'A' Level Literature in English Practical Criticism-1

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‘A’ LEVEL
LITERATURE
IN ENGLISH
Practical
Critism
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
‘A’ LEVEL LITERATURE IN ENGLISH .......................Error! Bookmark not defined.

PUBLICATION STAFF ......................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Acknowledgements ........................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Preface............................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Chapter 1 ......................................................................................................................... 3
INTRODUCTION TO ADVANCED LEVEL LITERATURE .................................... 3
What is literature in English ........................................................................................... 3
Basis for the study of literature ....................................................................................... 3
Why is literature important? ........................................................................................... 4
Educational value ............................................................................................................ 4
Skills assessment............................................................................................................. 5
Syllabus components ...................................................................................................... 5
Notes on paper selection ................................................................................................. 6
The Literature examination ............................................................................................. 7
Examination skill development: ..................................................................................... 7
Conclusion ......................................................................................................................... 8
‘A’ Level Literature in English Practical Criticism Page 1

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CHAPTER 2 ........................................................................................................................ 9
COMMENT AND APPRECIATION ............................................................................. 9
Preliminary introduction to literary devices ................................................................... 9
Form ................................................................................................................................ 9
Judgment ....................................................................................................................... 10
ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL CRITICISM ............................................................... 10
Comprehension ............................................................................................................. 10
The situation.................................................................................................................. 13
Development ................................................................................................................. 13
Intention ........................................................................................................................ 14
Example one “Piano and Drums” by Gabriel Okara” ................................................... 17
A SUMMATIVE APRPOACH TO PRACTICAL CRITICISM ................................. 20
Chapter 3 .......................................................................................................................... 22
APPRECIATION OF POETRY ................................................................................... 22
6. Metaphor ................................................................................................................... 25
12. Apostrophe .............................................................................................................. 27
Demonstration 1: “Piano and Drums” by Gabriel Okara” ............................................ 30
Demonstration 2 ............................................................................................................ 36
Chapter 4 .......................................................................................................................... 47
APPRECIATION OF PROSE ....................................................................................... 47
Demonstrated answer .................................................................................................... 56
General .......................................................................................................................... 56
Key Elements ................................................................................................................ 56
Tone .............................................................................................................................. 57
Chapter 5 .......................................................................................................................... 77
APPRECIATION OF DRAMA ..................................................................................... 77
Demonstrated Answer ................................................................................................... 83
Demonstrated answer .................................................................................................... 87
KEY ELEMENTS ........................................................................................................ 87
Raina ............................................................................................................................. 87
Sergius........................................................................................................................... 87
Louka ............................................................................................................................ 87
Dramatic Techniques .................................................................................................... 88
Stage Directions ............................................................................................................ 88
Examination type Questions ......................................................................................... 88
Chapter 6 ........................................................................................................................ 100
Cross appreciation of literature genres....................................................................... 100
Introduction ................................................................................................................. 100
The approach ............................................................................................................... 100

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Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION TO ADVANCED LEVEL LITERATURE AND SYLLABUS ANALYSIS.
Learning objectives
By the end of this chapter one should be able to;
a) Define literature.
b) Justify the basis for the study of literature in English at advanced level
c) Interpret the advanced level literature syllabus.
d) Outline the skills necessary for the study of advanced level examination
e) Describe the main terms used in the literature assessment.
Introduction
The world’s academic and social sphere is driven by a great quest for knowledge. Everyday new
knowledge is being discovered or preserved for the next generation in printed form. Everyone
everywhere is interested in one sort of study or the other. In short, reading is the world’s greatest
activity. Indeed reasons for such an interest are numerous as people read for different activities. As
we commence our Advanced level literature in English studies we will interact with a lot of written
information. Literature in English therefore forms one small fraction of written communication.
What is literature in English

Literature springs from our inborn love of telling or describing things. This is achieved through
arranging words in pleasing patterns, or expressing some special aspect of our human
experience.Literature has been defined by a number of scholars as the study of works of literary
art, which is the expression of human thought and feeling in written form in the mediums of
prose, drama or poetry. It is important to notice that the writer of literature is not tied to facts in
quite the same way as the historian, economist or the scientist, whose studies are absolutely on
what has actually happened, Literary artists specialize in creatively putting together factual and
non factual accounts and experiences in written or oral form. In short the only limit for a literary
artist is basically the scope of ones imagination. Our study of literature in English is concerned
with the works of literature presented through the medium of the English language.
Basis for the study of literature

It is important at this point to note that the study of Literature at this level is not for mere
enjoyment. Our study is guided by the demand of the syllabus that is in line with the expectations
of the requirements of Advances Level education or the equivalent. In other words there are basic
skills which we ought to be able to develop in our studies. It is the skills that are examined at the
end of our studies. What we mean is that, as we study different novels, our major mandate is not
reading for enjoyment, but giving a lot of thought to a number of influences that led to the writers

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presenting their works in that manner or how language and other linguistic aspects have been used
to create particular effects.
Why is literature important?

The greatest pleasure and satisfaction to be found in literature occurs when it brings us back to the
realities of human situations, problems, feelings and relationships. The writers of literature, being
less tied to fact than the historian or scientist have more scope to comment on the facts, arrange
them in unusual ways, and to speculate not only on what is, but on what ought to be, or what might
be. Writers are, therefore, sometimes people with visionary or prophetic insights into human life.
All of us who read works of literature will find our knowledge of human experiences broadened
and deepened, whether in the individual, social, racial or international spheres; The study of
literature therefore enables us to understand the possibilities of human life, both for good and evil;
We shall understand how we came to live at a particular time and place, with all its pleasures and
vexations and problems; we shall understand the ways onwards which are open to us, and we shall
perhaps be able to make right rather than wrong choices in our everyday life.
Educational value
In our study of literature we should not underestimate the element of pleasure and enjoyment
which comes from the reading of literature as it is surely, in itself, one of the great benefits which
comes from being an educated person. However we recognise that certain other fundamental skills
and capacities are developed through the reading of literature, which are important to us all in the
day-to-day exercise of the responsibilities which come to us in our life as a result of the
educational qualifications we obtain. “The greatest of our world leaders, philosophers, social
scientists, lawyers,---- were ardent students of literature.”, said one of our unsung heroes of
education. Our study of literature in English at advanced level will enhance the development of
skills in discrimination, judgement and decision making. These skills are discussed briefly below.
Discrimination
The first motive for the reading of literature is pleasure or entertainment. This, however, is not
the whole purpose of our study, we begin to realise that we enjoy some things more than others,
and that some of our reading experiences seem positively distasteful when others become more
and more deeply absorbing. One way of explaining this would be to say that we are beginning to
develop an appreciation for some things rather than for others. In short we are beginning to
discriminate, to appreciate and to differentiate between what is really important and that which is
trivial. Human experiences are always moving in ever increasing complexity. Obviously the more
surely we can give our attention to the important things rather than the trivial ones, the more we
shall benefit, individually and in the contributions we shall be able to make to the world at large.
Judgement and decision making
In our study of literature we continue to gain experience in discrimination to compare our

discrimination with other people’s. We reflect upon our discrimination as we discover on what
factors such discrimination is based. We then come towards a state of mind in which we feel a
capacity to deliver an opinion about the rights and wrongs of a situation or a problem, we develop

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a capacity to make an informed judgement; making decisions which other people accept and agree
to, forming the best basis for many kinds of practical actions. It is indeed, quite realistic to suggest
that the qualities developed through the thoughtful study of literature are of the greatest use in
later life in a practical human environment, Such skill of judgement will be very critical to, for
example, the employer who has to decide on the best applicant from amongst a number who have
sent written applications; to the publisher, who has to choose from amongst numerous manuscripts
he receives those that are most worth publishing; and to a number of work and life related
challenges. Therefore the study and appreciation of English literature offers special possibilities in
a particularly convenient and concentrated way.
Skills assessment
The advanced level ZIMSEC and Cambridge Advanced Level syllabus aims to develop the
following skills.
1) Develop an awareness and appreciation of literature as a tool for personal, national

development.
2) Develop critical thinking and analysis skills in students so as to enable the student to
understand how writers make use of language and form to develop their works.
Syllabus components
The ZIMSEC Syllabus is broken down into the following paper components:
1) Paper one; Comment and appreciation

This is a compulsory paper forming the basis of our study of literature in English. It tests
our understanding of the skills outlined above through the presentation of unseen texts. In
other words we are given extracts from the four genres of literature where we apply our
skills of judgement, discrimination and literary appreciation in general. Four questions are
usually set in this paper and candidates should answer any two. There are questions on
prose, poetry and drama. The fourth questions will require the candidate to compare and
contrast works of literature from the same or other genres. The extracts are taken from any
literal work of art written from AD1500 to the present day. Hence there is a great need for
extensive reading outside the recommended texts. This will broaden our scope and enable
us develop refined judgemental and decision making skills.
2) Paper 2: Zimbabwean And African Literature
This paper focuses on the appreciation of Zimbabwean and African writings.It is decided
into two sections. Section A is dedicated to the study of Zimbabwean literature. Two set
books are examined. The prescribed texts will be a poetry anthology and a novel. Students
are expected to study at least one of the prescribed texts. From section A. In section B, four
novels are prescribed and candidates are expected to study at least two novels from this
section. All in all students are expected to answer three questions from this paper, that is,
one from section A and two from different texts in section B.
3) Paper 3: Shakespeare and other dramatists
This paper is basically based on the study of drama. It is divided into two sections. In
section A, two Shakespearean plays are prescribed. Students are expected to study at least
one play and answer a question on that play .Four plays from various writers from the

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world are prescribed and students are expected to study any two. As such, students are
expected to answer one question from section A and two questions from section B.
4) Paper 4: Contemporary literature
Paper four is based on works of literature in English developed after the Second World War
Five or six set books covering the three genres are prescribed, and students are expected to
study any three texts. The students are expected to answer three questions from any three
texts in the examination.
5) Paper 5: World Literature
This is an open paper that includes literature written during different periods. Five or six
texts are prescribed from different genres, students are expected to study any three texts.
Notes on paper selection

The five papers we have outlined above carry an equal examination weighting of 33.3 percent.
This means that equal attention should be placed in the study of the selected paper options. We
stated earlier that, of the 5 papers paper, one is compulsory. This means that we have to select
two papers from the four papers in order to meet syllabus requirements. For example,
Option A: Paper 1, 2 and 3
Option B: Paper 1, 2 and 4
Option C: Paper 1, 2 and 5
Option D: Paper 1, 3 and 4
Option E: Paper 1, 3 and 5
Option F: Paper 1, 4 and 5
The following influences can be put into consideration when deciding on paper combinations.
1) Availability of the set books on the market
2) The duration of the set books on the syllabus (carefully check set book circulars as some
prescribed set books may not complete their full term.
3) Level of linguistic difficulty of set texts (eg contemporary vs Chaucerian literature)
4) Environmental influences (Zimbabwean vs West African literature): A student would

appreciate better a Zimbabwean novel than a West African novel as he is familiar with the
settings and the issues raised. Therefore it is advisable to introduce one to literature using a text
that one can easily relate with and gradually move the student out of the comfort zone. In this
way, literature study will be a planned process of skill development, starting from the known
familiar territory or writer to completely unknown, more complex works of literature at a later
stage.

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At the end of it all, it is advisable to really put a lot of thought to the papers being studied, and
this primarily depends on the set book factor. Educators are discouraged from selecting a paper
because one of the set book was studied by the educator in the past, either as a student or in
tertiary education. Set book selection should be influenced by critical assessment of the issues
identified above. After all, the scheme of assessment at the end of the day is based, not on the
paper options one has selected but on the scheme of assessment prescribed by the syllabus, and
this applies uniformly to all the five paper options.
The Literature examination

The advanced level literature examination is essay based. All five papers carry a time duration
of 3 hours. In paper one, students are expected to answer any two questions while the other
four papers require a student to answer three questions within three hours.
Two questions are set on each set book and students are expected to answer one. The first is an
essay based question that is open. This is to say any aspect in that set book can be examined.
The second question is a passage- based question (context).It basically examines the
application of comment and appreciation skills in our assessment of the particular text. This
explains why paper one is compulsory and therefore should not be taught in isolation, but
should form the core of our study of literature in English.
Examination skill development:

With the examination in mind, the following hints are intended to give a general guideline in
development of examination skills. Therefore the development of appropriate skills should be a
process, not an event. Therefore from the onset we should have the expectation of the examination
in mind. These hints are therefore not for the final examination only, but for all assessments during
our study of literature at Advanced level.
1. Think carefully about the question and underline the key words. Try to substitute these key
words with synonyms so as to fully understand the demands of the question. Write an essay
plan.
2. Ensure that you have sufficient points to answer the question. Avoid running dry. Each point
should be relevant to the demand of the question. Avoid repetition of already identified points.
This is very common in the study of literature, as one can present one idea in different ways.
3. Select the appropriate information you will use to support your views taking note of quotations
which are only relevant but best illustrate your ideas.
AVOID unnecessary text references. The main issue here is to use textual evidence to support
our views and not to showcase our explicit knowledge of the text outside the bounds of the
question.
4. Writing a rough draft before the final essay is advisable if you have time. Points will do. A
draft however is essential for non examination conditions e.g writing a class assignment,
presentation etc. (Remember that time management is of crucial importance).
5. When it comes to the final essay, make sure that your ideas are arranged in a logical order, in
the order that best answers the question. Avoid following the sequence of the passage. Break
the passage into segments/ topics as will be demonstrated in the later parts of the study pack.

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6. The way you present your ideas is very important. Your handwriting should be neat and
headings should be underlined.
7. Each paragraph should contain a point or points that answer the question, with supporting
information from the passage. AVOID offering narratives of the stories of the passage!
Regurgitation does not earn you marks!
8. Your presentation should contain simple straight forward expressions. The main point is
answering the question at hand and not to show off.
9. Your introduction should put the examiner into the picture of what you have to say and it
should be strongly related to the question.
10. The conclusion should convince the examiner that you have answered the question and it
should be forceful and convincing.
11. If your language is poor, the best thing is to develop an interest in reading. Read with the
purpose of familiarizing yourself with good English whilst at the same time you entertain
yourself with exciting stories and widen your knowledge of the world.
Definition of key words.

