diffuse from the skin to the material and condensation begins
fabric layer easily
 Second stage: Liquid content increases
 Diffusion from the fabric layer to the gradually, but it is still too low to move
atmosphere is difficult
 Third stage: Liquid content increases further
 Condensation takes place
and goes beyond certain threshold value, the
pendulum like drops of condensate coalesce
and begin to move under surface tension and
159 gravity 160
 Condensation of Moisture Vapour
 If the vapour concentrations in both the surfaces of the
fabric are at the saturation level,
 condensation of moisture vapour occurs in the entire
thickness of the fabric
 In case of below saturation level, at a specific Evaluation of Moisture Vapour
atmospheric temperature, condensation occurs only over
certain region within the fabric Transmission
 In this case, condensation of moisture vapour occurs in the
fabric, which forms a wet zone separated by two dry zones
 The proportion of the wet region increases with the increase
in condensation of moisture vapour
 The progress of condensation process of moisture
vapour takes place mainly in the direction of the warmer
side rather than that of the cooler side [study report]

161 162

Evaluation Evaluation: Parameters

 Different standard methods Methods Parameters
 Evaporative dish method or control dish method
(BS 7209) Evaporative Disc The percentage water vapour
 Upright cup method or Gore cup method (ASTM E Method permeability index
96-66)
The moisture vapour transmission rate
 Inverted cup method and the desiccant inverted Cup method
(g/m2/Day)
cup method (ASTM F 2298)
 Desiccant Inverted Cup Method Sweating guarded hot The resistance to evaporative heat
 Moisture Vapour Transmission Cell Plate transfer, Ret (m2Pa/W)
 The dynamic moisture permeable cell (ASTM F
2298) Holographic The resistance of equivalent standard still
 The sweating guarded hot plate method, skin visualization method air (cm)
model (ISO 11092)
163 164
 Evaluation: Evaporative Dish Method
 Procedure
 Known weight of water is kept in a dish
 Open mouth is covered with the fabric to be tested
 After certain time system reaches equilibrium
 Water vapour permeability (WVP) is measured by
successive weighting of the dish
 Relative WVP is calculated by comparing with reference
fabric
Standard: BS 7209
Evaluation: Upright Cup Method
Standard: ASTM E 96-80 procedure B
Evaluation: Evaporative Dish Method
Formula for calculating Water Vapour Permeability
Water vapour permeability (WVP) = 24M / A. t (g/ m2/day)
Relative water vapour permeability index% = (WVP)f × 100 /
(WVP)r
 Where,
 M is the loss in mass (g) of water vapour through the
fabric specimen
 t is the time between weighing (h)
 A is the internal area of the dish (m2)
 (WVP)f and (WVP)r are the water vapour permeability of
the test fabric and reference fabric respectively
165 Standard: BS 7209 166
Evaluation: Upright Cup Method
 A shallow cup is filled with 100 ml of water
 Fabric is mounted on the cup
 Assembly is kept in environmental chamber at 23°C, 50% RH
and air velocity of 2.8 m/s
 Assembly is weighed periodically throughout the day
24  G
WVT  ; g / m2 / 24hr
 Where, AT
 WVT = water vapor transmission rate (g/m2/day)
 G = change in mass (g)
 T = testing time (hr)
 A = test area (m2).
167 Standard: ASTM E 96-80 procedure B 168

Evaluation: Inverted Cup Test Method
Standard: ASTM E96, Procedure BW
Evaluation: Desiccant Inverted Cup Method
Standard: ASTM E96, Procedure BW
Evaluation: Inverted Cup Test Method
 Hydrophobic PTFE membrane is used to seal the
mouth of the cup to prevent the wetting of the
specimen
 The test specimen is placed over the membrane
 Cup assembly is placed in an inverted position
 Assembly is weighed periodically throughout one
day
 Mainly for use with waterproof samples
169 Standard: ASTM E96, Procedure BW 170
Evaluation: Desiccant Inverted Cup Method
 Similar to that of Inverted cup method but the only
difference is that in this method the cup used in this
method is partly filled with desiccant such as
 Potassium acetate,
 Calcium chloride,
 Anhydrous CaSO4 or anhydrous MgClO4
 The drying agent stays in direct contact with fabric,
minimizing the path of water vapour
 The inverted cup is covered by the specimen and the
specimen is covered by another piece of waterproof and
vapour permeable membrane (like PTFE)
 The inverted cup along with specimen is immersed into the
water bath filled with distilled water with the help of specimen
holder
171 Standard: ISO 15496 2004 172
 Evaluation: Desiccant Inverted Cup Method Evaluation: Moisture Vapour
 The measuring cup initially is weighed by means of a balance
then inverted and inserted into the specimen holder. Transmission Cell
 After certain time (t), the measuring cup is removed and  There are two cells
reweighed.  Lower cell is partially filled with water and covered by fabric
specimen
 The water vapour permeability of the specimen is then
 Upper cell is kept dry at the start of the test by suitable
calculated by using the following equation: arrangement
 Moisture vapour is transmitted through the fabric
WVT = (w2-w1)/(a×t) sample
 Where,  The moisture vapour transmission rate (T) (g/in2/day)
 WVT is water vapor transmission rate is given by the change in humidity in the upper cell
 w2 = mass of cup assembly after test at a given time interval
 
 w1 = mass of test cup assembly body before test

 a = test area
 
T  269  10 7  % RH 
1440

 Time Interval 
Standard: ISO 15496 2004 173 174

Evaluation: Dynamic Moisture Permeable Cell Microclimate simulator cum moisture vapour
transmission tester:
 Capable of evaluating the moisture
transmission properties of textiles under
various conditions,
 Pure diffusion

