Introduction
Clothing Comfort Related to
Thermal Transmission
 The processes involved in comfort are physical,
thermo-physiological, neuro-physiological and
psychological
 Thermo-physiological comfort
 Associated with the thermal balance of the human body
 Body core temperature of about 37° C (37±5°C)
 > 42° C – Hyperthermia
 < 32° C – Hypothermia
 Two types of thermo-physiological comfort
requirement
 Normal thermo-regulation in human body
 Thermal distress
 The transmission of heat and moisture
through the clothing system takes
place in two states,
 Steady state
 Transient state
 The human body is rarely in a thermal
steady state
1 2
NORMAL Thermo-regulation in Human Body
 The core temperature is usually measured as
rectal temperature
 It varies among the different body organs
 Some organs are heated by the blood flow
 Some are cooled by the blood flowing through
them
 Physical activity rises the core temperature
 Rise in core temperature is proportional to
 Intensity of the activity level
 Maximum oxygen uptake
3 4
 NORMAL Thermo-regulation in Human Body Typical local skin temperatures
Segment Neutral stable Cold stable Warm stable
 Surface (Skin) temperature varies from part to part condition condition condition
of the body Forehead 35.8 30.7 36.5
 Cooler will be body part which is far (e.g. hands,
Cheek 35.2 27.7 36.3
Front neck 35.8 33.5 36.8
feet, etc.) from the origin of the heat (Central part of
Back neck 35.4 34.5 36.1
the body). Chest 35.1 30.9 36.3
 Average skin temperature is an area weighted Back 35.3 32.4 36.3
mean temperature Abdomen 35.3 28.7 36.2
Upper arm 34.2 24.7 36.4
 It varies with the ambient temperature, but it is
Lower arm 34.6 27.3 36.1
independent of intensity of work if heat balance Hand 34.4 23.1 36.0
can be maintained Finger 35.3 21.1 36.7
Thigh 34.3 27.0 35.6
Calf 32.7 24.3 34.1
Foot 33.3 21.4 36.4
5

Mean skin and body temperature NORMAL Thermo-regulation in Human Body

Mean skin temperature  Thermo-regulation
 Achieved by autonomic regulation which
Estimated by taking the weighted sum of skin matches the heat loss and heat production
temperatures over various parts of body:

Tskin = 0.12Tback + 0.12Tchest + 0.12Tabdomen +  The center of this autonomic regulation system is
0.14Tarm + 0.19Tthigh + 0.13Tleg + 0.05Thand + located in hypothalamus (The hypothalamus is
0.07Thead + 0.06Tfoot a portion of the brain that contains a number of
Mean body temperature
small nuclei with a variety of functions).

Derived from weighted sum of body core (rectal)

temperature and mean skin temperature.

Tbody = 0.67Trectal + 0.33Tskin

7 8
http://ergo.human.cornell.edu/studentdownloads/DEA3500notes/Thermal/thcomnotes2.html
Temperature sensors in NORMAL Thermo-regulation in Human Body
the brain respond to local
thermal stimulation from
different parts of the body

The cells in the

hypothalamus receive Other regions of the body, such as the spinal
information from skin cord and the abdomen, contain thermal sensors
thermo-receptors or other responding to the local temperatures
brain areas and interact by
modifying the signal from
the first-mentioned
sensors and control the
activity of the thermal
effectors 9 10

NORMAL Thermo-regulation in Human Body NORMAL Thermo-regulation in Human Body

 It is an interaction between core and surface
temperature Increased sweat secretion and electrolyte loss in
 Maintains a reference set point on the surface and core the sweat are the most important mechanisms in
temperature regulation
 Activates appropriate response when deviates from the
reference point by,
As far as the acclimatization of human body to cold
 Sweating, Heavy breathing, Constriction, Shivering, and
environment is concerned only insignificant
Non-shivering changes occur
 Some non-thermal factors also have influence on
temperature regulation and on the sensitivity of the The most important is a local adaptation due to
regulation mechanisms heat/cold involving vasoconstriction/vasodilatation in
 Electrolyte balance the hands and face
 Hydration state 11 12
 Thermal Distress: Extreme heat
Thermal Distress Extreme Hot Environment
 During extreme hot environment,
 If heat loss to environment is
sufficient (by sweating and
When a person is exposed to extreme evaporation), then body
temperature will remain in the
environments (too hot or too cold) the range of 37° C
threshold limits for the normal Human Body (Core 37° C)
 If heat loss is insufficient,
body will produce excess heat
thermoregulation system may reach Extreme Hot Environment
for liberation and the body core
temperature increases, which
quickly, and thus control over the leads to ‘hyperthermia’.
thermoregulatory system is lost  Blood pressure drop

 Heat stroke and other effects

 Heat cramps, heat rash, failure

Human Body (> 42° C)
of the sweat glands, stop
sweating etc.
13 14

Thermal Distress: Extreme cold Thermal Distress: Extreme cold

At a core temperature of 34–35°C the person becomes
Extreme Cold Environment  In extreme cold environment, confused and shivering stops
 Continuous liberation of heat

Human Body (< 32° C)
from body
 Heat loss > Heat production
 Drop in body core temp.
 Leads to ‘Hypothermia’
At about 30°C core temperature , the person becomes
unconscious,
The heart will stop beating at about 27°C core
temperature .

However, people can be brought to consciousness by

proper re-warming, even from very low core
temperatures
15 16
 Thermoregulation: Through human physiology Thermoregulation: Through human physiology

The human body has a very intelligent

thermoregulatory system to ensure the body core
temperature is maintained around 37°C.
 By Vasodilatation
 When the body core temperature increases,
 Vasodilatations of blood vessels are activated to
increases the blood flow to the skin for the
purpose of increasing heat loss.
 If the body temperature continues to rise, the
sweating mechanisms will be activated to
accelerate heat loss by evaporation of the liquid
sweat.
 By Vasoconstriction
 When the body temperature decreases,
 Vasoconstriction of blood vessels will be
activated, to decrease the blood flow to the
skin to reduce heat loss; and
 The metabolic rate will be increased by
stimulating the muscles, which results in
shivering

17 18

The Human Body Thermoregulation Importance of Clothing

System
 Without clothing human can live comfortably
(survive) in very narrow range of temperature
26 - 30° C
 With clothing human can survive
(comfortably) in a wide range of
temperature
- 40° C to +40° C
 Clothing creates comfortable microclimate
 Clothing covers 90% of the human body

19 20
 Basic Factors of Thermal Comfort Basic Factors of Thermal Comfort
•The most commonly used indicator of thermal comfort is air
temperature – it is easy to use and most people can relate to
it. Environmental factors:

•But although it is an important indicator to take into account, • Air temperature

air temperature alone is neither a valid nor an accurate
• Radiant temperature
indicator of thermal comfort or thermal stress.
• Air velocity
•Air temperature should always be considered in relation to • Humidity
other environmental and personal factors.
Clothing and Personal factors:
•The six factors affecting thermal comfort are both
environmental and personal. • Clothing insulation
• Metabolic heat
•These factors may be independent of each other, but
together contribute to a person’s thermal comfort. 21 22

Basic Factors of Thermal Comfort Environmental factors

Basic Factors of Thermal Comfort

Environmental factors Radiant temperature

• Thermal radiation is the heat that radiates

from a warm object.
Air temperature
•Radiant heat may be present if there
are heat sources in an environment.
This is the temperature of the air surrounding the body.
• Radiant temperature has a greater
influence than air temperature on how we
lose or gain heat to the environment.
23 24
Basic Factors of Thermal Comfort
Radiant temperature
Environmental factors
Basic Factors of Thermal Comfort
Environmental factors
Radiant Reflective Fabric

• Our skin absorbs almost as much radiant •Quiet

•Breathable
energy as a matt black object, although •95% reflectivity
•Greater comfort
this may be reduced by wearing reflective •Machine-washable
•Uses no electricity
clothing •Body heat activated
•Disperses heat evenly
•Puncture and tear resistant
• Examples of radiant heat sources include: •Lightweight and easy to
handle
the sun; fire; electric fires; furnaces; steam
rollers; ovens; cookers; dryers; hot surfaces
and machinery, molten metals etc. 25 26