These are some of the most commonly used terms in literature questions. This guideline gives brief
explanations on what they require.
(a) Assess: - weigh evidence either confirming or denying the claim of the statement.
(b) Criticise: - give your reasoned and well informed judgement or opinion about the merit or
concreteness truth of / about facts.
(c) Comment: - criticise or form a personal view or opinion about something.
(d) Discuss: - explore an issue by reasoned argument, debate and give reasons for and against.
Also offer explanation.
(e) Examine: - consider closely an account giving reasons, do a close study.
(f) Analyse: - to examine in detail in order to discover meaning of essential features, to break
down into components or essential features
(g) Consider:- think carefully about (a problem or decision) then make a judgement.
Conclusion
It is hoped that this chapter has given users a worthy insight into the expectations of literature in
English at advanced level. Most of the issues discussed in the chapter will be developed fully in
the relevant sections of the study pack.

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Chapter 2
COMMENT AND APPRECIATION

Learning objectives
After studying this topic, the student should be able to:

(a) define the term literary appreciation
(b) Assess the importance of literary appreciation in literature studies
(c) Outline the general guidelines in critically appreciating a given text
(d) Define and appreciate the role of literary devices in the study of different literature
genres.
(e) Apply the steps that are prescribed in the analysis of different literature genres.
Preliminary introduction to literary devices

Writers use different techniques and writing styles to present their ideas. Above all, they make use
of literary devices to enrich their language, thus making their works into being more creative and
enjoyable. Literary devices can be defined as those aspects of language that aid the writer’s use
of creative with either in poetry, prose or drama. It is interesting to note that everyone at one time
or another has used literary devices in everyday speech, albeit, without taking notice. This is
because literary devices are part and parcel of any language to an extent that we are not really
aware of their importance.
In the study of advanced level literature the knowledge of the types and application of these
devices is a very essential aspect in the analysis and evaluation of various literary works from
different writers. What is essential for the student therefore, is the ability to identify the different
forms of devices that are used by writers. Secondly the student should be able to comment on how
a particular writer has employed the use of a literary device and to what effect that device or
devices has in ones’ appreciation of the writers work. Thus through further research and wide
reading of the various forms of literary work, students will be in a better position to comprehend
the general scope of the study and appreciation of literature.
Literary devices therefore form an important aspect of diction in practical criticism. We shall
notice that writers of particular genres apply some devices frequently than other devices in their
works. The conclusion therefore is that each genre has specific devices associated with it. This
does not mean to say that because a particular literal device is associated with a specific genre it
can not be effectively used in another genre. The next chapters focus on how to apply practical
criticism skills to different genres. As such specific literal devices and their general effects are
discussed in detail in each chapter.
Form
Finally it is often important to consider the effect on a piece of writing of its general form. Its
‘form’ is best thought of as its structure as a whole, the general arrangement in which words,
phrases, clauses, sound effects, figurative and rhythmic devices all contribute to the effect of the
whole. In the field of poetry this questions may seem easier to deal with, because again we have a

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number of ready-made terms, such as stanzas, ballad, Couplet, sonnet, Blank Verse, etc, which
seems to save us a good deal of trouble.. We must be able to explain the effects which the form
contributes to the piece as a whole: how conveniently, for example, does it mark the stages of the
development of a passage/ How boldly does it bring out the plan and the impact of the whole?
How conveniently does it underline the emotional effect intended and so on?
Prose is less often cast into a recognizable or set form; nevertheless aspects of form can often be
seen in the repetition of particular word or sentence patterns and the recurrence of symbols. We
should also note whether the sentences are highly- controlled in structure, whether they are short
and broken, whether they flow on as though representing the flow of thought, of conversation, of
internal monologue. But in the case of prose, again, we shall always seek not merely to describe
what we observe in the way of formal pattern, but to explain its effect on the passage as a whole.
Judgment
It is a very good thing at the end of an exercise in appreciation to indicate as a clearly as possible
one’s opinion about the passage studied. The good student will feel a natural desire, after spending
some time on a piece of writing to express some kind of final opinion about it. It is helpful to think
of this, perhaps, as rather like a vote of thanks to society or institution. As most students will
know, a good vote of thanks may well be quite brief. It should certainly be sincere and make
reference to matters of special interest or distinctive features contained in the address. Thus, in the
literary field, a final judgment cannot take any set form, because it is a conclusive examination of
the particular passage which has just been under examination. Therefore it will be a direct
reflection of the insight, maturity, reading, experience, and capacity for generalization of the
individual student. It should, of course, be more than a summary of all that has already been said,
though it should be in accordance with the detailed observations that have been made.
ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL CRITICISM

This section gives a general guide on how to approach comment and appreciation assignments.
This step- by- step approach is intended to give learners adequate time to master particular skills
.With time you will develop your own method is different from the one we have outlined below.
Such is the nature of the subject. Therefore, it is quite advantageous to master the techniques
outlined here for the purposes of further development. The steps outlined below apply to all the
three genres of literature, that is, prose poetry and drama. However genre specific techniques are
discussed in greater detail in chapters dedicated to each particular genre
Comprehension
This is the first essential stage in appreciation and no kind of appreciation is possible unless there
has first been comprehension. This basically entails reading an extract for the sole purpose of
understanding. If we can not make head or tail of a particular piece of writing then there can not be
any meaningful. Appreciation for beginners the surest way of getting the senses of a piece of
writing is through the process of vocalization. This refers to a method of reading where the reader
reads allowed or whisper to himself. You can get a gist on the situation by reading the passage to
yourself, in a whisper. Vocalisation enables one to attend to word meaning, one word at a time in
the correct order, which will be of great help in building up the basic meaning of linguistic
structure that is the sentence, and paragraph unit. At the end we are able to get the basic sense of

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the given extract. Understanding a given piece of work entails being able to create a mental picture
of the ideas being put forward by the writer. Therefore we should closely look for the main verbs
in each sentence taking a particular notice of which nouns are the subjects of the verbs and how
these main parts of the sentence are modified by other words and clauses. In addition we should
notice how one sentence is set in relation to the next, whether in continuation or in contrast, and so
on. At this stage an attempt to paraphrase can be useful. This is a process of rewording or stating
the prose sense of a literary passage in clear plain terms some times at greater length than the
original. It is the interpretation or the expression of the writers main concern according to our
understanding. Note that paraphrasing should not eliminate the text under study, but should aid our
understanding through the expression of the critical ideas in a manner and language we are familiar
with. Paraphrasing is essential for new literary critics and greatly assists one to grasp the basic
structure of sense on which the literary devices to elaborate.
Exercise
Given below are three extracts. Read through the extracts and attempt the task outlined
below.
Extract one
You have often seen the sand on the sea shore. How fine are its tiny grains! And how many of
these tiny grains go to make up the small handful which a child grasps in its play. Now imagine a
mountain of that sand, a million miles high, reaching from the earth to the fairest heavens, and a
million miles wide, extending to remotest, and a million miles in thickness, and of sand multiplied
as often as there leaves in the forest, drops of water in the mighty ocean, feathers on birds, scales
on fish, hairs on animals, atoms in the vast expanse of the air, and imagine that at the end of every
million years a little bird came to that mountain and carried away in its beak a tiny grain of that
sand. How many millions upon millions of centuries would pass before that bird had carried away
even a square foot of that mountain, how many eons upon eons before it has carried it all away?
Yet at the end of that immense stretch of time not even one instant of eternity could be said to have
ended.
Extract two
Tired with all these, for restful Death I cry,
As to behold desert a beggar born,
And needing nothing trimmed in jollity
And purest faith unhappily forsworn,
And gilded honour shamefully misplaced,
And maiden virtue rudely trumpeted,
And right perfection wrongfully disgraced,

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And strength by limping sway disabled
And art made tongue-tied by authority,
And folly- doctor-like-controlling skill,
And simple truth miscalled simplicity,
And captive good attending captain ill:
Tired with all these, from these would I be gone,
Save that, to die, I leave my love alone.
Extract three
Death of a soldier by Chengerai Hove
Death of a soldier
He died, my brother
Thorn- bitten and stung.
Homeless, a glorious rover.
Noble – minded, but soft in thought
Nimble- limbed, sculled and rough:
Yet the stall of mercy rebuffed him
Tormenting the spirit of shrunken faith
And bottomless belief.
He died in summer greens, and mud,

Enmeshed, bathed in sorrow
Of stinking unsheltered nature
Caged in open skies
Nothing romantic: I saw him
Flooded with christened hate
And fouled with justice and dread
Sinking into piggish death
As at butcher’s
I saw the green leaves

Which swish- swash in stormy days
To whisper to my sunken, stormy heart
Which hops and kicks in me
His stench harangued my bowels
Mixing my nostrils with the long dead
Whose bowels have been embedded
Deep in the glooms of the earth.
Sure, he died, no doubt

Gravels, ditched, he went:

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But full of grave pure hate

He died to haunt the soulless
And to cleanse the land he manured;
Praising the living
With well - nourished greens.
Brother, when you follow

Your harvest
The grain of pain in mourned death
Which the living shall scorn.
a) What idea do you get from the extract?
b) Re-read the extract a number of times; Do you still get the initial idea that you had after the first
reading
c) Paraphrase the section of your choice from the two extracts. Compare your paraphrase to the
actual .In what ways has your understanding of the extract been enhanced by paraphrase?
The situation
The task outlined above we believe has given one adequate practice in acquisition of the skill of
comprehension. The main essence of comprehension is to identify the general picture of what the
passage is about. In other terms we are able to get the main idea of a particular piece of writing.
Practical appreciation is therefore concerned with this main idea we have made reference to. Our
basic concern lies in the fact that we are generally interested in how a writer has developed his
idea, taking into account a host of other issues such as language, intention, style and so on.
Therefore being able to identify the situation enables us to effectively appreciate a given text
sufficiently.
Development
It is very important to perceive how a piece of writing begins, how it develops and how it ends.
This contributes to our assessment of the developmental aspects in practical criticism. In the
previous section we made reference to the identification of the situation or main idea in a given
piece of work. The next step is to trace the development of that idea through out the extract. We
should not, of course, expect that the situation and its subsequent development will always be
neatly set out; at times it will be necessary to infer these from slight hints and suggestions It may
be that the situation you discover in a piece of writing is entirely static, i.e. nothing in it moves, or
changes, or develops. This might be true, especially in a piece of scenic description. Usually,
however, there will be some kind of development or movement indicated in the passage. Some-
times this will be a physical movement of some kind (as of a labourer going home after a day’s
work). Very often the development will be in the nature of some thoughts or reflections which
arise, and follow one another, as the writer looks upon a certain scene, or contemplates a certain
problem .Our major task therefore is to trace how the main idea develops from the beginning to the
end of the extract.

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Intention
Having identified the situation/main idea of an extract and trace its development, we are better
positioned to make assumptions on the writer’s intention in developing certain pieces of writing.
We are able to respond to questions such as
1) What was the writer’s objective?
2) Why was the main idea presented in that particular manner?
3) To whom is this piece of writing directed to?
A typical example is in this piece where the writer gives a clear explanation of how to do
something; or intends to give a detailed impression of life in a certain city; or to explain the
motives behind a person’s actions; or to ridicule something which is unworthy or undesirable and
so on. Having a basic understanding of the writers intention will enable us to effectively appreciate
given texts.
Exercise
(a) Identify the intentions of the writer in the poem Thought on June 26 by Mazisi Kunene
below.
Thought on June 26
Was I wrong when I thought?
All shall be avenged?
Was I wrong when I thought?
The rope of iron holding the neck of young bulls
Shall be avenged?
Was I wrong?
When I thought the orphans of sulphur
Shall rise from the ocean?
Was I depraved when I thought there need not be love?
There need not be forgiveness, there need not be progress,
There need not be goodness on the earth,
There need not be towns of skeletons,
Sending messages of elephants to the moon?

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Was I wrong to laugh asphyxiated ecstasy?
When the sea rose like quicklime
When the ashes on ashes were blown by the wind
When the infant sword was left alone on the hill top?
Was I wrong to erect monuments of blood?
Was I wrong to avenge the pillage of Caesar?
Was I wrong? Was I wrong?
Was I wrong to ignite the earth?
And dance above the stars
Watching Europe burn with its civilization of fire,
Watching America disintegrate with its gods of steel,
Watching the persecutors of mankind turn into dust
b) Does the knowledge of the writer‘s intention enhance our appreciation of the poem above?
Justify your answer.
Diction
diction refers to the manner in which a writer has used words to convey a particular meaning .The
English language has resources which enables one to express thoughts in a number of different
ways, according to the occasion; just as a person may have one outfit of clothes for work; another
for sport; another for dancing’ another for going to church, and another for ceremonial occasions.
A correct understanding of diction is obviously important in the practical use of English, similarly,
in order to get the correct impression in literary appreciation, it is necessary to be sensitive to
various kinds of diction, and sometimes of sudden changes in its usage .We shall briefly examine
some important aspects of diction which we should take note of when critically appreciating given
extracts.
Choice of words
The words which, over and above the basic meaning, carry the real flavor of a piece of writing are
usually the verbs, the adjectives, and to some extent the adverbs, and it is very well worth while to
look at these carefully. The English language, we know, is very rich in alternatives, and it is well
to ask ourselves in considering each of these just why it is ‘so and not otherwise.’ Sometimes it is
useful to consider what alternatives could have been used, and whether any of them would have
been more suitable. Then we can begin to value the effect of the one that the writer has actually
used.