 Combined diffusion and convection

 Pure convection

 The convective flow is evaluated by

measuring the relative pressure drop at the
bottom outlet
 The change in the fabric convective flow
properties has been taken as a function of
relative humidity 175 176
Microclimate simulator cum moisture vapour Microclimate simulator cum moisture vapour
transmission tester: transmission tester:

177 178

Microclimate simulator cum moisture vapour Microclimate simulator cum moisture vapour
transmission tester: transmission tester:

179 180
 Evaluation: Holographic Bench Technique Evaluation: SGHP
 In this method the mass flow is measured with
high accuracy using a micro-weighing
technique
 The resistance to the water vapour transfer
depends on the (i) resistance of the air layer
and (ii) the outer clothing
 Holographic bench technique separately
measures the water vapour flow resistance
offered by different air layers; thus it provides
the precise vapour resistance value of the
textile layer.
181 182

Evaluation: SGHP Evaporative Resistance by SGHP

 It measures the evaporative heat loss in the steady state
condition
 Temperature of the guarded hot plate: 350C  Distilled water level in the dosing
 Water vapour resistance (Ret) (m2 Pa/W) is calculated by device is adjusted 1 mm below the test
APm  Pa  plate level
Ret   Ret 0
 Where, H  H c  Porous membrane is covered over the
 A is the test area plate assembly
 Pm is the saturation water vapour partial pressure at the  Water droplet coming out of the plate
surface of the measuring unit
 Pa is the water vapour partial pressure of the air in the test should be just enough to keep the
chamber porous membrane with moisture
 H is the amount of heat supplied to the measuring unit
 ΔHc is a correction factor and Ret0 is the apparatus constant
Standard: ISO 11092 183 184
 Evaporative Resistance by SGHP Evaporative Resistance by SGHP
 The resistance to water vapour (evaporative resistance) is
given by the following equation  The Intrinsic evaporative resistance (m2 Pa /
( Ps  Pa ) W) of fabric is given by
Ret  Ref = Ret – Ret0
Q A  (Ts  Ta ) Where,
Rt
Where,  Ret0 is the bare plate resistance (m2 Pa / W)
 Ret is the evaporative resistance of the fabric provided by the
liquid barrier along with air layer (m2 Pa / W)  Permeability Index (Im) of the fabric is given by
 Ps is the saturated vapour pressure at skin temperature (Pa) Im = K.Rct / Ret
 Pa is the ambient vapour pressure at ambient temperature Where,
(Pa)
 Rct and Ret are dry and evaporative thermal
 Rt is the thermal resistance (m2 °C / W) resistance respectively
 Therefore, [(Ts-Ta)/Rt] is Dry heat loss (W / m2)  K is a constant (60.6515 Pa / °C )
185 186

Evaluation: The PERMETEST PERMETEST

Air flow

 This is a fast response measuring instrument

 Works on the principle of heat flux sensing (measuring the
evaporative heat resistance)
T
Wire mesh Copper
 The temperature of the measuring head is maintained at Specimen Temp
sensor
Heat flow
sensor Heater plate

35°C (from where the supplied water gets evaporated)

 The heat supplied to maintain the temperature of the Water
film

measuring head, with and without the fabric mounted on the Plastic ring

plate, is measured.
Relative water vapour permeabili ty (%)
Heat lost when the fabric is placed on the measuring head
 100
Heat lost from the bare measuring head
Measuring head of Permetest

(Standard – ISO 110092) 187 (Standard – ISO 110092) 188

Water Vapour Transmission by Permetest Permetest…
 Relative water vapour permeability pwv (%), is given by,
us
Where, p wv (%)  100
 Instrument works under the principle of heat flux u0
 us is heat loss from the measuring head with fabric
sensing  u0 heat loss from the measuring head without fabric

 Temperature of measuring head is maintained in  Water vapour resistance Ret (m2 Pa/W) is given by
isothermal conditions at 35 °C
 1 1  1 1 
 When water evaporates from the measuring head, Ret  ( p wsat  p wo )    C 100     
 Su o Su s   us u o 
the heat loss from it is measured indirectly by the
Where,
heat sensor  pwsat is partial water vapour pressure in saturated air in Pascal;

 Heat loss by the bare plate and covered with and

 pwo partial water vapour pressure in the laboratory air in
fabric both are taken
Pascal
 φ is the humidity

189  C is the constant determined by calibration procedure 190

 S is sensivity of the instrument

Moisture Sensation & Clothing Comfort

 Moisture accumulation on the skin and within the
clothing layers is the primary reason for discomfort
 This problem is intensified further particularly in
functional clothing because this sort of clothing is
Moisture Sensation in Clothing frequently used under stressful environmental
conditions in which moisture accumulates on the skin
and within the clothing layers and contributes to
wearer discomfort
 Moisture sensation of clothing can be expressed either
in terms of
 Absolute threshold

 Difference threshold

191 192
Moisture Sensation & Clothing Comfort

 So, clear understanding of moisture

management characteristics is very
essential to achieve clothing comfort

193