Basic Factors of Thermal Comfort Basic Factors of Thermal Comfort

Environmental factors - Air velocity
•Air velocity is an important factor in thermal
comfort because people are sensitive to it
•This describes the speed of air moving across the
person and may help cool the person if it is cooler
than the environment
•Still or stagnant air in indoor environments that
are artificially heated may cause people to feel
stuffy
27
Environmental factors - Air velocity
•Moving air in warm or humid conditions can increase
heat loss through convection without any change in air
temperature
If the air temperature is less than skin temperature it will
significantly increase convective heat loss
Physical activity also increases air movement, so air
velocity may be corrected to account for a person's level
of physical activity
28
 Basic Factors of Thermal Comfort
Environmental factors - Humidity
•Relative humidity between 40% and 70% does not have a
major impact on thermal comfort.
•Relative humidity may be higher than 70% on warm or hot
humid days.
•High humidity environments have a lot of vapour in the air,
which prevent the evaporation of sweat from the skin.
•In hot environments, humidity is important because less
sweat evaporates when humidity is high (>80%).
http://ergo.human.cornell.edu/studentdownloads/DEA3500notes/Thermal/thcomnotes2.html
Basic Factors of Thermal Comfort
Clothing and Personal factors - Clothing
•Clothing, by its very nature, interferes with our ability to lose
heat to the environment.
•Thermal comfort is very much dependent on the insulating
effect of clothing on the wearer.
•Wearing too much clothing or personal protective equipment
(PPE) may be a primary cause of heat stress even if the
environment is not considered warm or hot.
•If clothing does not provide enough insulation, the wearer
may be at risk from cold injuries such as frost bite or
hypothermia in cold conditions.
Basic Factors of Thermal Comfort
Environmental factors - Humidity
•The evaporation of sweat is the main method of heat loss in
human in hot environment
•When vapour-impermeable PPE is worn, the humidity
inside the garment increases as the wearer sweats , because
the sweat cannot evaporate.
•If a person is wearing this type of PPE (e.g. asbestos or
chemical protection suits etc) the humidity within the
microclimate of the garment may be high.
29 30
http://ergo.human.cornell.edu/studentdownloads/DEA3500notes/Thermal/thcomnotes2.html
Basic Factors of Thermal Comfort
insulation Clothing and Personal factors - Clothing insulation
•Clothing is both a potential cause of thermal discomfort
as well as a control for it as we adapt to the climate in
which we live and play.
•We may add layers of clothing if we feel cold, or
remove layers of clothing if you feel warm.
•It is important to identify how the clothing
may contribute to thermal comfort or
31
discomfort. 32
 Basic Factors of Thermal Comfort
Clothing and Personal factors - Metabolic heat
•The work or metabolic rate, describes the heat
that we produce inside our body as we carry
out physical activity.
•The more physical work we do, the more heat
we produce.
•The more heat we produce, the more heat
needs to be lost so we don’t get overheated.
33
Thermoregulation through Clothing
Depends primarily on
- the thermal behaviours in human body; and
- transmission characteristics of clothing
35
Basic Factors of Thermal Comfort
Clothing and Personal factors - Metabolic heat
•The impact of metabolic rate on thermal
comfort is critical
•A person's physical characteristics should
always be borne in mind when considering
their thermal comfort, as factors such as;
• their size and weight, age, fitness level and sex
can all have an impact on how they feel, even if
other factors such as air temperature, humidity and
air velocity are all constant.
34
Thermoregulation through Clothing
 Due to biological and physical activities, our body always
generates metabolic heat;
 The release of body heat takes place through
clothing by conduction, convection and radiation;
 The latent heats of various phase change in clothing
materials, such as the heat transferred by the
processes of condensation or evaporation and
freezing or melting
36
 Thermoregulation through Clothing Thermal Behavior of Human Body and Transmission
Characteristics

 The moisture transfer through clothing (water vapour Generation of Body Heat
diffusion and convection in the void space within the (By biological and Physical Activities)
textile structure, moisture diffusion in fibres, liquid
Achieving Thermal Comfort
water diffusion through capillary channels in textile
(Release of heat, Sweating, Shivering, etc)
materials, moisture condensation / evaporation and
freezing/melting etc.)
Heat Transfer through Clothing
Assembly
Moisture Transfer Through Clothing
(Conduction, Convection &
 The clothing ensemble and entrapped still air, Radiation)
Assembly
(Water vapour diffusion & Liquid
influence the heat and mass transmission from human moisture diffusion through fibre by
body to the environment or vice versa in the form of capillary

heat and moisture (both liquid and vapour)

37 38

Typical Range of rate of Metabolic Heat Typical Range of rate of Metabolic Heat
Generation for Various Activities Generation for Various Activities

Activities Metabolic heat generation Activities Metabolic heat generation

(W/m2) (W/m2)
Indoor activities
Reading 50-60
Resting Writing 55-65
Sleeping 35-45 Working on computer 60-70
Seated quietly 55-65 Filing, seated 65-75
Filing, standing 75-85
Standing 65-75 Lifting/packing 120-130
Normal walking on the Miscellaneous work
level 110-120 Cooking 90-110
3 km/h 150-160 Dancing 140-200
5 km/h 210-220 Playing tennis 200-300
Playing basketball 300-450
7 km/h
[1 kilocalorie per hour (kcal/h) = 1.163 watts (W)] [1 kilocalorie per hour (kcal/h) = 1.163 watts (W)]
39 40
 Human as Blackbody
 Blackbody absorbs all Electromagnetic Radiations (EMR)
 No EMR passes through or reflects: So the object appears
black when it is cold
 But at particular temperature, if a blackbody surrounded by
other objects in thermal equilibrium, then it emits exactly as
much as it absorbs, called black body radiation.
 The wavelength of the emitted light is directly related with
the temperature of the object, i.e. at room temperature it
emits only the IR light and as the temperature increases it
starts emitting the Visible Light.
 Human body can be considered as black body: The human
energy is radiated in the form of EMR
41
Thermal Loss Mechanism
 Thermal loss mechanism from human body includes
 Conduction ~ low
 Convection
 Radiation ~ high
 Evaporation
 In general,
 The heat loss by radiation is approximately 2/3 of
thermal energy loss in cool and still air
[1700×1.7×2/3 ≈ 2000]
 Ambient air motion, causing forced convection or
evaporation reduces the relative importance of
radiation as a thermal loss mechanism
43
Human as Blackbody ……. cont
The net power radiated is the difference between the power
emitted and power absorbed
Pnet-rad = Pemit – Pabs
The total energy radiated by an adult male in one day is about
2000 kcal (food calories) [1 kilocalorie per hour (kcal/h) = 1.163
watts (W)]
[J/s = W and 1 Kcal = 4184 J]
Primary metabolic rate (sleeping) for a 40-year-old male is
about 35 kcal/(m2.h), which is equivalent to 1700 kcal per day
assuming the 2 m2 area. [35×24×2 ≈ 1700]
However, the mean metabolic rate of an adult without any
activity is about 50–70% greater than their basal rate 42
Thermal Comfort of Clothing
 Season changes throughout the year (summer,
winter, etc)
 Atmospheric conditions, like temperature, vapour
pressure, air velocity, etc. also change
 Internal body condition such as metabolic heat
production, etc. will change continuously depends on
the activity level and nature and quantity of food
consumption, etc.
44
 Heat Exchange through Clothing
Thermal Comfort of Clothing ……
cont  Under steady-state condition,
 The energy produced by the body should be equal to
 Discomfort arises when there is an imbalance
between atmospheric and internal conditions of the the rate of heat transferred from the body
body  We know that heat is transferred by 5 different

 The clothing requirement should balance with the mechanisms

external atmospheric conditions and internal heat  conduction, convection, radiation, evaporation and

production respiration
 The core temperature of the human body should be  If we assume that the heat exchange from unit surface
around 37°C irrespective of the climatic conditions area of human body to environment, then the general
and physical activity. heat balance equation is given by,

45
M - W = C + Ck + Cres + R + Eres + Esk 46

Heat Exchange through Clothing

Convective Heat Transfer
 The equation for convective heat transfer from human body
M - W = Ck + C + Cres + R + Eres + Esk to environment is given by
C (W/m2)= fcl×hc× (Tcl - Ta)
 where
 Where, M - W = C + Ck + Cres + R + Eres + Esk
 M is metabolic rate, i.e. internal energy production
 fcl - clothing area factor
 W is external work
 hc - coefficient of convective heat transfer (W/m2K);
 C is heat loss by convection
 Tcl - clothing surface temperature (°C)
 Ck is heat loss by conduction
 Ta - ambient air temperature (°C)
 Cres is sensible heat loss due to respiration