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Word association
Words which are fairly close together in meaning have different’ associations’ based largely on the
way they have been used by generations of bygone writers; in fact, that ‘there are no synonyms.’
So, we shall try to discover why the writer has decided to use just those words rather than others,
and in thinking about this question we shall find out a good deal about the effect he is trying to
produce
Sounds of words
Words, although chiefly symbols, are nevertheless sounds; and we know that it is possible to
select words which, as individual sounds and in the patterns which they can be made to form, can
have a special effect in underlining, emphasizing, imitating or suggesting the writer’s meaning.
Connotative and denotative meaning of words
Diction or word choice can be broken down into the following:
a) Denotative meaning: this is the primary meaning of a word, as defined in any dictionary .Some
people would like to refer to it as the surface meaning or the general meaning.
b) Connotative meaning: it is the meaning of the word as used within a particular context as such
connotative meaning refers to all the additions, flavours’ and ‘associations’ which a particular
word can carry it carries.
We are generally aware of the fact that, when any language has been in use for long time, many of
its words and expressions acquire a peculiar richness of significance. As such writers across the
genre divide often depend a great deal on this characteristic of language and obviously students
whose acquaintance with a language has been limited will not automatically be able to get the
feeling of this richness .Therefore the more they can read and build up their experience, the more
fully will they become sensitive to it.
Indirect expression
It is very important to note at this particular time that most of the literature extracts we shall deal
with were written by experienced writers from across the world. We must, therefore, have it at the
back of our minds that, most writers have not been writing for school boys, school girls, or
students on the contrary they have been writing to meet the expectations of the book- reading
public of their own day. Remember reading was once a preserve of the elite class and people all
over the world have tried express their individuality through their personal ingenuity,
magnificence, originality, colour, extravagance, even sometimes by puzzling and startling the
public .Only a few English writers have consistently used the simple forms of the language; even
some of those which have, claimed to have not always kept to their policy. Students must be ready
to see the point of some of the methods of indirect expression which they will encounter, such as
metaphor, simile, irony etc

17
Task: Refer closely to the poem Thoughts on June 26.Comment on how the poet has used
different elements of diction to bring about meaning.
b) Consider the impact of word choice in the examples given below
Example one “Piano and Drums” by Gabriel Okara”

When at break of a day at a riverside
I hear the jungle drums telegraphing
the mystic rhythm, urgent, raw
like bleeding flesh, speaking of
primal youth and the beginning,
I see the panther ready to pounce,
the leopard snarling about to leap
and the hunters crouch with spears poised;
And my blood ripples, turns torrent,
topples the years and at once I’m
in my mother’s lap are suckling;
at once I’m walking simple
paths with no innovation,
rugged, fashion with the naked
warmth of hurrying feet and groping hearts
in green leaves and wild flowers pulsing.
Then I hear a wailing piano
solo speaking of complex ways
in tear – furrowed concerto;
of far away lands
and new horizons with
coaxing diminuendo, counterpoint,
crescendo. But lost in the labyrinth
of its complexities, it ends in the middle

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of a phrase at a dagger point
And I lost in the morning mist,
of an age at a riverside keep
wandering in the mystic rhythm
of jungle drums and the concerto.
Example two
1. Extract taken from Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad

‘I beg your pardon. I forgot the heartache, which makes up the rest of the price. And indeed what
does the price matter, if the trick be well done? You do your tricks very well. And I didn’t do
badly either, since I managed not to sink that steamboat on my first trip. It’s a wonder to me yet.
Imagine a blindfolded man set to drive a van over a bad road. I sweated and shivered over that
business considerably, I can tell you. After all, for a seaman, to scrape the bottom of the
unpardonable sin. No one may know of it, but you never forget the thump – eh? A blow on the
very heart. You remember it, you dream of it, you wake up at night and think of it – years after –
and go hot and cold all over. I don’t pretend to say that steamboat floated all the time. More than
once she had to wade for a bit, with twenty cannibals splashing around and pushing. We had
enlisted some of these chaps on the way for a crew. Fine fellows – cannibals – in their place.
They were men one could work with, and I am grateful to them. And, after all, they did not eat
each other before my face: they had brought along a provision of hippo- meat, which went rotten,
and made the mystery of the wilderness stink in my nostrils. Phoo! I can sniff it now. I had the
manager on board and three or four pilgrims with their staves – all complete. Sometimes we came
upon a station close by the bank, clinging to the skirts of the unknown, and the white men rushing
out of a tumbledown hovel, with great gestures of joy and surprise and welcome, seemed very
strange – had the appearance of being held there captive by a spell. The word ivory would ring in
the air for a while – and on we went again into the silence, along empty reaches, round the still
bends, between the high walls of our winding way, reverberating in hollow claps the ponderous
beat of the stern – wheel. Trees, trees, millions of trees, massive, immense, running up high; and
yet it was not altogether depressing, that feeling. After all, if you were small, the grimy beetle
crawled on- which was just what you wanted it to do. Where the pilgrims imagined it crawled to I
don’t know. To some place where they expected to get something, I bet! For me it crawled towards
Kurtz – exclusively; but when the steam- pipes started leaking we crawled very slowly.
Example three
Extract taken from Antony and Cleopatra by William Shakespeare .
Enter, below, Antony, borne by the Guard.
Cleopatra: Osun,
Burn the great sphere thou mov’st in!

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Darkling stand
The varying shore o’ th’ world. O Antony,
Antony, Antony! Help, Chairman; help, Iras, help;
Help, friends below! Let’s draw him hither.
Antony Peace!
Not Caesar’s valour hath o’earthrown Antony,
But Antony’s hath triumph’d on itself.
Cleopatra: So it should be, that none but Antony
Should conquer Antony; but woe ‘tis so!
Antony: Iam dying, Egypt, dying; only
I here importune death a while, until
Of many thousand kisses the poor last
I lay upon the lips.
Cleopatra: I dare not, dear.
Dear my lord, pardon! I dare not.
Lest I be taken. Not th’ impericious show
Of the full-fortun’d Caesar ever shall
Be brooch’d with me. If knife, drugs, serpents, have
Edge, sting or operation, I am safe.
Your wife Octavia, with here modest eyes
And still conclusion, shall acquire no honour
Demuring upon me. But come, come, Antony-
Help me, my women-we must draw thee up;
Assist good friends.
Antony: O, quick, or I am gone.
Cleopatra: Here is sport indeed! How heavy weighs my lord!
Our strength is all gone into heaviness;

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That makes the weight. Heard I great Juno’s power,
The strong –wing’d Mercury should fetch thee up,
And set thee by Jove’s side. Yet come a little.
Wishers were ever fools. O come, come, come,
[They heave Antony aloft to Cleopatra.
And welcome, welcome! Die where thou hast liv’d.
Quicken with kissing. Had my lips that power,
Thus would I wear them out.
All: A heavy sight!
N.B It is hoped that the assessment of the nature of diction in the three examples above has given
a practical insight into the various ways in which writers use diction to convey their situations. It is
particularly interesting to not that writers from across the three genres have git interesting ways to
play around with words and general linguistic structure to bring out their intentions. If we carefully
go over the three extracts carefully we take notice of the fact that some diction used by the writers
bring out specific effects such as comparisons ,emphasis rhythm etc. These particular groups of
words are referred to as literal devices.
A SUMMATIVE APPROACH TO PRACTICAL CRITICISM

The general approach
The process of practical appreciation can be summed up as follows
1. The comprehension phase
2. The development stage
3. The judgement and evaluation phase
A lot of approaches have been put forward by scholars in their attempt to simplify the process of
appreciation. The most common is explained by the acronyms
S.subject S.subject
I.intention E.emotion
F.feeling I.intention
T .tone
There are indeed a lot of acronyms we can refer to .however the bottom line in practical criticism
is the ability to effectively understand a given text, to the extent of being able to comment on the
writers ability and techniques in the presentation of the subject matter. Therefore what is important

21
is the identification of the cause effect relationships, which is to say that in what ways does the
register, etc used enhance our understanding of the piece of writing. Being able to make such
judgement takes a lot of time interacting with various sources of literature. Remember appreciation
is primarily based on our relationship with the given text and this is greatly influenced by your
level of competency in the English language as well as numerous environmental emotional and
sociological considerations among others.
Certainly the scheme outlined above needs to be used with insight and discretion; The
appreciation of such a delicate and complex thing as a piece of literature is not merely a matter of
going through and sifting out a number of constituent elements; in the way that an oil chemist may
analyze the contents of a specimen of crude oil. In the early stages of learning appreciation
however, it may well be worth while to examine a passage for anything worth saying under any of
the above headings, this will ensure that no important aspects have been over looked. We must
always remember however that literary appreciation is essentially an integrating, a constructive
process which involves analysis and synthesis, ‘buildings together. It also involves the art of
seeing things in the full accuracy of their detail, and yet at the same time seeing the details as part
of a far more important whole.
Summary
Literary appreciation requires a wholistic approach. It is hoped that the notes given in this chapter
will create a basis on which critical appreciation skills can be developed. This chapter therefore
forms the foundation of practical criticism. The next chapters further develop appreciation skills
and approaches alluded to in this chapter .Now particular attention is placed on the application of
these skills in the appreciation of various genres

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Chapter 3
APPRECIATION OF POETRY
Learning objectives
After studying this topic, you should be able to:
(a) Identify and discuss main poetic devices.
(b) Apply the appropriate steps and techniques in the analysis of poetry.
(c) Write a critical appreciation of any given poem.
(d) Compare and contrast any two given poems
.
Introduction
The study of poetry forms the basis of practical criticism. Many students and teachers gross over or
totally avoid the effective study of poetry at this level. This trend can be attributed to an
unconscious poetic phobia that exists within society. Teachers find it easier to teach novels or
plays rather than poetry. It should be noted that poetry should be approached in the same manner
as other genres that are commonly tackled.
Elements of poetry
Poetry is a well structured, skilfully engineered writing to communicate an idea. Poetry is usually
the expression of an instant thought or a reaction to a great stimulus. Hence most poetic critics will
make reference to the poetic muse, which basically refers to the urge or motivation to write.
Writings of poetic nature are very condensed and dwell on one particular element or idea.
Therefore with the above in mind, poetry can be defined as a condensed form of writing in which
a writer expresses one’s thoughts, experiences, values etc in verse. Note that a novelist has the
liberty to develop an idea over several chapters. Similarly a dramatist would express ideas over a
number of Acts. Poetry therefore is unique in that it mainly focuses on one idea, except the poetry
classified under the sub type known as epic poetry.
Any form of poetry has the following aspects being central to its development and appreciation:
a) The title
b) The structural unit (form)
c) The stanza
d) Stylistic features.
The main focus of the study and analysis of poetry is the appreciation of the writer‘s use of
language, style and techniques in presentation of the subject. As we do so, we get an insight into
the poet’s joys, fears, thoughts and other experiences that drove him or her to present that subject
in a manner and technique portrayed in that particular poem. The following section makes a
practical skills- based attempt to de-mystify the study of poetry and lay a foundation for adequate
appreciation of poetry for the purposes of meeting the demands of advanced level literature, as
well as for a lifelong enjoyment.

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Poetry analysis
Does one need to like a poem to do it well? No. Under examination conditions one will not have
enough time to fall in love with a poem and therefore what one needs is the analytical skill more
than the love for the poem. Enjoying the poem would be an added bonus, but not necessarily a
requirement. What is of paramount importance therefore is to be able to apply the basic poetry
appreciation skills on a given poem
The following section gives a general hint on the main aspects of a poem that constitute poetic
analysis. In other words, when we analyse a poem we should focus on how particular aspects are
presented and interwoven to create the final poem.
Subject matter:
Many writers have written poems on death or love and their works were published. What makes
one publish many poems or stories talking about death? It is because people have different
experiences with death or any subject one can think of. Remember that the art of writing deals with
the expression of ones thoughts and experiences in life. It is the experience here we are referring to
as subject matter. The subject matter is what the poem is about. For example Owen’s poem “Dulce
Est” is about war and its effects-tired, outworn and exhausted, soldiers returning home after war,
perhaps after suffering severe defeat.
Intention
The intention of the writer is the reason why he wrote the poem. What did the poet want to achieve
or what aspect of life did he aim to make the reader to be aware of. A good example is the poet
Wilfred Owen whose writings highlight the suffering of the ordinary people during the first world
war.
Diction
The poet’s choice of words gives the poem a particular pace or rhythmic pattern. Through the
diction poets presents to the reader a lot of detail ranging from the basic subject matter to the
presentation of varying mental images. The use of diction by the poets perhaps is one major quality
that distinguishes poetry from other genres. It has been noted also that writers of other genres tend
to be poetic in their approach when presenting a serious concern. Consider the famous balcony
scene in Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet or the famous soliloquy to be or not to be in the play
“Hamlet”. All the examples referred to above are found and taken from the drama genre.
Form
Form refers to the physical appearance of the poem as well as its structural attribute. Poets or
rather, the field of poetry in general, is not bound by particular rules as is the case with other
genres. Poetry involves the free uncontrolled expression of human thought and experience .Try to

24
picture a love poem presented in the shape of a heart or a poem about death presented in the shape
of a cross or coffin. Certainly before we read the poem the first thing that strikes us is the form of
the poem. Therefore poems come in different forms as writers strive to make the subject of their
poems understood by the generality of the readers. Thus a poem may come in one stanza of
numerous lines, or the lines can start in the middle .etc. Poetic form is infinite because writers or
poets always seek to come out with new methods to present their ideas.
Feeling
Feelings are basically our emotional reaction to a poem. Does the poem make one to be sad or
happy? As we interact with the subject matter of a given poem we get to move along the poet’s
footsteps and perhaps adopt his line of thinking when he wrote the poem. We can evaluate the
poet’s state of mind, also through the evaluation of the poetic structure of the poem .i.e. focusing
on the choice of words presentation of subject etc.
Tone
The tone of the poem is closely linked to the emotional development outlined above
Tone refers to the voice speaking or the attitude of the speaker to the subject. The tone is usually
described by adjectives. So it is up to the student to find an adjective that best describes the voice
of the speaker. The choice of words can be used as proof to show the nature of tone. In most
cases, diction is the central point of reference eg “sorrow” “misery”, “pain”, “death”, will point to
a sad tone while choice of “lovely”, “sweet”, ”romantic ”rosy”, will point to an endearing tone.
N.B The aspects outlined above build what we refer to as a compound poetic structure. This
simply means that different aspects can be divorced from the poem and analysed independently. In
doing so we are able to evaluate how that particular aspect helps in our overall appreciation of the
poem. For example, we can make an evaluation on the influence of Tone on the subject matter
without making reference to the form of the poem or the intention. At the end, however, it is
prudent that when we have broken down various components for the purposes of analysis that we
bring the components together showing how they, as a complete entity, helped in our appreciation
of a given poem. This approach will be demonstrated later on in this chapter.
Poetic devices
In the first chapter we made a general reference to the basic literal devices necessary for the study
and appreciation of advanced level literature. Poetry is a genre that is built around the effective
understanding of the application of poetic devices. This is mainly because poets want to have an
instant impact on the reader through their writing. We shall make an outline of the literary devices
that are mainly associated with the study of poetry. Please note that these devices are also used by
writers of other genres to achieve similar effects.
1. Alliteration
This is the repetition of the consonant sound especially at the beginning of words for example -
The bleak lives of black boys.

25
Effect: To create rythm and continuity of sound especially in song poems. (cf poems on
pages 5 and 32 of Every stone that turns by Thomas Sukutai Bvuma)
Exercise:
“Peter Pipper picked a pack of paper meal”
a) Identify the alliteration in the line above
b) What is the impact of alliteration here?
2. Assonance/consonance
Assonance refers to the repetition of vowel sounds within a particular line while consonance refers
to the repetition of consonant sounds within a particular line.
Effect: To create the vibrating sounds that give music its nature in poetic writings.
3. Allusion-
This is a brief reference to a person or event in history or previous literature, which the reader is
assumed to know. For example, there are a lot of references to Shakespearean literature in modern
literature. Also references to Cupid or Eros in classical and modern literature.
Effect: To evoke recollections and arouse feelings.
4. Symbolism
A symbol usually has two meanings-a literary meaning and a hidden meaning. (I use the word
meaning for want of a better term) For instance, a sword could be taken just as a sword for fighting
a war but it also could be a symbol for justice. Symbols are mostly universal. For instance, a dove
is usually a symbol of peace, white, a symbol of purity, green, nature etc.
Effect: To reinforce understanding and meanings by picture method. Intended meaning of

the poem is revealed using symbolisms.
5. Imagery
This is a term that refers to the use of language to represent objects, actions, feelings, thoughts,
ideas, state of mind and an extra-sensory experience? The word ‘imagery’ is derived from the
word ‘image’ which is a mental picture. Imagery is the use of language that creates mental pictures
in the reader. For example in the poem “Dulce et Decorum Est” images of disease and deformity
dominates.
Effect: To draw out pictures of a particular situation in the mind; The reality of the situation
in the poem is pictured. The meanings of words are seen in picture form to arouse feelings
and emotions.
6. Metaphor
This is a form of comparison which is not explicitly given but is implied. For example, one can
speak of being on fire. This is a comparison of what one is feeling to fire, but it does not literally
mean that the person is burning.

26
Effect: Has the effect of over -emphasis and exaggeration to appeal to sensory feeling. In
poem this serves as a push to emotions.
7. Conceit
A conceit can be expressed as a far fetched metaphor or comparison where two abstract things are
compared. This device is popular with the poets of the metaphysical period. At times the analogy
or metaphor is far-fetched as the author will compare two things that are totally dissimilar.
Effect: Far -fetched figuratives have the effect of reinforcing the picture image in the mind of
the reader or the audience who listening to a poem being resided or a drama on stage.
8. Simile
A simile on the other hand is a comparison of one thing to another .The comparison is explicit and
is shown by use of words “as “and “like”. In the poem below Owen uses the following:
“Like old beggars under sacks”
Effect: has the effect of reinforcing the fullness of sense
9. Enjambement
This refers to the running of a sentence into the next couplet or line without a pause at the end of
the line.
Effect: has the effect of giving a song-nature to poetic writings, as songs have no fullstops and
punctuations. If a poem is a song, then the enjambament technique must be present in the
verse.
10. Euphemism
This is substitution of a harsh or blunt word or phrase for a mild or less negative one e.g. the use of
‘pass away’ instead of die. Since euphemism is often shown to disguise something horrifying it
can be exploited by satirists through the use of irony or exaggeration.
Effect: Its effect is to exaggerate things and provoke feelings, utmost or minimal.
12. Personification
This refers to the art of giving human qualities to inanimate things (non-human things) “the tree
waved her arms across the sky”.
Effect:
Meant to bring out action and liveliness. All matters are reduced to the human world.

27
12. Apostrophe
This is a figure of speech when the speaker speaks directly to something non- human e g in John
Donne’s poem. In the Rising Sun the poet scolds the sun for interrupting his night time activities’
Busy old fool, unruly sun.

Why dost thou thus
Through windows and through curtains call on us.
Effect: Normally used to avoid direct attacks or confrontations with specific individuals, yet
the point is still clear that someone is being targeted. It is also meant to dilute emotions that
may come from provocation by words.
13. Rhyme
This feature is characteristic of poetry. These are words, usually at the end of lines of poetry, with
the same or similar sounds. In the olden days certain rhyme patterns for some forms of poetry were
prescribed, but with the advent of “free verse” such prescriptions have long been abandoned. There
are various types of rhyme patterns. We will discuss the common ones:
a) Shakespearean rhyme follows the pattern below:

ab ab cd ce ef ef gg.
The last couplet gg is made up of words with different sounds and content from the rest of the
poem. The last two lines are termed the final couplet which expresses some comment and gives
the sonnet finality.
b) Full rhyme occurs where two words identical in sound, because of their stressed vowels that are
followed by identical consonants, are used e.g. “strength” and “length”, “shut” and “cut”.
A mid rhyme also occurs at the end of lines and it is used to increase the speed of a poem. A word
in the middle of the line rhymes with one at the end of the line e.g.
 The ship drove fast, loud roared the blast.
The half rhyme is not a true rhyme – hence the name half rhyme. Normally the vowels won’t be
the same or sometimes a stressed syllable is rhymed with an unstressed syllable: e.g. “faces” and
“houses” or “tray” and “grey”. It is usually used to echo some words that will be important to the
subject of the poem
Effect: Has the effect of creating rythme, creating crescendo, harmony and rumble in the so-
called song poems. It captures the audience’s audio censory in theatrical recitations.
14. Couplet
This refers to two poetic lines usually rhyming; Andrew Marvel in his famous poem To His Coy
Mistress opens with the lines
Had we but world enough and time

This coyness, lady, was no crime
15. Heroic couplets

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These are consecutive lines that rhyme in pairs. Line one rhymes with line two and line three with
line four. It moves with a steady but undramatic pace.
There was a knight, ma most distinguished man

who from the day on which he first began
(Taken from Chaucer’s prologue to the Canterbury Tales).
Effect: To create rythm and ramble

16. Hyperbole
This is exaggeration for effect. In Macbeth Lady Macbeth cries, “Will all great Neptune’s ocean
wash this blood clean from my hand”.
Effect: has the effect of appealing to emotions in or at memorials. Feelings are

hypersensitised.
17. Paradox
This refers to something that may appear strange, but being very actual or true
Eg: Napoleon Bonarparte became emperor of France at the age of 18
Effect: To empower the reality sensory in the readers or the audience
18. Oxymoron:
This is the usage of a combination of words usually considered opposites: For example,
It was a “bitter-sweet pill” to swallow

My wife is such a “cruel angel”
Exercise: Explain the effect of the oxymoron in the two statements above.
Effect: Has the effect of provoking contrast -consciousness and to flex the mind of the reader
or the audience.
19. Pun
It is defined as a play on words that are identical in sound but with different meanings.
Shakespeare makes use of this technique well e.g. In Twelfth Night Sir Toby invites Sir
Andrew to “Accost” (i.e. to propose Love to) Maria but Sir Andrew thinks Maria’s surname is
ACCOST! You can imagine the effect this has!
20. Onomatopoeia: These are words whose sounds enact the sounds they describe for
example - A cat mews.
Exercise: Read the following lines from Tennyson aloud:
The moan of doves in immemorial elms

And the murmur of innumerable bees

29
Identify the onomatopoeia in the lines above?
Effect: To create vividness and accuracy of descriptions. A meaning is conceived in the

context of its derivative e.g. the “booming” isa understood in the context of heavy artillery of
war such as bazookas and mortar bombs.
N.B
The poetic devices outlined above should be mastered by learners. We made a highlight of the
most commonly used forms and certainly a lot more would fill another volume of this size. In this
regard further reading is highly encouraged through which students should expose themselves to
poetry from different periods and poets through that ,they will gain an unconscious love for
poetry for at the end of it all they will discover that poetry is not a monster after all, but a literary
genre that can be enjoyed by all.
GENERAL APPROACH TO POETRY ANALYSIS
The steps outlined below serve as a basic guideline and are very useful to students
engaging in poetic analysis for the first time .With time students will develop their own steps as
they get used to poetry analysis. Therefore, these steps serve as a general blueprint.
Basic steps in poetry analysis
A) Comprehension Level
1) Read the poem a number of times. This will make you get a general idea that is being expressed.
2) Answer the question: What is the poem about?
This gives you the general theme or subject matter of the poem. Note that poems generally have
one principal theme, eg love death, conflict etc,
B) Analysis level
3) Answer the question: How is the subject/Theme presented?
This forms the core of poetic appreciation as you get to explore the manner in which the theme is
developed .At the same time you will identify and comment on the poet’s use of poetic devices
and the general use of diction
C) Evaluation and Synthesis level
4) Comment on the poet’s use of style, tone, feeling etc
5) Comment on the overall form of the poem and relate it to the concerns raised therein

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POETRY ANALYSIS
INVOLVES
SUBJECT MATTER
DICTION &
&
FORM
INTENTION
FEELING &
TONE
N.B the analysis and appreciation of poetry is a holistic exercise. Many a time candidates would do
a structured approach in which each critical component is dealt with in isolation from the main
analysis .For example, giving a comment on poetic devices at the end of the poem without having
made reference to them during the critical points of the poem where they are used and their effect.
This weakens an argument, therefore we should note critical comments and observations at the
point where they have been raised.
The demonstration section below attempts to guide students through the basic steps of poetry
analysis that were discussed in the chapter. We state unequivocally that this demonstration only
serves as a blue print for poetry analysis. Raw memorising of the techniques and or approaches
used is highly discouraged.
Demonstration 1: “Piano and Drums” by Gabriel Okara”

When at break of a day at a riverside
I hear the jungle drums telegraphing
the mystic rhythm, urgent, raw
like bleeding flesh, speaking of
primal youth and the beginning,
I see the panther ready to pounce,
the leopard snarling about to leap
and the hunters crouch with spears poised;

31
And my blood ripples, turns torrent,
topples the years and at once I’m
in my mother’s lap are suckling;
at once I’m walking simple
paths with no innovation,
rugged, fashion with the naked
warmth of hurrying feet and groping hearts
in green leaves and wild flowers pulsing.
Then I hear a wailing piano
solo speaking of complex ways
in tear – furrowed concerto;
of far away lands
and new horizons with
coaxing diminuendo, counterpoint,
crescendo. But lost in the labyrinth
of its complexities, it ends in the middle
of a phrase at a dagger point
And I lost in the morning mist,
of an age at a riverside keep
wandering in the mystic rhythm
of jungle drums and the concerto.
Demonstration 2: Sonnet 116 by William Shakespeare [1564 -1616]
Sonnet 116
Let me not to the marriage of true minds
Admit impediments, love is not love
Which alters when it alteration finds

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Or bends with the remover to remove.
O no, it is an ever-fixed mark
That looks on tempest and is never shaken;
It is the star to every wandering bark
Whose worth’s unknown, although his height be taken
Love’s not Time’s fool, though the rosy lips and cheeks
Within his bending sickle’s compass come
Lover alters not with his brief hours and weeks
But bears it out even to the edge of doom
If this be error and upon me proved
I never writ, nor no man ever loved
Comparing two poems
In most cases, questions from this section are given in the form “compare and contrast” In some
cases, the question may be specific as to the areas to be covered. For example “Compare and
contrast the style and approach to the subject of the following poems”. So this directs the student
to the style and approach in the subject matter. One should try to read and understand both poems
before you tackle the question. It is important to note that it is not an advantage to be strong in one
poem and weak in the other. Both poems should be given equal treatment. Most students have a
habit of doing one poem and brushing over the other. We also draw your attention to the meanings
of comparing and contrasting. Again, students have a habit of doing one [either comparing or
contrasting but not both.
Compare – judging the similarity.
Contrast – judging the differences.
The approach
There is no separate approach to the critical appreciation of two poems. The standard approach we
discussed earlier in the chapter still applies. Compare and contrast does not mean that a student
writes a mini essay on poem and then another. As the key words suggests it entails an evaluation of
the two poems concurrently. Most scholars refer to this as the tennis ball approach or the call-
answer technique .in this instance we note a poetic aspect in poem A. Analyse it and compare or
contrast it with an aspect in poem B. It is important to note that compare and contrast is not only
picking out the similarities and differences in given poems only. Full poetry analysis skills should
be employed i.e giving judgement and evaluation on the use of various poetic elements. Remember

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that comparing and contrasting poems is still guided by the core demand of critical appreciation
or practical criticism. Thus an essay focusing on compare and contrast should not be any different
from an essay focusing on one particular poem
Demonstration1: Compare and contrast the following poems” Old Salt Kossabone
“by Whitman (1819-1892) and “Crossing the bar” by Alfred
Tennyson (1809-17892)
Old Salt Kossabone
Far back related on my mother’s side
Old Salt Kossabone, I’II tell you how he died
(Had been a sailor all his life – was nearly 90- lived with married
grandchild, Jenny
House on a hill with view of bay at hand and distant cape and
stretch to open sea)
The last of afternoon, the evening hours for many a year his regular
custom
In his great arm chair by the window seated,
(Sometimes, indeed through half the day)
Watching the coming, going of the vessels he mutters to himself
And now the close of all,
One struggling outbound brig, one day, baffled for long – cross-
tides and much wrong going.
At last at nightfall strikes the breeze aright, her whole luck veering,
And swiftly bending round the cape, the darkness proudly entering,
cleaving as he watches,
“she’s free –she’s on her destination” - these the last words when
Jenny came, he sat there dead,
Dutch Kossabone, Old Salt related on my mother’s side, far back.