 R is heat loss by radiation
 Eres is evaporative heat loss due to respiration, and
 Esk is heat loss by evaporation from the skin
 The rate of heat loss by conduction is influenced by the
nature of clothing
47
Clothing area factor (fcl) is the surface area of the clothed body
(Acl ) divided by the surface area of the nude body (AD). For
manikin, clothing area factor (fcl ) is the surface of the clothed
manikin (Acl ) divided by the surface area of the nude manikin (A).
fcl = Acl/AD (for clothed body)
fcl = Acl/A (for clothed manikin)
48
[1 kilocalorie per hour (kcal/h) = 1.163 watts (W)]
 Convective Heat Transfer … cont
Coefficient of convection heat transfer (hc)
C (W/m2)= fcl×hc× (Tcl - Ta) M - W = C + Ck + Cres + R + Eres + Esk
 The convective heat transfer coefficient (hc) depends on
the air velocity across the body and also upon the position
of the person and orientation to the air current.
 An approximate value of hc during forced convection can
be evaluated from the following empirical equation
hc = 12.1×Va0.5
where Va is the air velocity (m/s)
49
Radiative Heat Transfer (R)
M - W = C + Ck + Cres + R + Eres + Esk
 Depends on the mean temperature of
surrounding environment, temperature of
clothing surface and characteristics of clothing
and environment
 The equation for radiative heat transfer from
human body to environment is given by,
R = σ εcl fcl . Fvf [(Tcl + 273.15)4 - (Tr + 273.15)4]
51
Convective Heat Transfer … cont
The Clothing Area Factor
 The clothing area factor (fcl) can be evaluated by the
following empirical equation is expressed as
follows,
fcl = 1.05 + 0.1 Icl
where Icl is the thermal insulation of clothing (clo)
1clo unit is defined as 0.18 m2°C.h/kcal (or 0.18/1.163≈0.155 m2°C/W)
[1 kilocalorie per hour (kcal/h) = 1.163 watts (W)] 50
Radiative Heat Transfer (R)
R = σ εcl fcl . Fvf [(Tcl + 273.15)4 - (Tr + 273.15)4]
where
 σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant, (5.67×10-8)W/m2K4
 Stefan–Boltzmann law: The total energy
radiated per unit surface area of a black body
in unit time is proportional to the fourth power
of the thermodynamic temperature.
 εcl is emissivity of the clothing
 Tr is radiant temperature (temp. of heat source in the
environment)
 Fvf View factor between the body and surrounding
surface (about 75%), i.e. the effective area of the body
for radiation
52
 Other Heat Loss Mechanisms
M - W = C + Ck + Cres + R + Eres + Esk
 Heat Loss Mechanisms not Directly Related to
Clothing Characteristics. These are,
 Heat loss due to respiration (Cres)
 Evaporative heat loss due to respiration
(Eres) (latent heat)
 Removal of heat from the body due to the
evaporation of perspiration from the skin
(Esk) ???
53
Heat exchange and Newton’s Law of cooling
 Newton's Law of Cooling states that the rate of
change of the temperature of an object is
proportional to the difference between its own
temperature and the ambient temperature (i.e.
the temperature of its surroundings)
 Rate of change of the temperature (dT/dt) is
proportional to the difference between the
temperature of the material (Tt) and the ambient
temperature (Ta)
54

Heat exchange and Newton’s Law of cooling Heat exchange and Newton’s Law
 This means that of cooling
dT/dt α (Tt - Ta)  Clearly, if the material is warmer than the ambient
temperature, i.e. (Tt - Ta) > 0, then the material cools
Where, down, which means that the derivative dT/dt should
 Tt= Temperature of any material at time t. be negative. This means that the equation we need
 T0= Initial temperature has to have the following sign pattern,
 Ta= Ambient temperature

dT/dt = -k (Tt - Ta)

Where, k is a positive constant (cooling constant).

55 56
 Heat exchange and Newton’s Law Heat exchange and Newton’s Law
of cooling of cooling
 y(t) = Tt - Ta = Difference between material and The solution of the differential equation is,
ambient temperatures at time t
 y0 = T0 - Ta = Initial temperature difference at
time t=0
 Now, the derivative of y(t), and use the Newton's Therefore,
law of cooling, we arrive at
Or,

57 58

Heat exchange and Newton’s Law Heat exchange and Newton’s Law of
of cooling cooling
 The cooling constant (K) has the form
By rearranging the Newton’s equation for clothing
assembly it becomes,
 where
 C is the thermal capacity of the system (J/K)
where
 R1 is the thermal resistance of both the fabric
T is the temperature of the body at a particular
medium and the air medium around the fabric
moment,
sample (K/W)
T0 the initial temperature of the body
 R is the thermal resistance of the fabric layer
Tamb the ambient temperature, (K/W)
t is the cooling time (s)  R0 is the thermal resistance of the air layer

59 (K/W) 60
 Heat exchange and Newton’s Law
of cooling
 The thermal resistance of fabric could be
calculated by the relation
 where
 K0 is the cooling constant of the system
without fabric
61
Heat exchange and Newton’s Law of cooling
 The thermal characteristics of fabrics are influenced by
ambient temperature. The heat transfer coefficient h
(W/m2 K), consisting of conduction, convection and
radiation mechanisms, is calculated by the relation
 where
 dQ/dt (W) is the measure of heat transfer rate from the
system through the fabric to the ambient surroundings,
 S (m2) is the area of the fabric sample
 ∆T (K) is the difference between the average
temperature of the system and the ambient temperature
Therrmal conductivity (W/m K) 63
[1 kilocalorie per hour (kcal/h) = 1.163 watts (W)]
Heat exchange and Newton’s Law
of cooling
 Knowing the thermal resistance (R) as well as
the fabric sample surface area S (m2) and
fabric thickness d (m), the fabric thermal
conductivity λ (W/m K) can be calculated as
62
Heat exchange and Newton’s Law of cooling
 Newton’s Law of cooling is applied in order to evaluate
the thermal properties of textile fabrics.
 The procedure of thermal resistance determination is
based on Newton’s cooling rate law,
 where
 C (J/K) is the thermal capacity of the body;
 Q (J) is amount of heat;
 T (K) is the temperature of the body;
 dQ/dt (W) is the amount of heat passing through the body per unit
time;
 R (K/W) is the thermal resistance of the body
[1 kilocalorie per hour (kcal/h) = 1.163 watts (W)] 64
 Transient Heat Flow Transient Heat Flow
Clothing  Temperature fall •The rate of change in temperature, resulting from heat flow from
Less than sensed by thermo the skin to a clothing material at a lower temperature when
Skin Temp
receptors brought into contact with it, is determined by the thermal inertia
 Higher the rate of of the material.
Human
Body Heat flows heat flow, more
37° C from Skin to rapid the temp drops •The thermal inertia is the function of density, specific heat and
Clothing thermal conductivity of material.
Skin
 Feeling of coolness •Any material that can absorb and conduct heat well will easily
Skin Temp goes
down
draw heat away from the skin and feel cool, i.e. the higher the
 Warm/Cool thermal inertia the cooler it will feel to the touch.
sensation depends
on type of fabrics •The fabric structural features, particularly surface properties, have
a great influence on cool–warm feel
65 66

Rate of Change of Skin Temperature Human Skin and Heated Plate

for Different Fabrics The coolness
sensation is estimated  The maximum heat flux observed shortly after the
by measuring the contact of the heated plate is correlated well with
initial rate of the human skin.
temperature change
 The maximum heat flux is named as qmax
 The maximum rate of
heat flow occurs  qmax is taken as a measure of fabric thermal
within about 0.2 properties in many instruments
seconds after an
 eg. Kawabata for predicting warm /cool
object is touched
 Warm/cool feeling correlates well with transient
 Warm or coolness is
related to the surface heat conduction (with qmax)
properties
67 68
 qmax (the peak value of transient heat flux)
Typical Heat Flux with Respect of
•The qmax value increases with the increase in moisture
Time content, which means that the fabric feels cool at higher
moisture content.
6 linen acrylic
rayon PP
polyester
•It is also clear that the linen cotton
wool acetate

fabric has maximum qmax 4

qmax (KW. /sq.m)

and wool fabric has
minimum qmax up to certain 2

level of moisture content.

•This is the reason why linen 0 50 100 150 200

Moisture%
feels cool and wool feels
warm when they are
69 touched. 70

6 linen acryl
6 rayon PP

qmax (KW. /sq.m)

Experimental Results Experimental Results
linen acryl cotton polyester
rayon PP w acetate
cotton polyester 4 oo
qmax (KW. /sq.m)

w acetate
4 l
oo
l 2

2
0 50 100 150 200
Moisture%

0 50 100 150 200  A high qmax value corresponds to the cool feeling and
Moisture%
 The following experimental results a low qmax value to warm feeling.
are reported in regards to warm-cool feel of  The value qmax depends on fabric surface condition
fabrics (qmax): and not on the number of fabric layers or fabric
thickness.
 A high correlation was obtained between
 The value qmax is sensitive to fabric water content
physically measured qmax and fabric and surface geometry
warm/cool feeling data gathered in human  Rough - Warm
sensory tests. 71  Smooth - Cool 72
 Diffusion Rate
 The heat diffusion rate dominates when heat flows from source
(skin) to material
 The heat diffusion rate depends on
 Area of contact
Measurement of Thermal
 Density of material Transmission Characteristics
 Thermal conductivity

 Thermal diffusivity

 Heat capacity

 When skin is touched by an object different in temperature, the

steady temperature distribution in skin gets disturbed, making
the thermoreceptor in skin to develop warm/cool signals.