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[b] Crossing the bar.
Sunset and evening star
And one clear call for me
And may there be no moaning of the bar
When I put out to sea,
But such a tide as moving seems asleep,
Too full for sound and foam
When that which drew from out the boundless deep
Turns again home.
Twilight and evening bell:
And after that the dark!
And may there be no sadness of farewell
When I embark,
For thou’ from our borne of time and place
The flood may bear me far
I hope to see my pilot face to face
When I have crossed the bar.
Demonstrated Answer
[1] The two poems, (a) Old Salt Kossabone and (b) Crossing the bar have the same subject matter,
that is death. Death as a subject is more explicit in poem (a) than in (b). Whitman speaks of Old
Salt Kossabone. He even spells it out graphically - “I’ tell you how he died”. On the other hand (b)
does not explicitly give the subject as death, but there are suggestions of death shown by the use of
“one clear call”. A clear call in literature can be proverbially a reference to death. Death can also
be represented by the “bar” that the sailor has to cross.
(Note that the two poems’ presentation of subject has been effectively death with within a single
paragraph)
The use of the sea as an image associated with death is found in both i.e. sailing out to the sea.
In poem (a) the old man watches the ship sail which is a symbol of his journey in life.
Similarly the persona in (b) embarks on as journey by sea – a symbol of his journey towards death.
What contrasts the points given here is that the old man watches the ship as it sails while in (b) the
persona actually embarks on the journey so it is a personal experience. The poem in (a) is told in

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the third person which makes it less personal and less intimate than poem (b) where there is actual
involvement of the persona.
In (a) the old man seems to have had difficulties in his life. This is suggested by the disturbances
and difficulties that the ships experience shown by, “one struggling outbound brig,” “cross tides’
and “much wrong”. In contrast (b) seems to have calm and a tranquil life as the “tide seems
asleep/too full for sound and foam/ No sadness”. This seems to paint death as peaceful. A
combination of the message of the two poems gives the idea that having suffered from a
tempestuous life one enters a peaceful world of death suggested by poem (b) which is
characterised by serenity as the persona accepts the journey peacefully with a calm, tranquil and
untroubled mind.
In both poems there are images of darkness e.g. poem (a) refers to “nightfall”, “darkness” and
“Evening of the last noon”. All this is suggestive of the setting of the sun, symbolising the end of
life. Images of darkness are therefore meant to show an end to life. Similarly poem (b) refers to
after the “death” and “the evening bell”. The “dark” and “evening” are suggestive of the night.
These bring in the reader’s mind to an end of the day, which is a symbol of end of life as the
persona responds to the “evening bell”.
In the poem Old Salt Kossabone there is a sense of finality brought about by death. The speaker in
this poem refers to “close of all” and “destination”. These two carry with them a sense of finality
suggesting that with death everything comes to an end. Even the announcement of the death of Old
Kossabone has a sense of finality as the narrator says.
When Jebby came he sat there dead.
In this sense, death is the end, nothing is suggested after. In contrast, the poem
Crossing the Bar seems to look/point beyond death by taking hope for a future after crossing the
bar as the persona says.
I hope to see my pilot face to face
When I have crossed the bar.
There is hope for a new life. It is this hope which is not given in poem (a) through this, the poet is
saying death is an end. Poem (a) is written in one stanza with long lines. The stanza is unbroken
suggesting a sense of urgency. The narrator wants to convey the message once and for all without
any break. The narrative style employed also enables the persona to give biographic information of
the dead man. We learn that he is from the narrator’s mother’s side, had been a sailor, and lived
with a grandchild.
While (a) is in one unbroken stanza (b) is divided into four stanzas almost of equal lines each with
four lines. This partnered movement brings out orderliness of the thoughts of the persona which is
symbolic of the orderly manner of the soul of the persona. This directly contrasts with the chaotic

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flow of thoughts in poem (a) shown by mix up of biographic information and the message of
death. This chaotic flow is also a reminder of the chaotic life of Old salt Kossabone.
(Note that the writer has made an assessment of the structural aspects of the two poems within
the same paragraph. This creates a sense of unity and cohesion within the essay enabling him to
stick to the demand of the question)
However another critic might not feel that the poem (a) is chaotic. Note that poem (a) has been
written in a different style altogether. It is colloquial. This obviously says a lot about the subject.
Dutch Kossabone is just a simple ordinary man and the style of the poem reflects this. It would
actually have been an incongruence of style if an old rugged sailor like Dutch Kossabone had been
written in formal verse with a rhyme scheme.
The tone of both poems is calm/content and composed. In (a) composure is suggested by words
that refer to the ship - “she is free”, - “she is on her destination” and the way how Kossabone
accepts his death. It is calm; he mutters to himself then suddenly comes to an end. “He set there
dead” suggests calmness with which Kossabone accepted his death. Composure in (b) is given
through the use of tranquillity of the sea. The “tide seems to be asleep” and “it is too full for sound
and foam”. The persona has given in willingly in a composed manner to the flood. Through both
poems are calm and contained/composed, I think poem (b) is more calm and composed than (a).
NB; Of importance to students here is the fact that the writer identified the poems as poem (a) and
poem (b).This avoids the continuous repetition of the titles which may be time consuming.
Therefore at the start of an essay the student should make reference to the actual title and place the
identification tag in brackets to guide the reader. Also students must make sure they use
comparative language. This is a demonstration and a lot of essential elements we discussed earlier
in the chapter were not fully exhausted in the sample analysis given above. Students are strongly
encouraged to exhaustively compare and contrast each and every aspect of the poems which they
consider significant. These aspects should be explained in the light of both poems.
Demonstration 2
Compare and contrast the following poems by Gerard Manley Hopkins, Spring and Fall (to a
young child) and Spring, paying particular attention to tone and form
Spring and Fall (to a young child)
Margaret, are you grieving
Over Golden grove unleaving
Leaves, like the things of man, you
With your fresh thoughts care fro, can you?
Ah! As the heart grows older
It ill come to such sights colder

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By and by, nor spare a sigh
Though worlds of manwood leaf meal lie;
And yet you will weep and know why
Now no matter, child, the name
Sorrows springs are the same
Nor mouth had, nor mind, expressed
What heart heard of, ghost guessed:
It is the blight man was born fro,
It is Margaret you mourn for
Spring
Nothing is so beautiful as spring-
When weeds, in wheels, shoot long and lovely and lush;
Thrush’s eggs look little low heavens, and thrush
Through the echoing timber doe so rinse and wring
The ear, it strikes like lightning to hear him sing;
The glassy pear tree leaves and blooms, they brush
The descending blue; that blue is all in a rush
With richness; the racing lambs too have fair their fling.
What is all this juice and all this joy?
A strain of the earth’s sweet being in the beginning
I Eden garden- Have get, before it cloy
Before it cloud, Christ, Lord and sour with sinning
Innocent mind and Mayday in girl and boy
Most, O maids child, thy choice and worthy the winning.
Demonstrated answer
The poem “Spring and Fall “is an advice to a child about the experiences of life. The child is
concerned about the fall of leaves as shown by the child’s intense feelings. The fall of leaves can
be regarded as metaphorical for the transience of people’s lives. On the other hand the poem

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“Spring” is about the beauty of spring which from a metaphorical level presents childhood as the
best time in one’s life
The voice in “ Spring and Fall “ is a voice of experience giving advice to a young child that as he
grows old will meet more realistic challenges and problems that will make him weep or cry . In
contrast the voice in “Spring” is calmly expressing the beauty of the spring.
On a deeper level, the poem “Spring and Fall” seem to be suggestive of death. The word “fall”
maybe regarded as metaphorical, combined with “blight” and mourns – the words carry an element
of death. The poet says
It is the blight man was born for
It is Margaret you mourn for
The words suggest that mankind mourn for each other. The poem “Spring” seem to hint at the fall
as the poet refers to the “Eden garden”, “sour with sinning” the two statements are suggestive of
fall in the garden of Eden. This is a biblical allusion which is meant as an encouragement for
people to grab life and enjoys it before it is bad.
The tone of the poem “Spring and Fall” is sympathetic. The poet sympathizes with the child as the
child grieves and mourns. It is the sympathy for the child that leads to the words
Margaret, are you grieving
Over Goldengrove unveiling?
Though sympathetic, the tone is also cautionary and advisory. The poet cautions and advises the
child on life’s experiences. Caution is sounded in the words
Ah, as the heart grows older
It will come to such sights colder
The caution and advice is meant to tone down the intense feelings of the child from the fall of
leaves. The sympathetic tone helps the reader to sympathize with the child for what he is going
through. While the poem “Spring and Fall” is cautionary and advisory, the poem “Spring” is
characterized by admiration. The tone is of admiration, the persona admires the beauty of spring
and youth or childhood .The poem opens with a statement expressing admiration.
Nothing is so beautiful as spring
The admiration is also shown by the diction used. The poet uses words such as
“lovely”,”lush”,”richness”,”joy”,”juice”,”sweet”,”innocent”,”maid” as admiration of the positive
qualities associated with spring and childhood. The poem is filled with praise for the spring
especially the beauty that nature shows in spring for example the weeds that are lovely and lush,
the racing lambs and earth sweetness.

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The praise helps the reader to appreciate the beauty of spring.
Just like in the first poem, the poet also picks an advisory note when he says
Have, get, before, it cloy
Before it cloud, Christ, lord and sour
With sinning
This is an advice for the young to enjoy childhood or youthfulness before sin takes its toll.
The poem “Spring and Fall” is written in one continuous and unified stanza which allows
continuous flow of advice to the child and shows unity in thought. The advice is given
continuously which also allows the reader to be carried along in thought. In contrast the second
poem “ Spring” is a sonnet which is characterised by the division or breach of the flow of thought
to bring new ideas though related to the points under discussion. The lush growth of spring is
described in the first eight lines. Note how all what is carried in these lines is related to the weeds,
timber, pear tree, the blooms, racing lambs-all beauty of the spring. The eight lines can be seen as
octave. In the last six lines a new idea of the innocence of the Garden of Eden and of children
before they are “soured with sinning”. These last six lines can be termed the sestet. They allow the
poet to introduce new ideas linking them to the one under discussion while the first poem employs
a regular rhyme scheme which helps to create unity and uniformity which are conducive for the
continuous flow of thoughts. The unity is shown in the following lines
Ah! As the heart grows older
It will comes to such sights colder
And
Now no matter, child, the name
Sorrows springs are the same
Inside lines and others in the poem bring about the unity in the ideas. On the other hand the second
poem “Spring” uses rhyming couplets for example
When weeds, in wheels , shoot long and lovely and Lush
Thrush’s eggs look little low heavens, and thrush
The rhyming couplets help to create unity in the poem and to introduce alternate ideas of beauty of
the spring and the spoiling of the beauty and the joy suggested by the illusion to Garden of Eden.

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NB; If we are to examine closely the two demonstrations above, we notice that the writer has used
a slightly different approach in the second demonstration (2).The major variance was in the
demand of the question, the first demonstration was an open appraisal of the two poems and the
second demonstration is guided by the demand of the question, that is, focus on the form and tone
of the two poems. It should be noted that the second demonstration focused on the tone and form
but did not also leave out the assessment of all the other critical elements of the poems.
Our logical conclusion therefore will be to unequivocally state that practical appreciation of
poetry is uniform across the board regardless of the fact that one may appreciate a single poem to
be asked to compare and contrast given poems. Our main objective is to evaluate the poets’ use of
language, personal experience, poetic structure etc to bring out their intended meaning. We hope
that this section has demystified the study and appreciation of poetry at advanced level literature in
English in particular and everyday life in general.
Examination type questions
1) Compare and contrast the following two poems “Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day? by
William Shakespeare (1564-1616) and ““ Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day?” by Howard
Moss (1922-1987) paying particular attention to tone and form.
William Shakespeare
Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day?
Shall I compare with thee to a summer’s day?
Thou art more lovely and more temperate
Rough winds do shake then darling buds of May
And summer’s lease hath all too short a date
Sometimes too hot the eye of heaven shines
And often is his gold complexion dimmed;
And every fair from fair sometimes declines,
By chance, or nature’s changing course untrimmed.
But thy eternal summer shall not fade,
Nor lose possession of that fair thou ow’st;
Nor shall death brag thou wand’rest in his shade,
When in eternal lines to time thou grow’st.
So long as men can breathe or eyes can see,
So long lives this and this gives life to thee.
Howard Moss
Shall I compare thee to a Summer’s Day?
Who says you’re like one of the dog days?
You’re nicer. And better.
Even in May, the weather can be gray,
And a summer sub-let doesn’t last forever.
Sometimes the sun’s too hot;
Sometimes it is not.
Who can stay young forever?
People break their necks or just drop dead!
But you? Never!

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If there’s just one condensed reader left

Who can figure out the abridged alphabet,
After you’re dead and gone,
In this poem you’ll live on!.
[2] Write a critical appreciation of the poem, Winter Song (1755) by Elizabeth Tollet. Pay
particular attention to the treatment of subject matter and diction.
Winter Song
Ask me no more, my truth to prove,
What I would suffer for my love.
With thee I would in exile go;
To regions of eternal snow;
O’er floods by solid ice confined
Through forest bare with northern wind;
While all round my eyes I cast,
Where all is wild and all is waste
If there the timorous stag you chase,
Or rouse to fight a fiercer race;
Undaunted I thy arms would bear,
And give thy hand to the hunters spear;
When the low sun withdraws his light
And menaces on half – year’s night,
The conscious moon and stars above;
Shall guide me with my wandering love;
Beneath the mountain’s hollow brow;
Or in it’s rocky cells below;
Thy rural feast I would provide;
Nor envy palaces their pride;
The softness moss should dress thy bed,
With savage spoils about thee spread:
While faithfully love the watch should keep;
To banish danger from thy sleep.
3 Write a critical appreciation of the following poem thought on June 26 by Mazisi Kunene
paying attention to the effectiveness of the poet’s poetic devices in bringing out his thoughts and
feelings.
Thought on June 26
Was I wrong when I thought
All shall be avenged?
Was I wrong when I thought
The rope of iron holding the neck of young bulls
Shall be avenged?
Was I wrong
When I thought the orphans of sulphur
Shall rise from the ocean?
Was I depraved when I thought there need not be love,
There need not be forgiveness, there need not be progress,
There need not be goodness on the earth,

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There need not be towns of skeletons,

Sending messages of elephants to the moon?
Was I wrong to laugh asphyxiated ecstasy
When the sea rose like quicklime
When the ashes on ashes were blown by the wind
When the infant sword was left alone on the hill top?
Was I wrong to erect monuments of blood?
Was I wrong to avenge the pillage of Caesar?
Was I wrong to ignite the earth
And dance above the stars
Watching Europe burn with its civilization of fire,
Watching America disintegrate with its gods of steel,
Watching the persecutors of mankind turn into dust
4) Compare and contrast the following poems Ah, Are You Digging On My Grave? By Thomas
Hardy (1840-1928) and Is My Team Ploughing? By A.E Housman (1859-1936) paying particular
attention to tone and making clear to what extent your reading of one clarifies your understanding
of the other.
“Ah, are you digging on my grave?

“Ah are you digging on my grave
My loved one? – planting rue?”
No yesterday he went to wed
One of the brightest wealth has bred
“It cannot hurt her now,” he said
“That I should not be true”.
“Then who is digging my grave?

My nearest dearest kin?”
“Ah no they sit and think what use?
What good will flowers produce?”
“No tendency of her mound can loose
Her spirit from Death’s gin”
“But some one digs upon my grave
My enemy? – prodding sly
“Nay when she heard you had passed the Gate
That shuts all flesh soon or later
She thought you no more worth her hate
And cares nor where you lie.
Then who is digging my grave
Say – since I have not guessed.
“O it is I, my mistress dear
Your little dog, who still leaves near

And much I hope my movements here
Have not disturbed your rest.”

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Ah yes! You dig upon my grave …………….