73 74

Thermal transmission Thermal transmission

 The insulation value of fabric is measured by its  Measuring heat transfer in particular direction has
thermal resistance practical difficulties. These complications can be
 Thermal resistance (R) = 1/Thermal conductivity reduced by
 Thermal conductivity (W/K) is measured by measuring  Comparison of unknown sample characteristics with

the total heat transmitted (kcal) through fabric per standard sample
unit time (t) with unit temperature difference (T)  To reduce heat loss in other directions

 Conductivity is due to both the fibre and the

entrapped air

Fabric thermal conductivity λ (W/m K) can be Fabric thermal conductivity λ (W/m K) can be
calculated as calculated as
 R is the thermal resistance of the fabric layer (K/W)  R is the thermal resistance of the fabric layer (K/W)
[1 kilocalorie per hour (kcal/h) = 1.163 watts (W)] 75 [1 kilocalorie per hour (kcal/h) = 1.163 watts (W)] 76
 Togmeter Schematic Diagram of Two-Plate Togmeter
 Method
 Standard and test samples have to be placed in
series
 The internal resistance of test fabric is calculated
by comparing the temperature drop across the
test fabric and the standard fabric
 Two types of Togmeters are there:
 Two-plate Togmeter Rfabric = Rstand × (T2 - T3) / (T1-T2)
 Single-plate Togmeter

77 78

Two-Plate Togmeter Single Plate Togmeter

Rfabric = Rstand × (T2 - T3) / (T1-T2)
 Sample is placed between heated lower plate and
insulated upper plate
 The upper plate should be of low mass, so that the
fabric should not get compressed
 The temperatures T1, T2 and T3 are measured
 T1 - Temperature measured at the heater

 T2 – Temperature between standard and test fabric

 T3 – between Test fabric and upper plate

 The heater is adjusted so that the temperature of the
upper face of the standard plate (T2) is at skin
temperature (around 35°C).
79
 The sample is placed on the heated bottom plate and the top
left uncovered.
 The air above the specimen has a considerable thermal
resistance. So, it is summed up with the thermal resistance of
fabric
80

Single Plate
Togmeter
 Temperatures T1, T2 and T3 are measured
 Where, T1 and T2 are same as that of Two Plate
Togmeter measurement
 T3 is Temperature of Air (i.e., Room temperature)
 A separate experiment is therefore performed
without the specimen ( i.e. a bare-plate test ) to
measure the resistance of the air (Rair) 81
Guarded Hot Plate
 Thermal transmittance of the fabric is measured
 Thermal Transmittance = 1/Thermal Resistance
 Apparatus
 Test plate surrounded by Guard plate at four
sides
 Below, it is surrounded by lower guard
 A constant temperature (33° C to 36° C) is
maintained
 The testing atmosphere should be maintained at
fixed condition (4.5 to 21° C and 20 to 80% RH)
83
Thermal Resistance of Sample
Single Plate Togmeter
 In case of bare plate, it can be calculated as follows:
Rair = Rstand × (T2 - T3) / (T1-T2)
Where, Rair = Thermal resistance of the air
Rstand = Thermal resistance of the standard material
 Experiment is repeated with the sample placed on the
bottom plate and the apparatus is again allowed to reach the
equilibrium
 The thermal resistance of the sample
(Rsample) = Rstand × (T2-T3) / (T1-T2) - Rair
82
Guarded Hot Plate
 Method
 Sample is placed on the instrument and is
allowed to reach equilibrium
 Heat passing through the sample is
measured in W/m2 (Power consumption of
the test plate)
84
 Guarded Hot Plate
Schematic Diagram of Guarded Hot Plate  Thermal transmittance of the fabric is measured
 Thermal Transmittance = 1/Thermal Resistance

 Thermal transmittance, also known as U-value, is the rate of

transfer of heat (in watts) through one square metre of a
structure divided by the difference in temperature across the
structure. It is expressed in watts per square metre per kelvin,
or W/m²K. Well-insulated parts of a building have a low
thermal transmittance whereas poorly-insulated parts of a
building have a high thermal transmittance

 Φ = A × U × (T1 - T2), where Φ is the heat transfer in watts, U

is the thermal transmittance, T1 is the temperature on one side
of the structure, T2 is the temperature on the other side of the
structure and A is the area in square metres.
85 86

Typical thermal transmittance values for common Typical thermal transmittance values for fabrics
building structures are as follows

 single glazing: 5.7 W/m²K; Thicker Woven Fabrics: 20- 80 W/m²K;

 single glazed windows, allowing for frames: 4.5 W/m²K;
 double glazed windows, allowing for frames: 3.3 W/m²K; Thinner woven fabrics: 50 – 200 W/m²K;
 double glazed windows with advanced coatings: 2.2 W/m²K;
 triple glazed windows, allowing for frames: 1.8 W/m²K; Knitted medium weight cotton fabrics: 30 – 100 W/m²K;
 well-insulated roofs: 0.15 W/m²K;
 poorly-insulated roofs: 1.0 W/m²K;
 well-insulated walls: 0.25 W/m²K;
 poorly-insulated walls: 1.5 W/m²K;
 well-insulated floors: 0.2 W/m²K;
 poorly-insulated floors: 1.0 W/m²K;
87 88
 KES-F Thermo Lab-II
Thermal Transmittance of the Fabric
 Evaluates thermal transmission characteristics of fabrics
 It measures the ease at which heat is transmitted from a heat plate
 Combined transmittance of specimen and air, U1 with a constant temperature (30°C) through a sample to a heat
U1 = P/[A(TP – Ta)] W/(m2K) plate with a separate constant temperature (20°C).
 The thermal conductivity, k, (W/mK) of fabrics can be calculated by
 Where,
 TP and Ta are temperature of test plate and air respectively

 P = power loss from test plate (W)

 A = area of the test plate (m2)

Fabric thermal conductivity λ (W/m K) can be
 The bare plate transmittance Ubp is calculated similarly. calculated as
 The intrinsic transmittance of the fabric alone, U2 is calculated
as, where, Q is the quantity of heat
 t is time, L is the fabric thickness
1/U2 = 1/U1 – 1/Ubp  A is test area of fabrics, ∆T is temperature
difference
[1 kilocalorie per hour (kcal/h) = 1.163 watts (W)] 89 90
[1 kilocalorie per hour (kcal/h) = 1.163 watts (W)]

Thermal Manikins
Thermal Manikin

 Used for testing and product development by

 Building and Automobile industry

 for evaluation of the performance of heating and

ventilation systems
 Clothing industry for

 Developing clothing with improved thermal properties

 Performance testing of protective clothing

 Uses: Improvement in comfort, health and safety in working life

91 92
Salient Features of Thermal Manikins Uses
 The values obtained from Thermal Manikin are useful for
 Simulates the human body (the whole body and local) heat
 Evaluation of thermal stress in environments with human
exchange
body
 Number of individually regulated body segments (more
 Determination of heat transfer and thermal properties of
than 30) are there
clothing assemblies
 It can measure the 3-dimensional heat exchange from
 Prediction of human responses to extreme or complex
human body
thermal conditions
 Measures the heat losses due to conduction, convection
 Validation of results from human experiments regarding
and radiation
thermal stress
 Whole body heat loss is determined by summing up the
 Simulation of responses in humans exposed to thermal
area weighted values
environments
 It can integrate the dry heat losses from human body in a
realistic manner
 It can measure the clothing thermal insulation objectively
93 94

Experimental Setup

Data Copper
Acquisitio calorimeter
n System sensor
Test Method for Extreme Heat and Flame Fabric
specimen

Protective Clothing Stan

d
Manually
operated
shutter

Meker
burner

Temperature rise
Propane Mass
Tim
e Air gas
Flow
Controlle
r

Propane
Gas
Cylinder

95 96
 Skin Burn
Experimental Setup Burn injuries are often measured in term of degrees of burn

• First degree burn

Skin
Surface
• Second degree burn Epidermis
Basal
Dermis layer

Subcutan
eous
• Third degree burn
Body
97 core98

Types of Burn Injuries Burn prediction: Stoll’s criterion

Burn depth is a measure of severity,
• Developed for the thermal 25.0
First-degree: Skin becomes red, no
blister heat flux exposure ranging 20.0
Sensor
Response

from 4.2 to 16.8 kW/m2

Temperature Rise (˚C)

Second-degree: Skin blisters, 15.0

epidermis must regenerate [onset to

second-degree burn energy on a bare 10.0
skin is considered constant value equal
to 1.2 cal/cm2(5.0 J/cm2 ) in IEEE P 1584 t= exposure time (s) 5.0 Tolerance
standard.] To= original temperature of skin or test Time

sensor (˚C) 0.0

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Third-degree: Full thickness destroyed, Time (s)
skin cannot regenerate, scar tissue
forms

Source: A. M. Stoll, M. A. Chianta, Method and rating system for evaluation of thermal protection,
Exposure to flame can rapidly exceed human tissue Aerospace Medicine, Vol. 40, 1232-1238, 1969
tolerance and cause second- or third-degree burns 99 100
 Burn prediction: Henrique’s burn integral Heat and Mass Transfer through Protective Clothing

Body
Quantitatively represent skin burn First degree burn: If T > core
degree (Ω – a unitless parameter) 44 °C and Ω = 0.53 at the
in terms of integral of a chemical rate Subcutaneous
process t basal layer. Basal
layer

 E 

layer
  P exp    dt Dermis
layer
 RT 
Epidermis
Second degree burn: If T layer
0 > 44 °C and Ω = 1.0 at the q
Air
gap
basal layer. Fabric
sample
P = pre-exponential factor (1/s),
External heat
T= Temperature (K),
Third degree burn: If T > flux
ΔE= Activation energy, and 44 °C and Ω = 1.0 at the
R= Universal gas constant (8.314 dermal base.
kJ/kgK).