Why flashed it not on me
That one true heart was left behind!
What feeling do we ever find
To equal among human kind
A dog’s fidelity!
Mistress, I dug upon your grave
To bury a bone, in case
I should be hungry near this spot
When passing on my daily trot
I am sorry, but I quite forgot
It was your resting place
“Is my team ploughing”
“Is my team ploughing,
That I was used to drive
And hear the harness jingle
When I was man alive?”
Aye, the horses trample
The harness jingles now

No change though you lie under
The land you used to plough
“Is football is playing
Along the river shore,
With lads to chase the leather
Now I stand up no more?”
Aye, the ball is flying
The lads play heart and soul
The goal stands up, the keeper
Stands up to keep the goal
“Is my girl happy
That I thought hard to leave

And was she tired of weeping
As she lies down at eve?”
Your girl is well contented
Aye, she lies down lightly
She lies not down to weep
Be still my lad and sleep
“Is my friend hearty
Now I am thin and pine
And has he found to sleep in
A better bed than mine?”
“Yes lad I lie easy
I lie as lads would choose

I cheer a dead man’s sweetheart
Never ask me whose.”
5) Write a critical appraisal of the following poem “Remembrance “ by Emily Bronte paying
particular attention to language and tone.

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REMEMBRANCE
Cold in the earth- and the deep snow piled above thee,
Far, far, removed, cold in the dreary grave!
Have I forgot, my only Love, to love thee,
Severed at last by Time’s all-severing wave?
Now, when alone, do my thoughts no longer hover

Over the mountains, on that northern shore,
Resting their wings where heath and fern- leaves cover
That noble heart forever, ever more?
Cold in the earth, and fifteen wild Decembers

From those brown hills have melted into spring:
Faithful, indeed, is the spirit that remembers
After such years of change and suffering;
Sweet Love of youth, forgive, if I forgot thee,

While the world’s tide is bearing me along;
Other desires and other hopes beset me,
Hopes which obscure, but cannot do thee wrong;
No later light has lightened up my heaven,

No second morn has ever shone for me;
All my life’s bliss from thy dear life was given,
All my life’s bliss is in the grave with thee.
But, when the days of golden dreams had perished,

And even Despair was powerless to destroy;
Then did I learn how existence could be cherished,
Strengthened, and fed without the aid of joy.
Then did I check the tears of useless passion-

Warned my young soul from yearning after thine;
Sternly denied its burning wish to hasten
Down to that tomb already more than mine.
And, even yet, I dare not let it languish,

Dare not indulge in memory’s rapturous pain;
Once drinking deep of that divinest anguish,
How could I seek the empty world again?
6)Write a critical appreciation of the poem Laura Sleeping by Cotton paying particular attention
to imagery and tone.
LAURA SLEEPING
Winds whisper gently whilst she sleeps,

And fan her with your cooling wings;
Whilst she her drops of Beauty weeps,
From pure, and yet unrivall’d Springs.

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Glide over Beauties Field her Face,

To kiss her Lip, and Cheek be bold,
But with a calm, and stealing pace;
Neither too rude; nor yet too cold.
Play in her beams, and crisp her Hair,

With such a gale, as wings soft Love
And with so sweet, so rich an Air,
As breaths from the Arabian Grove.
A Breath as hust’t as Lovers sigh;

Or that unfolds the Morning door:
Sweet, as the Winds, that gently fly,
To sweep the Springs enamell’d Floor
Murmur soft Music to her Dreams.

That pure, and unpolluted run,
Like to the new-born Christal Streams,
Under the bright enamour’d Sun
But when she waking shall display

Her light, retire within your bar,
Her Breath is life, her Eyes are day
And all Mankind her Creatures are.
7)Write a critical appreciation of the following poem Foruwa (Anon) focussing on language and
form.
Foruwa
Shall we say
Shall we put it this way
Shall we say that the maid of Kyrefaso, Foruwa daughter of the
Queen Mother, was a young deer, graceful in limb? Such was she,
With head held high, eyes soft and wide with wonder. And she was
Light of foot, light in all her moving.
Stepping springily along the water path like a deer that had
Strayed from the thicket, springily stepping along the water path,
She was a picture to give the eye a feast. And nobody passed her by
But turned to look at her again.
Those of her village said that her voice in speech was like the

46
Murmur of a river flowing beneath shadows of bamboo
Leaves. They said her smile would sometimes blossom like a lily on
Her lips and sometimes rise like sunrise.
The butterflies do not fly away from the flowers, they draw near.
Foruwa was the flower of her village.
So shall we say,
Shall we put it this way, that all the village butterflies, the men,
tried to draw near her at every turn, crossed and crossed her path?
Men said of her, “she shall be my wife, and mine, and mine, and
Mine.”
But suns rose and set, moons silvered and died and as the days
Passed Foruwa grew more love some yet she became no one’s wife.
She smiled at the butterflies and waved her hand lightly to greet
Them as she went swiftly about her daily work;
‘Morning, Kweku
Morning, Kwesi
Morning, Kodwo’
But that was all
And so they said, even while their hearts thumped for her:
‘Proud!
Foruwa is proud … and very strange.’
And so the men when they gathered would say:
‘There goes a strange girl. She is not just stiff–in–the-neck
proud, not just breast-stuck-out-I am-the-only-girl-in-
the village proud. What kind of pride is hers?
The end of the year came round again, bringing the season of
Festivals. For the gathering-in of corn, yams and cocoa there were
Harvest celebrations. There were bride-meetings too. And it came to
The time when the Asafo companies should hold their festival. The village was full of manly
sounds, loud musketry and swelling choruses.

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Chapter 4
APPRECIATION OF PROSE
Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter carefully, you should be able to:
(a) Define what appreciation of prose entails.
(b) Outline the essential elements necessary for effective appreciation of prose.
(c) Apply the prescribed techniques in the appreciation of prose
(d) Write a critical appreciation of a passage, paying particular attention to the prescribed
features.
(e) Compare and contrast given passages, paying particular attention to the prescribed features.
Introduction
The prose genre is perhaps the most common and widely read form of literature in the world to an
extent that each day of our lives we interact with various forms of prose in our different
environments. However, have we ever given a thought to the reason why writers write? The
answer is a great NO, because we simply read for enjoyment. Appreciation of prose therefore deals
with identifying the need for writers to take pen to paper and critically focus on the nature of their
works not only as a means of personal enjoyment or daily routine but an evaluation of their
techniques, thoughts, feelings and artistic abilities that differentiates them from other writers
Elements of prose
Prose writings can be defined as continuous writing to communicate an idea. Prose forms the basis
of written communication in everyday life. It can therefore be defined as the simplest or most
convenient way through which humanity has expressed different aspects of their experiences to
each other .In its simplest form it involves the writing down of ideas on a piece of paper to
communicate or store particular records .However, seasoned writers take a lot of time thinking of
how to put their ideas together so as to make their writings enjoyable to their intended audience .In
doing so they develop a particular style of writing which they can call their own.
Any form of prose has the following aspects being key to its development and appreciation
a) The paragraph unit
b) The sentence type
c) The narrative style
d) Structure

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These aspects will be examined in detail later on in the chapter
PROSE FORM
Prose form refers to how a piece of writing is presented. Writers write for different audiences and
as such some would tell stories, others give descriptions etc. The following outline attempts to
shed more light on the various forms of prose students will encounter in their studies.
The narrative
This refers to any kind of prose writing which seeks to tell a story or to develop a plot. It uses a
point of view: either the first person narrator – “I”, the third person narrator – “they/ he/ she” or the
stream of consciousness. It seeks to provide the reader with as much information as possible so
that the characters and situations in the story are sensible. Students will discover that most
novelists prefer the narrative form of writing in their novels. As such most of the passages used for
demonstrations in the study pack are narrative in nature.
The descriptive
This refers to any form of prose that seeks to describe or point a picture using words. It offers
descriptions of character, situations etc. The descriptive is evocative and creates in the readers’
mind, paints a clear picture of the idea the writer is putting across. At its best it can be poetic due
to a lot of figurative language that writers use.
The discursive
This refers to argumentative or factual form of prose normally found in treatise (essays).The
language is generally technical and formal and subject to a specified audience e.g a financial
report. As a result, very little figurative language can be used if ever.
The contemplative
This is a sub form of the discursive we discussed above. However the argument this time brings in
personal feelings, where the writer muses over possible perilous actions that he may take. It is
emotional and evocative. Most newspaper editorials (comment section) falls within this form
The philosophic
This is similar to discursive and contemplative in terms of being argumentative and factual. The
main difference lies in the level of contemplation. Whilst in contemplative the writer tends to
personalise his experience of the world in philosophic writing he tends to view man’s actions as
damaging the natural environment. The writer tends to invite the reader to love nature. There are
romantic and pastoralist tendencies.

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The didactic
This is prose which seeks to change the reader’s way of thinking or behaviour. It is directive and
persuasive like political speeches. At its best it is moving but at its worst it is propagandistic, thus
dangerous. A good example are the motivational speeches.
For example - Charles Dickens Slavery from the book American Notes.
The satiric
It also, like the didactic, seeks to change the reader’s way of thinking or his behaviour. It mocks
and ridicules through the use of irony, sarcasm or caricature certain vices in some people. The
satiric form corrects through laughter – the reader is meant to laugh at certain ludicrous and
ridiculous behaviour.
Subject matter:
We talked about subject/ main theme/ topic earlier on and stressed the fact that at this level we are
talking about major issues of the story or poem. The subject matter is the material that is in the
topic/ subject/ theme. Have you ever noticed that there are many writers who have written about
death or love and their works were published? What makes one publish many poems or stories that
make reference to death? It is because people have different experiences with death or anything
you can think about. It is the experience here we are referring to as subject matter. In the case of
critical appreciation the given passage would have one or two central ideas which are explored
there: thus the knowledge of the subject matter gives us a sound foundation to carryout
appreciation for we will seek to find out why and how the writer chose to present the subject in
that particular manner.
Diction:
Diction is the writer’s choice of words. Every writer when writing has a variety of words of a
situation he might want to describe. Naturally from the variety he chooses the most effective. So,
but how can this be important? Consider the following task:
You get into a shop and you want to buy a light bulb. There is an assortment of these bulbs on the
shelf, one type is called Spark, the second glow and the third glitter
a) Which bulb would you choose if you were to consider the light intensity from each bulb as
explained by their names and their durability?
b) Give reasons why you do not choose the other ones.
Diction or word choice can be broken down into the following:
a) Denotative meaning: this is the dictionary meaning of a word when it is out of context. Some
people would like to refer to it as the surface meaning or the general meaning.
b) Connotative meaning: it is the meaning of the word as used within a particular context

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Words gather more meaning when used collectively. Naturally we associate words with certain
things, for instance, a cannon crashes, a door bangs during a windy day and so on. So writers are
aware, just like us, of the meaning of words. Do they evoke feeling in the reader. Words with
heavy sounds like bang, boom, below, guttural etc. are referred to as masculine diction and those
with soft sounds like soft, flow, shell etc. are referred to as feminine but there is nothing male or
female about words though! It is important when dealing with diction to note what type of words
the author would be using - he might use a lot of adverbs, adjectives, comparatives and/ or
superlatives. Also Diction used could be old fashioned, archaic. It could be modern day or
specialist diction. Specialist diction is diction that is drawn from a certain field, for example
“scarlettina”, “rubella”, “influenza”, “polio” are terms drawn from the medical field, a student
should explain the impact of such diction on the general development of the passage..
Feeling
This is the relationship between the writer and his subject. You need to ask yourself – what is the
writer’s feeling towards his subject? This is derived from the writer use of diction as well as
presentation of his work. Our own feelings towards the writer are also very significant in the
analysis of a prose passage
Tone
This refers to the voice speaking or the attitude of the speaker towards a particular subject. The
tone is usually described by adjectives, so it is up to the student to find an adjective that best
describes the voice of the speaker. The tone may be “gentle,” “tender”, “comical”, “satirical”,
”bitter”, ”solemn”, sad”, happy” etc.
Narrative styles
This refers to the perspective of the writer as he writes. For instance a writer may choose to be the
main voice in the passage or he can be a spectator. Compare a soccer player giving a match
commentary of a match he is involved in and a match commentator watching from the terraces. As
such the soccer player will exhibit a lot of emotional and direct involvement than the match
commentator. The notes given below give us a hint on the main narrative styles used by writers.
a) The First Person Narrative
This is the individual “I” voice that the author uses to tell the story. It is effective in that the author
or narrator becomes part and parcel of the action in the story thus we do not doubt the authenticity
of the experience the persona or narrator went through. We are also able to get an emotional
connection with the writer.
b) The Third Person Narrative
The third person is a detached voice, i.e. the voice that is outside the action of the story. It uses
“they”, “he”, “she”. It is a God like voice or a know all voice that guides and controls your eyes
choosing what to see and hear for you. It is also referred to as the omniscient narrator i.e. seen
everywhere at the same time. This narrator can tell us about what is happening in Bulawayo and

51
move straight away to talk about what is taking place in Mutare and Harare. It is a ubiquitous voice
which has a tendency of eaves – dropping on people and confiding with the reader.
c) The Stream of Consciousness
This is the modern style of writing. It uses a series of first persons and delves into the mental
faculties of individuals. It’s like soliloquy or interior monologue. Your teacher gives you
homework: A Journey to Harare. Imagine seating on the bus from Renkini Bus Terminus bound to
Harare. Are you going to write about the things you see, hear and eat only? No – a clever writer
also includes his feelings and thoughts. You find that there are many conversations, questions,
celebrations and miseries in our minds. The modern writer is saying the human mind is not linear
but very complex and so he is trying to incorporate these complexities, like thinking about many
things at the same time, in his writing. Have you ever noticed that even when your teacher is
teaching, your mind might be listening to what he is saying and writing notes, but at the same time,
the same mind might be thinking about home or a friend you are going to meet after school! Such
is the complexity we are talking about. And the writer tries to capture such complexes.
Literal devices
This section takes us back to the analysis of literal devices that we discussed in the earlier chapters.
We now take particular focus on those devices that are commonly associated with prose. We
should take note of the fact that poetic devices can also be used by prose writers. therefore we are
encouraged to revist the poetic devices section in the poetry chapter.
1. Personification
This can be explained as giving human qualities to inanimate things (non-human things)
e.g“the tree waved her arms across the sky”.
2. Flashback
This is a method which allows the writer to present events that happened before the time of
the current narration. It is useful in filling in the reader about a character or place or about
the background to a conflict.
3. Irony
This is a mode of expression through words or events conveying a reality different from
and usually opposite to appearance or expectation. The reader is usually given additional
information which one or some or all fictional characters lack. This, therefore, makes the
character’s words have a meaning to the reader that is not perceived by the character. Irony
can be dramatic irony or situational irony. Irony is a common and efficient technique
used by writers as an instrument of telling the truth. It is important for a student to have the
ability to detect irony. Failure to do so could be disastrous. Writers actually have the habit
of tipping off the readers through style, tone, and use of clear exaggeration where the irony
lies.
4. Symbolism

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A symbol usually has two meanings-a literal meaning and a hidden meaning. Symbols are
generally universally accepted objects that are associated with particular events or experiences. For
instance, a dove is usually a symbol of peace, white a symbol of purity. Red -love green for nature
etc .A sword could be taken as weapon or it also could be a symbol for justice. Note the two
meanings in the example below
He lived by the sword and he died by the sword
Note the contextual meaning of the word sword in the sentence above. The first sword refers to
brutality and love for war and killings. The second sword represents the end of that tyranny
through the sword that is in other words justice.
Exercise:
Identify the main symbols or symbolisms that we use in our everyday life yet we seem not to
notice.
5 Allegories:
This is a narrative whose characters or settings usually represent some moral qualities? It operates
on two level of meaning, that is:
a) The literal (story) levels which is the surface meaning of a story usually epic accomplishment
and
b) The moral (allegorical) levels which is usually a religious, political or social critique of life .A
good example can be taken from the Christian bible: the parable of the sower. The sower is the
preacher, the seed is the gospel and the various places where the seed falls are the recipients of the
good news.
6. Allusion:
This refers to a brief reference to a person or event in history, another field or previous literature,
which the reader is assumed to know. For example, there are a lot of references to Shakespearean
literature in modern literature and also references to Cupid or Eros in classical and modern
literature. Thus the allusion can be historical, biblical, geographical etc. The most important aspect
is for one to be aware to the reference that is being made because failure to do so will result in an
inability to recognise the presence and evaluate the effect of a particular allusion.
7. Ambivalence
It refers to ambiguity in the meanings of the words used. Ambivalence is the writer’s experiences
which exist when he responds to the same stimulus, either a person or a situation in several
different ways. For example, the effect of the fire symbol in Charlotte Bronte’s Jane Eyre. It
represents the absence and denial of warmth by Aunt Reed to Jane at Gateshead, it emphasizes the
repulsion and torment at Lowood orphanage, and the burning sexual desire in Mr. Rochester at
Thornfield e.t.c.

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GENERAL LINGUISTIC GUIDELINES
In addition to the literary devices we have discussed above, prose analysis is associated with the
following linguistic considerations which will aid us in critical appreciation of prose genres.
1. Disciplined paragraphic unit structure:
This refers to a passage or paragraph that is well developed into a coherent whole. It maintains
unity of purpose, point of view or mood unlocking the meanings/ significance of the passage. It
further reinforces/ strengthens the impression thereby adding meaning to the passage.
NB: A paragraph can be haphazard with no definite structure or sentence cohesion.it will show us
lack of unity amongst the characters confusion etc.
2. Long sentences
The long sentence is used to establish the mood of the story as well as give necessary detail.lt may
convey a slow sad solemn procession and can be slowed down to build up suspense. They also
reveal the writer’s thoughts towards a particular event. It is important to note that long sentences
are generally used in narrations to build up the setting as well as creating the appropriate mood, for
the development of the plot can move much more slowly than shorter ones, to bring out genuine
effects.
3. Short Sentences
The short sentence is used to show angry action or mood of desolation. It also builds up suspense
quickly as swell as quickening the action in the passage.
4. Word choice
These convey and suggest meaning effectively. They are important in their sound, association and
meaning in that they harmonise and reinforce the effect of the passage thereby unlocking the
intended meaning of the passage. If unexpected they have a startling effect. They also provide an
emotional atmosphere as their suitability harmonizes with or reinforce the effect. Adjectives can
appeal swiftly and commandingly to our imagination, and in a flash we begin to see pictures
(images).
5. Plain Language:
Simple language might suggest rationality of argument, honest and exactness and, truthfulness
without fireworks, flamboyance, just like the experience it communicates. The simplicity of
language moves the story faster and no idea is being pushed in an unwelcome way. It also used for
stimulating a viewpoint that is fresh and, original.
6. Rhetorical questions

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These generally create a conversational tone or thoughtful tone. They question the readers on
critical issues of society
7. Dialogue
This is used to create a dramatic force and immediacy, making prose move more dramatic, vivid
and immediate Mnemonic devices have a memorable quality and aid meaning
8. Dramatic Punctuation
For example! Command, surprise, anger – either quicken the pace or a broken staccato impact.
Ellipses … may indicate that another thought has been introduced, emphasizes a point. The symbol
“inverted commas may indicate passage of time and for dramatic effect, adding an explanation or
description to the sentence.: a full or semi colon is used an explanation is to follow, It also
separates two sentences or ideas where the second explains the first, it also can create sense of
expectation – something dramatic is to follow
NB. It should be noted that comprehension analysis involves the ability to evaluate a lot of
linguistic aspects used by the writer and qualifying them in the context of how they have been used
in the passage. The notes given above therefore are not exhaustive but give a general guidelines.
More examples will follow in the practical demonstration later on in the chapter
Prose appreciation: The general approach
The appreciation of prose follows the general set guidelines that we discussed in the earlier
chapters. However the following guidelines would be helpful.
A) Comprehension level
This is the stage where we read the passage to gain a general understanding. We are able to
determine the main concern of the writer in a particular passage .Thus we are able to determine
the writer’s sense or subject.
B) Judgement level
This is the stage in which we break down the passage into smaller analysable units. This can be
either breaking the passage into paragraphic unit or into groups of sentences. We such as
length of sentence, the effect of capitalisation, narrative style, the effects of, time etc. In this
stage, we should be able to determine the relationship between the characters involved in the
passage. Note that we should give credible reasons on why and how the writer is gradually
developing his subject as the passage is developing. In other words we should identify and
explain the issues that we have raised.
C) Evaluation level
This is the stage where we make an assessment of the impact of the passage as a whole. Focus
is on the holistic comment on the presentation of the writer’s subject viz a viz his intention and
or relationship with the reader or critic. We evaluate the general feelings evoked by the passage

55
as well as the mood and tone of his presentation .We should note any change in particular
elements of the passage. For example, are the feelings constant through out, are the characters
static, did the writer use a uniform style through out? etc.
NB: It is very important to note that comment and appreciation depends on our personal
judgement and experience. It is our duty to read widely so as to familiarise ourselves with a
number of writing styles etc. In the final analysis we state that the guidelines given here are not
in any way exhaustive but serve a simple purpose of establishing a foundation on which
students develop the basic prose appreciation and analysis techniques and in the long run
develop their own appreciation styles that are commensurate with their experience and literal
and linguistic development.
Demonstrations
The following section seeks to give a basic demonstration on how the various skills and
approaches discussed in the chapter can be applied in a practical demonstration. Please note that
the focus only on the main aspects of prose analysis means that they can never be exhaustive.
2. Write a critical appreciation of the following passage from Heart of Darkness by Joseph
Conrad paying attention to stylistic features of the passage.
‘I beg your pardon. I forgot the heartache, which makes up the rest of the price. And indeed what
does the price matter, if the trick be well done? You do your tricks very well. And I didn’t do
badly either, since I managed not to sink that steamboat on my first trip. It’s a wonder to me yet.
Imagine a blindfolded man set to drive a van over a bad road. I sweated and shivered over that
business considerably, I can tell you. After all, for a seaman, to scrape the bottom of the
unpardonable sin. No one may know of it, but you never forget the thump – eh? A blow on the
very heart. You remember it, you dream of it, you wake up at night and think of it – years after –
and go hot and cold all over. I don’t pretend to say that steamboat floated all the time. More than
once she had to wade for a bit, with twenty cannibals splashing around and pushing. We had
enlisted some of these chaps on the way for a crew. Fine fellows – cannibals – in their place.
They were men one could work with, and I am grateful to them. And, after all, they did not eat
each other before my face: they had brought along a provision of hippo- meat, which went rotten,
and made the mystery of the wilderness stink in my nostrils. Phoo! I can sniff it now. I had the
manager on board and three or four pilgrims with their staves – all complete. Sometimes we came
upon a station close by the bank, clinging to the skirts of the unknown, and the white men rushing
out of a tumbledown hovel, with great gestures of joy and surprise and welcome, seemed very
strange – had the appearance of being held there captive by a spell. The word ivory would ring in
the air for a while – and on we went again into the silence, along empty reaches, round the still
bends, between the high walls of our winding way, reverberating in hollow claps the ponderous
beat of the stern – wheel. Trees, trees, millions of trees, massive, immense, running up high; and
yet it was not altogether depressing, that feeling. After all, if you were small, the grimy beetle
crawled on- which was just what you wanted it to do. Where the pilgrims imagined it crawled to I

56
don’t know. To some place where they expected to get something, I bet! For me it crawled towards
Kurtz – exclusively; but when the steam- pipes started leaking we crawled very slow.
The reaches opened before us and closed behind, as if the forest had stepped leisurely across the
water to bar the way for our return. We penetrated deeper and deeper into the heart of darkness. It
was very quiet there. At night sometimes the roll of drums behind sustained faintly, as if hovering
in the air high over our heads, till the first break of day. Whether it meant war, peace, or prayer we
could not tell. The dawns were heralded by the descent of a chill stillness; the wood- cutters slept,
their fires burned low; the snapping of a twig would make you start. We were wanderers on
prehistoric earth, on an earth that wore the aspect of an unknown planet. We could have fancied
ourselves the first of men taking possession on an accursed inheritance, to be subdued at the cost
of profound anguish and of excessive toil. But suddenly, as we struggled round a bend, there
would be a glimpse of rush walls, of peaked grass – roofs, a burst of yells, a whirl of black limbs, a
mass of hands clapping, of feet stamping, of bodies swaying, of eyes rolling, under the droop of
heavy and motionless foliage. The steamer toiled along slowly on the edge of a black and
incomprehensible frenzy. The prehistoric man was cursing us, praying to us, welcoming us- who
could tell? We were cut off from the comprehension of our surroundings: we glided past like
phantoms, wondering and secretly appalled, as sane men would be before an enthusiastic outbreak
in a madhouse. We could not understand because we were too far and could not remember,
because we were travelling in the night of first ages, of those ages that are gone, leaving hardly a
sign – and no memories.
Demonstrated answer
General
Students must note that this passage uses the narrative and the descriptive modes. It goes on to use
the contemplative where the author is in deep thought marvelling about the mystery that surrounds
him.
Key Elements
- A tense atmosphere prevails
- There is fear of the cannibals and of the landscape in general
- Atmosphere is associated with mystery
- Author and narrator are detached-hence do not share an identity with environment
or the other humans.
- Descriptive offers much detail to paint a clear picture.
- Use of myths-story is based on or pedals myths that blacks are cannibals and
savages. This is meant to denigrate black people.
- Images-“of darkness” and the “night” are suggestive of backwardness or lack of

civilisation in the land.

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Imagery -of black people as animals for example “burst of yells”, a whirl of black limbs”, “a mass
of hands clapping”, eyes rolling”, and under foliage – presents an image of black people close to
creatures – this again meant to denigrate black people.
The racist images are further pedalled through the metaphorical statement “heart of darkness”
which is meant to show entrance into the further parts which was the worst. Again this is a
negative view about the land “night of first ages”, is also metaphorical. It draws the reader to the
first period in the existence of man on earth – thus is also suggestive of lack of civilisation. The
slow movement is metaphorical given by the word “crawled”, many trees by a “curtain of trees”.
The passage also uses similes, the boat is compared to a “sluggish beetle” showing the belaboured
pace at which it was moving. Another simile is “we glided past like phantoms”. This is meant to
show confusion, as the people could not understand the environment they were in.
Tone
-Is of amusement. The narrator is amused by what he sees. The “creature like”, people”, amuses
him. It is a combination of being amused and appalled at the same time. The narrator says
“wondering and secretly appalled, as sane men would be before an enthusiastic outbreak in a
madhouse”. Besides amusement the voice is insultive, the land is pictured or seen in terms of a
“madhouse”, worse still “the wilderness stink” and the blacks that are part of the crew are fine
fellows “cannibals” – all these are insults.
The diction – is made of negative terms as some have already been pointed out. A black reader
might feel incensed or angered by such racist descriptions. A white reader might find it amusing or
might sympathise with the blacks. This is one example of a subjective portrayal or description.
Demonstration 2 Write a critical appreciation of the following passage .
Hands
Upon the half - decayed veranda of a small frame house that stood near the ridge of a ravine near
the town of Winesburg, Ohio a fat little old man walked nervously up and down. Across a long
field that had been seeded for clover but that had produced only a dense crop of yellow mustard
weeds, he could see a highway along which went a wagon filled with berry pickers returning from
the fields. A boy clad in a blue shirt leaped from the wagon and attempted to drag after him who
screamed and protested shrilly. The feet of the boy in the road kicked up a load of dust that floated
across the face of the departing sun, over the long field, came a third girlish voice, “Oh you Wing
Biddlebaum comb your hair, it’s falling into your eyes”, commanded the voice to the man who
was bald and whose nervous little hands fiddled about the bare white forehead as though arranging
a mass of tangled locks.
Wing Biddlebaum forever frightened and beset by a ghostly band of doubts did not think of
himself as in any way a part of the life of the town where he had lived for twenty years. Among all
the people of Winesburg but one had come close to him. With George Willard’s son of Tom
Willard the proprietor of the Willard houses he had formed something like a friendship. George
Willard was the reporter on the Winesburg Eagle and sometime in the evenings he walked along