Source: Henriques FC Jr and Moritz AR. Studies of thermal injuries I: The conduction of heat to and through skin
and the temperature attained therein. A theoretical and experimental investigation. Am J Pathology 1947; 23: 531-
101 Air gap = 102
2 to
549 24 mm

Tests and Standards for FR Textiles and protective clothing

• Ease of Ignition
• After Glow Time Instrument for analyzing performance of fire
• Extent of After Glow protective clothing : With Vertical Orientation of
• Char Length
• Flame Spread Time, Debris or Drips Fabric
• Smoldering Time
• Limiting Oxygen Index
• Heat Transmission Factor
• Thermal protection performance (TPP) test
• Heat Transfer Index
• Molten Metal Splash Index
• Smoke Opacity
• Toxicity
103 104
 New features of the proposed equipment over existing
Front & Back View of Syatem
equipment in

Existing equipment Proposed equipment

 Configuration: Horizontal  Configuration: Vertical (more close

to reality)
 Exposure type: Only
 Exposure type: Flame exposure,
flame exposure
Radiant exposure as well as
Convective/Radiant exposure
 Air gap: Static  Air gap: Static or Dynamic

 Micro-climate chamber:  Micro-climate chamber: Yes with

No provision to maintain and adjust
required humidity conditions
105 106

Unique features of the proposed equipment

Equipment
• Vertical configuration – more close to reality as
Humidity Temperature compared to existing imported bench top test instrument
Shutt sensor sensor
er
Meker Microclima
burner te chamber
Second degree burn time = • Wide range of tests can be covered – Radiant exposure
Convect 8.1 seconds
ion
Sensor
(ISO 6942, ASTM F1939, ASTM F2702), Flame exposure
Convec
tion
assembly
25.0
(ISO 9151, ASTM 4108) and both flame and radiant heat
Conduct

Qua
Radiat
ion ion
Radiat 20.0
Sensor Response
Stoll Criterion exposures (ISO 17492, ASTM F2700, ASTM F2703)
Temperature Rise (˚C)

rtz ion
lam Data
15.0
p acquisition
Air
Dynamic air gap between fabric and skin
system
Fabric/
gap 10.0 •
Fabric
Meker assembly 5.0
burner Tolerance
Time
0.0
Micro-climate control – provision to control relative
Water
vapor 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 •
Time (s)

107 humidity in the air gap for sweating conditions (Comfort)

108
 Thermocouple
Humidity sensor

Important parameters Meker burner

Microclimate chamber

• Effect of type and level of exposures (flash fire and/or Sensor assembly

radiant)
• Effect of air gap size Quartz lamp

• Effect of dynamic air gap

Data acquisition system

• Effect of relative humidity Motion

• Effect of vertical arrangement (comparison with results

obtained from horizontally arranged Meker burner
Fabric/ Fabric assembly

Water vapor
Shutter

Schematic diagram of the instrument

109 110

DAQ
Meker burner system

PC

Quartz α
lamp

Thermal transmission Parameters

Water
supply Stepper
motor
Gas
supply
Air supply

111 112
Various components of the system
 Thermal transmission Parameters
Thermal resistance
Thermal transmission Parameters
•The thermal resistance of the textile materials is measured in S.I.
unit in terms of (°Km2/W)  There are various parameters used to express
the heat exchange between human body and its
•It is defined as the ratio of the temperature difference between environment (through clothing). These are,
the two faces (°K) of the material to the rate of heat transfer per
unit area (W/m2) of the material to the faces. [The reciprocal of  Met
heat flux (W/°Km2)  Clo

•A practical unit of thermal resistance widely used is Tog, which is  Tog

one tenth of the S.I. unit. [1 Tog = 1/10 m2°K/W]  Permeability index

•Another common unit is Clo, approximately equal to 1.55 × Tog.

113 114

Met Clo
 Met, is used to quantify the metabolism of a man resting in a  Clo is the measure of clothing insulation.
sitting position under conditions of thermal comfort;
 One Clo is defined as the insulation of a clothing system
1 Met = 50 kcal/m2 h or 58.2 W/m2
Activities Metabolic heat generation
(W/m2) that requires to maintain a sitting-resting average male
Resting
comfortable in a normally ventilated room [0.1m/s air
Sleeping 35-35 velocity at the air temperature of 21°C and relative
Seated quietly 55-65 (58.2) 1 kilocalorie per hour (kcal/h) = 1.163 watts (W)
Standing 65-75 humidity less than 50%]
Normal walking on the level 110-120
3 km/h
5 km/h
150-160
210-220 58.2 W/m2 = 58.2/1.163 kcal/m2h  Assumption,
7 km/h
= 50 kcal/m2h = 1 Met  24% of the metabolic heat is lost through evaporation from
Indoor activities 50-60
Reading
Writing
55-65
60-70
the skin, respiration etc., (i.e. 50×0.24 = 12 kcal/m2h is lost
Working on computer
Filing, seated
65-75
75-85
through evaporation, respiration etc., and remaining 38
Filing, standing
Lifting/packing
120-130
kcal/m2h transmits through clothing)
Miscellaneous work 90-110
Cooking 140-200
Dancing
Playing tennis
200-300
300-450
M - W = C + Ck + Cres + R + Eres + Esk
Playing basketball 115 116

Clo
 Remaining 38 kcal/m2h should be transmitted through the
clothing assembly by conduction, convection and radiation
 The comfortable mean skin temperature is 33°C
 Therefore, the total insulation of the clothing plus the
ambient air layer is given by,
 The insulation of air is 0.14 m2°C.h/kcal
 Insulation of the clothing is (0.32-0.14)=0.18 m2°C.h/kcal,
 Thus, 1clo unit is defined as 0.18 m2°C.h/kcal (or
0.18/1.163≈0.155 m2°C/W) which is known as effective
insulation
1 kilocalorie per hour (kcal/h) = 1.163 watts (W) 117
Clo Values
119
Tog
 Tog, is also a unit of thermal resistance of clothing, is defined as
the thermal resistance that is able to maintain a temperature
gradient of 0.1°C with a heat flux of 1W/m2 , i.e. for 1°C
temperature gradient the heat flux will be 10W/m2°C
 The reciprocal of heat flux is Tog, i.e. 1 Tog = 1/10 m2°C/W (SI
Unit)
Tog and Clo Relationship
 1 clo = 0.155 m2°C/W (from last slide); therefore
 1 clo = 0.155×10 = 1.55 Tog or 1 Tog = 0.645 clo
118
Clo Values
120
 The calculated required insulation value, IREQ, can be The calculated required insulation value, IREQ, can be
regarded as a cold stress index. regarded as a cold stress index.

The IREQ indicates a

Figure shows IREQ values
for low physiological
strain (neutral thermal
sensation). Values are given
for different activity levels.
IREQ values needed to maintain low-level physiological strain (neutral thermal
sensation) at varying temperature.
Using IREQ comprises three protection level
evaluation steps: (expressed in clo).
determination of IREQ for given The higher the value,
exposure conditions the greater the risk of
body heat imbalance.
comparison of IREQ with
protection level provided by clothing  The two levels of strain
correspond to a low level
determination of exposure time if (neutral or “ comfort ”
protection level is of lesser value sensation) and a high
than IREQ level (slightly cold to cold
sensation).
121 122

Clo Values Clo Values

Clothing ensemble Icl (m2 ºC/W) Icl (clo) Clothing ensemble Icl (m2 ºC/W) Icl (clo)
Briefs, short-sleeve shirt, fitted trousers, calf-length 0.08 0.5 Briefs, T-shirt, shirt, fitted trousers, insulated 0.23 1.5
socks, shoes coveralls, calf-length socks, shoes
Underpants, undershirt, shirt, trousers, jacket, 0.25 1.6
Underpants, shirt, fitted, trousers, socks, shoes 0.10 0.6
overjacket, hat, gloves, socks, shoes
Underpants, coverall, socks, shoes 0.11 0.7 Underpants, undershirt, shirt, trousers, jacket, 0.29 1.9
Underpants, shirt, coverall, socks, shoes 0.13 0.8 overjacket, overtrousers, socks, shoes
Underpants, shirt, trousers, smock, socks, shoes 0.14 0.9 Underpants, undershirt, shirt, trousers, jacket, 0.31 2.0
Briefs, undershirt, underpants, shirt, overalls, calf-length 0.16 1.0 overjacket, overtrousers, socks, shoes, hat, gloves
socks, shoes Undershirt, underpants, insulated trousers, insulated 0.34 2.2
jacket, overtrousers, overjacket, socks, shoes
Underpants, undershirt, shirt, trousers, jacket, vest, 0.17 1.1
socks, shoes
Underpants, shirt, trousers, jacket, coverall, socks, shoes 0.19 1.3
Undershirt, underpants, insulated trousers, insulated 0.22 1.4
jacket, socks, shoes
123 124
 Clo Values
Clo Values
Clothing ensemble Icl (m2 ºC/W) Icl (clo) Relative measure of the ability of insulation to provide warmth.
Undershirt, underpants, insulated trousers, insulated 0.34 2.2
jacket, overtrousers, overjacket, socks, shoes One clo is defined as the amount of clothing required by a resting
Undershirt, underpants, insulated trousers, insulated 0.40 2.6 (sedentary) person to be indefinitely comfortable at ambient
jacket, overtrousers, socks, shoes, hat, gloves conditions where temperature is 21°C (70°F), relative humidity is less than
Undershirt, underpants, insulated trousers, insulated 0.40–0.52 2.6–3.4 50 percent, and wind velocity is 250 centimeters per second or about 0.9
jacket, overtrousers and parka with lining, socks, kilometers per hour (about 20 feet per minute or just over half a mile per hour).
shoes, hat, mittens
Arctic clothing systems 0.46–0.70 3–4.5 Lowest clo value (0) is that of a nude person,
Sleeping bags 0.46–1.1 3–8
Highest practical clo value (4) is that of Eskimo clothing (fur pants, coat,
hood, gloves, etc.).

Winter clothing (weighing about 6.6 pounds) has an average clo value of 1,
and summer clothing (weighing about 3.90 pounds) of 0.6.

One clo equals 1.55 tog.

125 126

Permeability Index Permeability Index

 The permeability index (im) is an indicator of the evaporative
performance of clothing which is given by,
 Theoretically the value of permeability index ranges
 Where, from 0 to 1
 Rt is the total thermal resistance of the clothing plus surface air layer  0 – Completely water vapor impermeable
(m2 °C/W) and
 1 – Completely water vapor permeable
 Ret is the total evaporative resistance of the clothing plus the air layer
(m2 kPa/W)
 The ratio Rt/Ret represents the effectiveness in transmitting evaporative
heat as compared to the dry heat transmitted
 Lewis Relation (LR) is the ratio of evaporative mass transfer
coefficient to convective heat transfer coefficient.
 The unit of im is °C/kPa

127 128

Studies on Thermal Transmission
Characteristics of Textiles
129
Factors affecting the thermal properties of Fabrics
(A) Effect of fabric thickness on thermal transmittance
It is well known that a fabric's thermal properties depend on
the fabric thickness. Thicker fabric gives better warmth
retention, or gives a lower thermal transmittance.
The thermal transmittance decreases with increase in fabric
thickness.
The fabric with different thickness (and yam linear densities),
may also give the same thermal transmittance.
Thus, there is more than just thickness determining the
thermal transmittance of a fabric.
131
Factors affecting the thermal properties of Fabrics
 Thermal conductivity of the fibers and the air
contained within the fabric;
 Thickness of the fabric;
 Bulk density of the fabric (includes the number, size
and distribution of the air spaces within the fabric)
130
Factors affecting the thermal properties of Fabrics
(B) Effect of fabric weight on thermal transmittance
Fabric weight is denoted by mass per unit area.
More fibers would provide more thermal insulation
and so lower thermal transmittance. Therefore a
heavier fabric will have a lower thermal
transmittance (like the fabric thickness).
But, for knitted fabrics the lighter fabric with higher
fabric tightness gives lower thermal transmittance
value
.
132
Factors affecting the thermal properties of Fabrics
(C) Tightness factor and thermal transmittance
The general trend shows that the higher the tightness
factor (smaller loop length, denser pack together), the
lower the thermal transmittance (convection and
radiation).
133
Thermal Transmission Characteristics of
Fabrics
 Studies reveal that the thermal
transmission characteristics of fabrics
depend on
 Morphological characteristics of
component fibers,
 Internal structure of yarn
 Physical and structural characteristics of
fabrics
135
Factors affecting the thermal properties of Fabrics
(C) Tightness factor and thermal transmittance
However, within the same tex, the higher the tightness factor,
the higher is the thermal transmittance.
oWhen considering heat loss by conduction, a tightly
packed cotton fabric will loss more heat than a loose fabric
with air pockets.
o This is due to the fact that the jamming of yarns together
for a tight structure.
oA tightly packed yam allows less space for air, which is a
far superior insulator than fibre
134
Thermal Conductivity of Fibres
The thermal conductivity of textile fibres is dependent
on various molecular structural parameters,
o molecular structure, density, crystallization level,
crystal orientation angle and mobility of molecular
chains in amorphous regions
oThermal conductivity of Polyethylene: 340 mw/m/K
Nylon: 250 mw/m/K , Polyester: 140 mw/m/K ,
Polypropylene: 120 mw/m/K
136
 Thermal Conductivity of Fibres (…Contd.) Thermal Transmission Characteristics of
Fabrics
 Thermal Insulation characteristics of fibre assemblies vary
For example, the specific heat of cellulose is 1.25 kJ/kg with
K, but the morphological structure of cellulose fibres,  Fibre arrangement in the fabric
either natural or regenerated, is responsible for their  Fabric thickness
thermal capacity and thermal conductivity of various (Jane E Werden et. al. Text Res J 1959 29 640-651)
cellulosic fibres. (Sp. Heat: Cotton - 1.21 kJ/kg K and
Viscose rayon - 1.26 kJ/kg K)  Thermal transmission characteristics of fabrics vary with
 Packing density of fibres in yarn
Cross section of fibre also has great impact on thermal
 Porosity of fabric
transmission characteristics.
 Thickness of the fabric

(Snezˇana B Stankovic´ et. al. Polymer Testing 2008 27

41–48)
137 138

Design of the Instrument

Insulative Guard Plates

Material Test Plate  Principle
 Heat flux sensing.

Thermal Resistance 2 mm 20 mm  The heat flows from

the test plate by
 Conduction
under Compression Insulative
Material  Convection and
Bottom Plate
Fan  Radiation

Measuring head pressure : 5 to 30 g/cm2

R is the thermal resistance (m2 °C/W)

Ts  Tb Ts is the temperature of the test plate (°C)
R Tb is the temperature of the bottom plate (°C)
Q A Q is the heat flux (W)
A is the area of the test plate (m2)
139 140
 Software of the Instrument Temperature Profile of Different Plates

Thermal resistance 40
instument

Screw shaft

Temperature (°C)
35
Load cell

30

Test plate &

Guard plate
assembly 25
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (min)

Test Plate Guard Plate Bottom Plate

Perforated bottom plate

141 142

Thermal Properties of Fabrics in Thermal Properties of Fabrics in

Different Instruments
Different Instruments
Thermal resistance (m2 °C/W)
Sweating guarded Developed
Fabrics Alambeta
hot plate instrument
1 0.222 0.155 0.079
2 0.215 0.145 0.065
3 0.210 0.139 0.063
4 0.205 0.136 0.061
5 0.199 0.13 0.060
6 0.247 0.177 0.098
7 0.240 0.171 0.093
8 0.230 0.16 0.089
9 0.218 0.148 0.083
10 0.209 0.136 0.080
11 0.238 0.168 0.096 The thermal resistance of fabrics under compression were compared and
12 0.233 0.152 0.091
validated with Alambeta and SGHP.
13 0.231 0.156 0.085
14 0.226 0.149 0.084
15 0.215 0.142 0.080
16 0.262 0.187 0.108 The thermal resistance obtained by SGHP is higher in magnitude, followed
17 0.257 0.188 0.109 by Alambeta and the developed instrument.
18 0.249 0.176 0.095
19 0.235 0.169 0.095
20 0.224 0.159 0.090 143 144
 (…Contd.) Thermal Transmission Characteristics of Fabrics
Thermal Properties of Fabrics at Different Compressional Load

200.12
1
2 As the compressional load increases
 Effect of Yarn Properties on Thermal transmission
19 3 the thermal resistance was found to characteristics
18 0.08 4 decrease
 Bulk yarns are produced to form the fabrics
17 0.04 5
7 g/cm2  Air pockets in yarn affect the thermal properties
16 0.00 6 14 g/cm2
21 g/cm2  Shows lower thermal conductivity than 100%
15 7
cotton fabrics
14 8
 The entrapped air in the loose fibrous assembly
13 9
12
11
10 spaces does not allow heat of inner layer to
In 7, 14 and 21 g/cm2 compressional loads, 45%, 70% and 80% reduction in transmit to outer layer
thermal resistance with respect to thermal resistance measured by Alambeta was
observed

145 146

(…Contd.) Thermal Transmission Characteristics of Fabrics

Mechanism of Bulk Development

 Effect of structural modification of yarn on Thermal

Shrinkable Acrylic Bulked Yarn
Characteristics Yarn Before Bulking

 Additional micro pores were incorporated in the

yarn Heat Treatment

 Micro pores created by the removal of PVA fibres Blending

by chemical means from the yarn after spinning

Normal Cotton
 Increases the porosity of the yarn Fibres

 Increases the thermal insulation of the fabric

Main Interest

147
Das et. al. J Text Inst, 2007 98 363- 375 148
 Bulked Yarn: Moisture Vapour Transmission Rate
Bulked Yarn: Thermal Conductivity & Resistance (mass of moisture vapour in grams passed through 100 sq.in of fabrics in
(10-3 Wm-1K-1 & 10-3 Km2W-1) 24 hrs at constant atmospheric temperature and 100 % RH )

Thermal Conductivity = 40.67-1.56X2+1.8X12 MVTR = 8.44-0.663X1+0.131X2-0.392X12

40 40.0
R2 = 0.607 41.0 40
The bulky structure of weft 9.55 9.25 8.95 8.65

works as an insulating medium 35

42.0
Open structure of 8.35

Acrylic Proportion %
40.5 35
bulked weft enhances

Acrylic Proportion %
40
24.0 30
24.4

41.5
43.0 diffusion of water 30
23.2
35
25 vapour
Acrylic Proportion %

23.6 43.0

9.40
22.4
25
43.5
30 43.5 42.5
22.8
20
25 30 35 40
Count Ne 8.80 8.50 8.20
9.10
21.6
20
25 25 30 35 40
22.0
Entrapped air in the loose Count Ne

21.2
20.8 R2 = 0.732 fibrous assembly of weft S.O. 16 = 7.96
20
25 30 35 40
Count Ne
R2 = 0.978
Thermal Resistance = 24.03+1.7X2-0.64X1 2 Das et. al. J Text Inst, 2007 98 363- 375 Das et. al. J Text Inst, 2007 98 363- 375
149 150

Micro-Porous Yarn Micro-Porous Yarn

(Das et. al. J Text Inst, 2009 100(3) 207- 217) (Das et. al. J Text Inst, 2009 100(3) 207- 217)
151 152
 Micro-Porous Yarn Micro-Porous Yarn

(Das et. al. J Text Inst, 2009 100(3) 207- 217) (Das et. al. J Text Inst, 2009 100(3) 207- 217)
153 154

Twist-less and hollow Yarns Twist-less and hollow Yarns

Three types of DREF-3 yarns with different combinations of
core and sheath fibres were used in weft
Details of Grey Fabrics
Grey Fabric A
Warp - 2 Ply Cotton Yarn
Fabric Details of warp Details of weft
type Weft -
Yarn type Core / Core : Count
Sheath Sheath (tex)
A DREF-III Viscose / 50:50 59.0
Viscose
B 2-ply cotton ring DREF-III Viscose / 50:50 118.0
spun yarn with PVA
resultant count of Staple Viscose
C 78.73 tex DREF-III PVA / 50:50 118.0
Viscose Staple Viscose

155 156
 Twist-less and hollow Yarns Twist-less and hollow Yarns

Warp - 2 Ply Cotton Yarn Warp - 2 Ply Cotton Yarn

Grey Fabric B Grey Fabric C
Weft -
Weft -

Staple PVA Staple Viscose

Staple PVA
Staple Viscose

157 158

Twist-less and hollow Yarns Twist-less and hollow Yarns

Details of Finished Fabrics
Fabric Finished fabrics (After hot washing)
Air Permeability
type Fabric Air
60

Weft Fabric sett Fabric Fabric Sample permeability

(epi×ppi) wt. thickness (cc/sec/cm2) 50

Type Count (g/m2) (mm)

(tex) A 48.67 40

A Viscose- 59.0 40x39 246 0.70 A

Viscose in 30 B

core- sheath B 53.00 C

20
B Viscose twist- 59.0 40x39 248 0.73
less fibrous
assembly C 13.23 10

C Viscose 59.0 39 x 40 243 0.79

hollow fibrous 0

assembly

159 160
 Twist-less and hollow Yarns Twist-less and hollow Yarns
Thermal resistance Water vapour permeability
0.7
Fabric Thermal Fabric Relative 108

Sample resistance* 0.6 Sample water vapour 106

(tog) permeability
(%) 104
A 0.3225
0.5

0.4
A 100.0 102
A
B 100
B 0.5015 0.3 C
A
98 B
B 94.8 C
0.2 96
C 0.6950 94
0.1

C 107.4 92
0
90
* Higher “Tog” value means higher thermal resistance, i.e. lower thermal conductivity
88

161 162

Twist-less and hollow Yarns Twist-less and hollow Yarns

Wicking Water absorbency
144
Fabric Wicking height, cm Fabric Water
Sample Sample absorbency, 142
% 140
Warp Weft
A 136.04 138
136
1 min 3 min 5 min 1 min 3 min 5 min 134 A
B
B 129.23 132
C
A 1.2 2.8 3.6 1.4 2.7 3.6 130
128
C 142.53
B 1.0 2.9 3.4 4.9 6.8 8.7 126
124
122
C 1.2 2.9 3.7 3.2 5.5 6.4

163 164
 Twist-less and hollow Yarns
Observations
 Apart from the type of fibre, fabric structure and fabric
finishes, the structure of yarn also plays an
important role in fabric comfort
 Fabric with twistless fibrous assembly shows
 higher air-permeability
 lower thermal resistance
 lower water vapour permeability
 higher wickability
 lower water absorbency
than the fabric with hollow fibrous assembly
165
(…Contd.) Thermal Transmission
Characteristics of Fabrics
 Effect of microclimate thickness on Thermal
properties
 Increase in microclimate thickness increases the
thickness of air layer, total heat flux of human
body decreases
 Effect of fabric thickness is less than the effect of
microclimate thickness, due to thermal
conductivity of the fabric is more than
microclimate
 Effect of fabric thickness is larger when
microclimate thickness is smaller 167
(…Contd.) Thermal Transmission Characteristics
of Fabrics
 Effect of fineness & Hairiness of yarn on Thermal properties
 Finer the yarn, lesser the thickness of the fabric
and decrease in thermal resistance of the fabric
 Increase in twist co-efficient, lower the yarn
diameter, lesser the fabric thickness and thermal
resistance decreases
 Increase in yarn hairiness, the amount of static air
between hairs increases (also increase in thickness
of fabrics) which prevents heat flow, results in
higher thermal resistance
(Nilgün Özdil et.al. Int. J Therm Sci 2007 46 1318–1322)
166
Thermal Transmission Through
Different Air Gap
and
with Different Convective Modes
168
 Actual Values of Experimental Design

Parameters -1 0 +1
Effect of Process Parameters on Fabric aerial density
100 200 300
Thermal Properties (g/m2)
Punch density
50 130 210
(punches/cm2)
Depth of needle
5 10 15
penetration (mm)
Polyester Fibre: 1.5 D, 32 mm length
173 174
15 different fabrics produced according to Box – Behnken experimental design

Experiment in SGHP
(ASTM F1868 – Part C) Regression Equations
25 °C 1 m/s 65% RH 25 °C 65% RH
Outer Layer Parameter (Y) Equation R2

Test Plate Side Guard Test Plate Side Guard Y = 2.33 + 0.85X1 – 0.69X2 – 1.43X3 – 0.31X1X2 + 0.45X2X3 –
Thickness 0.96
Fabric Plate 0.63X1X3 –0.05X12 + 0.78X22 + 1.36X32
Fabric Plate

Without inner and outer layer

1 m/s Y = 93.89 – 1.87X1 – 1.18X2 – 1.31X3 – 1.42X1X2 – 0.13X2X3 –
Porosity 0.93
0.68X1X3 + 0.40X12 + 0.44X22 + 1.73X32
Air Y = 64.96 – 62.08X1 + 7.93X2 + 4.90X3 – 10.38X1X2 + 6.12X2 X3 +
0.98
permeability 5.16X1X3 + 38.44X12 + 4.05X22 – 11.51X32
Thermal Y = 0.19 + 0.017X1 – 0.023X2 – 0.045X3 – 0.007X1 X2 + 0.018X2X3 –
0.91
resistance 0.025X1X3 – 0.019X12 + 0.008X22 + 0.018X32
Bottom Evaporative Y = 18.19 + 2.01X1 – 1.72X2 – 3.09X3 – 1.02X1X2 + 0.20X2X3 –
0.97
Bottom Guard Plate Inner Layer Guard Plate resistance 1.55X1X3 –1.82X12 + 0.20X22 + 1.27X32
Thermal Y = 0.226 + 0.018X1 – 0.023X2 – 0.046X3 – 0.008X1X2 + 0.018X2X3 –
Multilayer

0.92
resistance 0.021X1X3 – 0.021X12 + 0.01X22 + 0.016X32
(Ts  Ta ) ( Ps  Pa )
Rct  Ret  Evaporative Y = 25.84 + 2.35X1 – 1.38X2 – 3.00X3 – 0.87X1X2 – 0.85X1X3 –

Q A  (Ts  Ta )
m2 °C/W m2 Pa/W 0.80
Q A resistance 0.075X2X3 – 2.31X12 + 1.4X22 + 1.8X32
175 176
Rt
 Air Permeability Thermal Resistance

Increase in number of No significant effect on depth of

obstructing surfaces penetration and punch density Better consolidation results in
Increase in thickness of fabric reduction in thickness

 Increase in fabric weight

 Reduces air permeability  Increase in punch density
 Increases thermal and evaporative resistance  No effect on air permeability
 Reduces thermal and evaporative resistance
177 178
According to ASTM D737-04 Standard According to ASTM F1868-09 (Part C) Standard

Thermal and Evaporative Resistance of

Evaporative Resistance
Multilayered Fabrics
Inner layer: Knitted fabric; Outer layer: PTFE coated fabric
1
0.4 1
15 2
40
15 2
0.3
14 3 30
14 3
0.2
20
13 4 13 4
0.1 10

Nonwoven Fabric
0 0
12 5 Multilayered Fabric
12 5

11 6
11 6

10 7
Increase in thickness of fabric Better consolidation results in 10 7
9 8
reduction in thickness 9 8

Increase in depth of penetration


 Effect of inner and outer layer
 No effect on air permeability
 Marginal influence on thermal resistance
 Reduces thermal and evaporative resistance
 Significant influence on evaporative resistance
179 180
According to ASTM F1868-09 (Part C) Standard
 Trend Analysis of Trend Analysis of
Thickness & Air Permeability Thermal & Evaporative Resistance
200
8

Air permeability,
0.25 30
Thcikness, mm

160

Evaporative
resistance,
6

resistance,
cm3/cm2/s

Thermal
25

m2 °C/W

m2 Pa/W
4 120 0.2
20
2 80 0.15 15
0 40 10
0.1
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
Depth of needle penetration Depth of penetration Depth of penetration
Depth of penetration

0.23
6 200 30

resistance,

Evaporative
Thcikness, mm

Air permeability,

m2 °C/W
Thermal
0.21

resistance,
m2 Pa/W
160

cm3/cm2/s
4 0.19 20
120 0.17
2 10
80 0.15
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
0 40 Punch density
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 Punch density
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
Punch density Punch density
0.19 25

Evaporative
resistance,
resistance,

m2 Pa/W
m2 °C/W
Thermal
4 200 0.18 20
Thickness, mm

3 Air permeability, 160

cm3/cm2/s 0.17 15
120
2
80 0.16 10
1 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
40
0 0 Fabric weight Fabric weight
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
Mass per unit area Fabric weight

181 182

Actual Values of Experimental Design

Parameters -1 -0.5 0 +0.5 +1

Linear density of fibre 2.5 - - 6
Fabric aerial density (g/m2) 100 200 - 300 400
Punch density
50 - 130 - 210
(punches/cm2)

Thermal Properties of Fabrics Consist Full Factorial Design

Properties of Inner and Outer Layer Fabrics

of Polypropylene Fibres

Air permeability
Thickness (mm)
Ends (or) wales

courses per cm

Mass per unit

Porosity (%)
Bulk density

Evaporative
(cm3/cm2/s)
area (g/m2)

(m2 Pa/W)
(m2 °C/W)
resistance

resistance
Picks (or)

Thermal
(g/cm3)
per cm
Fabric

Inner
17 12 80 0.35 0.22 84 321.3 0.067 6.85
layer
Outer
44 38 136 0.23 - - - 0.072 10.25
layer
183 184
 Regression Equations Thermal Resistance
1 1 18

0.2
0.

17
1
1

0.
0.2
Parameter (Y) Equation R2 9
0.1

Y = 3.51 + 0.29X1 + 1.42X2 – 0.39X3 – 0.04X1 X2 – 0.15X2 X3 – 0.20

Without inner and outer layer

Thickness 0.92

Mass per unit area

0.006X1 X3 + 1.01X12 – 0.73X22 – 0.08X32

Punch density
0
0.2
Air Y = 67.77 + 41.61X1 – 77.90X2 – 9.76X3 – 32.92X1 X2 + 5.5X2X3 –
0.91 0 0
permeability 4.03X1X3 + 10.1X12 + 79.27X22 + 0.17X32 0.19

Thermal Y= 0.19 + 0.002 X1 + 0.017X2 – 0.012X3 – 0.003X2X3 + 0.01X12 –

0.95 21
0.
Resistance 0.005X22 – 0.003X32
0.18
Evaporative Y=19.85 + 0.85X1 + 2.1X2 – 1.52X3 + 0.103X1X2 – 0.62X2X3 –
0.92
resistance 0.26X1X3 + 0.01X12 – 1.51X22 – 0.21X32
-1 -1
Thermal Y= 0.23 + 0.016X2 – 0.013X3 - 0.001X1X2 – 0.003X2X3 – 0.001X1X3 -1 1 -1 0 1
Multilayer

0.86 Linear density of fibre Mass per unit area

resistance + 0.01X1 – 0.002X2 – 0.004X3
2 2 2

Evaporative Y=26.76 + 0.71X1 + 2.18X2 – 1.18X3 + 0.16X1X2 – 0.63X2X3 + Insignificant effect of liner density of fibre on
0.90 Flexural rigidity  tex2
resistance 0.01X12 – 1.87X22 + 0.03X32 thermal and evaporative resistances
Radiation ∞ surface area of
the body
185 186

Evaporative Resistance
Thermal and Evaporative Resistance of Multilayered Fabrics
1 1
18
17
16
21

19
1 1
20

24
0.300 2 24 30 2
23 3 23 3
Mass per unit area

25
22 4 22 4
Punch density

20
20
21 0.200 5 21 5
19 15
0 0 20 6 20 6
10
21 Nonwoven
19 0.100 7 19 5 7
18 Multilayer
18 8 18 8
17
17 9 17 9
22
16 10
16 10
-1 -1 15 11
-1 1 -1 0 1 14 12
15 11
13 14 12
Linear density of fibre Mass per unit area 13

Increase in punch density reduces thermal and evaporative Effect of inner and outer layer
resistances
Increase in fabric weight increases thermal and evaporative
Significant impact on thermal and evaporative resistances
resistances
187 188
 Constructional Parameters
Fabric Bulk
Fabric Type of Wales per Courses Thickness Porosity
weight density

Inner Layer
Code fabric cm per cm (mm) (%)
(g/m2) (g/cm3)
I1 17 12 80 0.35 0.22 84.0
Single
I2 Jersey 18 15 120 0.46 0.27 80.4
Knitted
I3 15 17 160 0.47 0.33 76.5

Thermal Properties of Fabrics Consist of Mass per Thermal Evaporative

Fabric Ends Picks Thickness
Type of fabric unit area resistance resistance
Through-air Bonded Nonwovens Code per cm per cm
(g/m2)
(mm)
(m2 °C/W) (m2 Pa/W)

Outer Layer
C1 Polyurethane coated 43 27 100 0.17 0.079 52.66
Polyester polymer
C2 44 38 136 0.23 0.072 41.11
coated
C3 PTFE 16 16 125 0.36 0.068 9.87

Fabric
Fabric Thickness Porosity Position of Layer Mass per unit area (g/m2)
weight

Middle Layer
Code (mm) (%)
(g/m2) -1 0 +1
M1 80 7 99.1
Inner Layer (I) 80 120 160
M2 220 15 99.0
Middle Layer (M) 80 220 360
M3 360 20 98.7
189 Full Factorial Design 190

Effect of mass per unit area of inner layer and pore size of
coated fabrics on thermal resistance of multilayered fabrics Effect of mass per unit area of nonwovens and pore size of coated
fabrics on evaporative resistance of multilayered fabrics

The pore size

does not have
significant effect
on thermal
resistance of
multilayered
fabric ensembles

191 192
 Evaporative resistance of multilayered Evaporative resistance of multilayered
fabrics without outer layer fabrics with polyester polymer coated
fabric as outer layer

Larger the pore size (outer layer) and higher the

An initial increase in the evaporative resistance with the
increase in mass per unit area of middle layer followed by porosity (middle layer), lower the evaporative
saturation or a slight drop in the evaporative resistance. resistance of the coated fabrics.

This is due to the condensation of the water vapour within the

fabric system with higher mass per unit area of the middle layer.
193 194

Conclusions

 Effect of inner layer

 No significant effect of inner layer on thermal and

evaporative resistance

 Effect of middle layer

 Increase in fabric weight increases thickness
thereby increases thermal and evaporative
resistance

 Effect of outer layer

 As the evaporative resistance of outer layer
increases the evaporative resistance of
multilayered fabrics increases significantly

195