58
the highway to Wing Buddlebaun’s house. Now as the old man walked up and down on the
veranda his hands moving nervously about he was hoping George Willard would come and spend
the evening with him. After the wagon containing the berry pickers had passed he went across the
field through the tall mustard weeds and climbing a rail fence peered anxiously along the road up
and down the road and fear overcoming him ran back to walk again upon the porch of his own
house.
In the presence of George Willard, Wing Biddlebaum, who for twenty years had been the town’s
mystery, lost something of his timidity and his shadowy personality submerged in a sea of doubts
came forth to look at the world. With the young reporter at his side he ventured in the light of the
day into Main Street or strode up and down in the rickety front porch of his house, talking
excitedly. The voice that had been low and trembling became shrill and loud. Wing Biddlebaum
talked much with his hands. The slender expressive fingers, forever active, forever striving to
conceal themselves in his pocket or behind his back came forth and became the piston rods of his
machinery of expression. The story of Wing Biddlebaum is a story of hands. Their restless
activity like beating of the wings of an imprisoned bird had given him his name. Some obscure
poet of the town had thought of it. The bent figure straightened. With a kind of wriggle like a fish
returned to the brook by the fishermen, Biddlebaum the silent began to talk striving to put words
into ideas that had been accumulated by his mind during the long years of silence.
Wing Biddlebaun is a story of birds. Their restless activity liked into the beauting of the wings of
an imprisoned bird had given him his name some obscure poet of the town had thought of it.
The hands alarmed their owner. He wanted to keep them hidden away and looked in with
amazement at the quiet inexpressive hands of their man who worked beside him in the fields, or
passed or driving sleepy teams on country roads.
When he talked to George, Wing Biddlebaum closed his fist and beat with them upon a table or on
the walls of his house. The action made him more comfortable. If the desire to talk came to him
when the two were walking in the fields, he sought out a stump or the top board of fence with his
hands pounding busily and talked with renewed ease.
The story of Wing Biddlebaum’s hands is worth a book in itself. Sympathetically set forth it would
tap many strange beautiful qualities in obscure men. It is a job of a poet. In Winesburg the hands
had attracted attention of many because of their activity. With them Wing had picked as high as a
hundred and forty quarts of strawberries in a day. They became his distinguishing features and the
source of his fame. Also they made more grotesque an already grotesque and elusive individuality.
Winesburg was proud of the hands of Wing.
Demonstrated answer
The beginning in the appreciation of a prose passage is to find the subject matter of the passage,
for example in the passage “Hands” by Sherwood Anderson, is the restlessness of the hands and
the nervous nature of Wing Biddlebaum. The student should read the passage carefully so as to
come up with the subject matter. Pupils should avoid re-telling the passage but should pick what

59
the subject is and explain their points. In order to come out with the correct subject matter the
student should keep an open mind and avoid prejudice.
Having identified the subject matter depending on the question, the writer can move on to discuss
other aspects. The writer may start by looking at stylistic features. These include imagery, figures
of speech, repetition, euphemism, humour, diction and the narrative features such as stream of
consciousness, flashback, reminiscence, monologue, exposition, and omniscient narrator, first and
third narrative. The impact of each feature should be shown.
In the passage above Anderson used a metaphor when he compares Wings fingers to “piston rods
of his machinery expression”. This is used to show that the hands no longer operate naturally, but
are now mechanical. Such a mechanical description of the operation of hands is rather strange.
There are many images used by the writer for example, he writes of the “ghostly band of doubts”.
This imagery brings into the reader’s mind lack of life suggested by ghostly. It also brings out an
element of being haunted. The word “band” suggests multiplicity of doubts. The multiplicity of
doubts is further intensified by use of “sea of doubts”.
The total image created is of an extreme diffidence/lack of confidence that Wing suffers from. This
helps to intensify the nervous state of Wing. Anderson also used similes. For example, the
happiness that Wing experiences during the presence of George Willard is compared to a wriggle
of a fish. “With a kind of wriggle, like a fish”.
This shows the intense happiness that Wing feels when William is present. The restless activity of
Wing hand is described as, “like unto the beating of an imprisoned bird”. This is suggestive of
bondage and lack of freedom. The hands do not operate freely but are controlled deliberately by
Wing. This again is a strange comparison which helps to intensify the mystery of Wing’s hands.
In the passage humour is also used to show the nervous nature of Wing. Wing is a bald headed old
man, so humour is shown when the girl in the passage teases him asking him to comb his hair.
Wing responds by fiddling about the bare white fore head. Such a response shows diffidence in the
old man. Though this is meant for light heartedness, in this case it ironically shows the diffidence
in the old man. The humour also comes out in the last line – “Winesburg was proud of the hands of
Wing”.
The student can then move on to look at diction. For example what is of interest in the passage is
the use of adverbs like, “nervously” which shows the state of Wing. This adverb is repeated to
emphasize on the nervous state. Another is “boisterously” which captures the shouts of youths and
maidens.
This helps to bring the contrast between the youth’s vivacity, exuberance and Wing’s diffidence.
Other adverbs are “shrilly”,”ghostly”, “anxiously”, “sympathetically”. All these should be
explained in full and the impact to the passage as a whole shown.
Students can also consider other aspects such as symbolism e. g. the use of the word “Wing” which
may be symbolism of the restlessness of the hands of Biddlebaum.

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Students should also look at the form. This is the structure of paragraphs and how the writer ties up
the closing paragraph to the opening paragraph. The passage “Hands” is characterised by long
sentences. These long sentences allow the writer to give many details at once. For example in the
first sentence we learn a lot about Wing.
[a] he is a fat old man
[b] he is walking nervously up and down
[c] he is by/next to a half decayed veranda of a small frame house.
[d] the house is near the edge of a town of Winesburg Ohio.
All these are details carried within the first sentence. The sentences that follow
are also long.
The tone of the passage must also be discussed. The tone is sympathetic. The voice in the passage
is sympathetic to the strange old man. Deep down the sympathy there is a ring of concern in the
voice. The writer is concerned with the old man’s strange hands and mysterious life. He even calls
for a concerned and sympathetic approach by the reader when “he says sympathetically set forth it
(story) would tap many strange, beautiful qualities in obscure men”. This helps to gain the
sympathy of the reader which is the intention of the writer. The writer wants to arouse sympathy
in the reader for Wing Biddlebaun. The story also seems to suggest that in obscure men strange as
they may be, there are some beautiful things to learn but on condition that prejudice is cast away,
so as to deal with that particular individual without fear. Thus we could read the book instead of
judging it by its cover.
[3] Write a critical appreciation of the following passage from “Feet” by Seamus Dean
(1988)”.What features of the author’s style do you find particularly striking?
The plastic table-cloth hung down so far down that I could only see their feet. But I could not hear
the noise and some of the talk, although I was so crunched up inside that I could make out very
little of what they were saying.
Besides, Smoky was whimpering as he cuddled upon my stomach and I could feel his body
quivering every so often under his fur; every quiver made me deaf to their words and alert to their
noise.
He had found me under the table when the room filled with feet, standing at all angles, and he
sloped through them and came to huddle himself on me. He felt the dread too. She was going to
die after they took her to the hospital. I could hear the clumping of the feet of the ambulance men
as they tried to manoeuvre her on a stretcher down the stairs. They would have to lift it high over
the banister; the turn was too narrow. The stretcher had red handles. I had seen them when the
shiny shoes of the ambulance men appeared on the centre of the room. One had been holding it
folded up perpendicular with then handles on the room. One had black shoes which had a tiny
redness in one toe-cap when he put the stretcher handles on to the linoleum. The lino itself was so
shiny that there was redness in it too, at an angle, buried in it like warmth just under the surface.

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Una was so hot this morning that, pale and sweaty as she was, she made me think of redness too. It
came off her, like heat from griddle. Her eyes shone with pain and pressure, inflated from the
inside. This was a new illness. I loved the names of the others- diphtheria, scarlet fever, or
scarlettina, rubella, polio, influenza, they almost always ended in an “o” or an “a” and made me
think of Italian football-players or racing drivers or chess players.
Besides, each had its own smell, especially diphtheria, because of the disinfected sheets that were
hung over the bedroom doors and bellowed out their acrid fragrances in the draughts that chilled
your ankles on the stairs. Even the mumps which came after diphtheria was a sickness that did not
frighten, because the word was as funny as everybody’s face. All swollen as if there had been a
terrible fight. But this was a new sickness. This was called meningitis. It was a word you had to
bite on to says it. It had a fright and a hiss in it. It didn’t make me think of anything except Una’s
eyes widening all the time and getting lighter as if helium were pumping into them from her brain.
They would burst, I thought, unless they could find a way of getting all that pure helium pain out. I
wandered if they could.
They were at the bottom of the stairs. All the feet moved that way. I could see uncle Manus’
brown shoes; the heels were worn down, and he was hesitating moving backwards and forward a
little. Uncle Dan and Uncle Tom had identical shoes, heavy and rimmed with mud and cement
because they had come from the building site in Creggan, Dan’s were dirtier, though, because
Tom was the foreman. But they weren’t good shoes. Dan put one knee up on the chair and I
squirmed flat to see the scabs on the sole of the one that was in mid - air. There was put lock oil on
hides socks and black bar on the sole. But it was my mother’s and father’s feet that Iwatched most.
She was wearing low heels that badly needed mending and her feet were always swollen so that
even from there I could see the shoe leather embedded vanishing into her ankles.
Demonstrated Answer
The answer to this question should emphasize on the “striking” features. Explanations
should show that the features identified are striking and also explain the impact/purpose of those
striking features. The passage is about Una who is in a critical condition suffering from meningitis
which is a relatively new disease. The experiences of Una given/told by a small boy who is
beneath the table with Smoky his dog. The word “feet” is dominant in the passage and it has been
used in a striking way to capture the haste movement of the people.
The narrator’s concentration on the feet instead of Una’s critical condition shows how some
critical issues to adults appear to be of little significance to young people. The haste movement is
also shown by the use of “clumping of the feet”. The use parts of the passage gives a sense of
urgency which shows the critical condition of Una.
The writer used names of diseases in a comical/ humorous way. The narrator makes funny of
names of the diseases. Names of diseases such as scarllettina, rubella, influenza and polio remind
him of Italian football players, chess players and race drivers.

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This tones down the heavy/ deep feelings aroused by Una’s critical condition. This also enables
the reader to see Una’s condition from a childish point of view. At a critical point the narrator
thinks of football, racing, and chess. This brings out another striking feature of contrast.
The detached “childish” point of view contrasts with the concerned troubled, and urgent
movement of the old as seen through the swift movement of feet. Another contrast is between the
dog (Smoky) and the boy. The dog can feel the dread as shown by the “whimpering and
quivering”. This ability by the dog to feel the dread is a deliberate ploy by Deanne to intensify the
degree of the dread. The dread felt by the dog (Smoky) contrasts with the unmoved state of the
boy as he is lost in his childish world view. This shows naivety of children.
The diction employed in the passage is also striking. Of interest is the specialist diction. Words
such as “scarlettina”, “rubella”, “influenza”, “polio”, diphtheria and “meningitis” are all drawn
from the medical field. These are used to create humour and tone down the sad feelings
Another striking feature of the passage is the vivid description that helps to create mental pictures.
The disinfected sheets are described as having “bellowed” out “their acrid fragrances”. This
heightens the smell produced by the sheets. The mental pictures are also created through
comparisons. For example “mumps” compared to “swollen face” after a terrific fight. Meningitis
is viewed more of as a snake. The word itself has a “fight” and a “hiss”. All these vivid pictures
create/arouse a sense of fright in the reader.
The use of colour also seems to be a striking feature. The stretcher is “red”, the lino has “redness”.
The narrator thinks of “redness”. The dominance of the red colour helps to remind the reader of
Una’s critical condition. In life the colour “red” symbolises danger. So in line with the passage it is
a symbol of the critical/dangerous stage of sickness that Una is in.
The tone of the passage is a mixture of detachment, comic and fright. In a way the tone can be said
to be ambivalent as the boy vacillates from being detached, through being comical to being afraid.
A detached tone is shown by the boy’s concentration on football players, chess players and race
drivers instead of Una’s illness.
The way how the boy interprets this also makes it comical. A frightful tone is given by the mention
of meningitis and its link to “fright and hiss” and also the effect of the disease as Una’s eyes are
“widening all the time” and would probably “burst”. We hear a frightful voice describing the
situation. The passage begins with “feet”. The narrator could see the “feet” of the people in the
room. In the second paragraph the narrator uses “feet” to detect the movements of the people in the
house. In the last paragraph the writer ties the passage by linking the last paragraph to the first.
The last paragraph concentrated on the shoes and feet of the people. What is striking here is that
through shoes people’s experiences are shown/ related.
The heavy and mud rimmed shoes of Uncle Dan and Tom tell us that they had come from the
building site in Creggan. So Deanne ties up the story by taking us back to the first paragraph. This
helps remind the reader that the passage is about “Feet’

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There are many striking features in Dean styles that have been discussed in this presentation. It is
the ability to use striking features that makes Deanne’s presentation unique.
2. The following two passages are taken from biographies. The first (a) is from Samuel
Johnson’s Lives of the Poets (published between 1779 and 1781) and concerns John Wilmot,
Earl of Rochester, an English poet of the mid-seventeenth century. The second (b) is taken
from A biographical study by E.M. Forster, published in 1905, of Girolamo Cardano, an
Italian physician, astrologer and mathematician of the sixteenth century. Write an essay
comparing the two passages, paying attention to differences in language and attitude.
(a) He had very early an inclination to intemperance, which he totally subdued in his travels, but,
when he became a courtier, he unhappily addicted himself to dissolute and vicious company, by
which his principles were corrupted, and his manners depraved. He lost all sense of religious
restraint; and, finding it not convenient to admit the authority of laws which he was resolved not to
obey, sheltered his wickedness behind infidelity.
As he excelled in that noisy and licentious merriment which wine incites, his companions eagerly
encouraged him in excess, and he willingly indulged it; till, as he confessed to Dr. Burnet, he was
for five years together continually drunk, or so much inflamed by frequent nebriety1 as in no
interval to be master of himself.
In this state he played many frolics, which it is not for his honours that we should remember, and
which are not now distinctly known. He often pursed low amours in mean disguises, and always
acted with great exactness and dexterity the characters which he assumed.
He once erected a stage on Tower-hill, and harangued the populace as a mountenbank; and, having
made physics part of his study, is said to have practised it successfully.
Having an active and inquisitive mind, he never, except in his paroxysms of intemperance, was
wholly negligent of study: he read what is considered as polite learning so much that he is
mentioned by Wood as the greatest scholar of all the nobility. Sometimes he retired into the
country, and amused himself with writing libels, in which he did not pretend to confine himself to
truth.
Thus in a course of drunken gaiety and gross sensuality, with intervals of study perhaps yet more
criminal, with an avowed contempt of all decency and order, a total disregard to every moral, and a
resolute denial of every religious obligation, he lived worthless and useless, and blazed out his
youth and his health in lavish voluptuousness; till, at the age of one-and-thirty, he had exhausted
the fund of life, and reduced himself to a state of weakness and decay.
(b)The name of Girolamo Cardano, who was born at Pavis in 1501 and died at Rome in 1576,
would be familiar to a student of the history of medicine or mathematics. But the ordinary person,
who alone confers immortality, will hesitate to accept him on such trivial grounds, rightly
considering that his science has long been superseded, and that his contributions to algebra are

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now no more deserving of special celebrity than are the waters of a river when they are once
mingled in the sea.
If Cardano escapes the oblivion he so much dreaded, it will be neither as doctor nor as
mathematician, but because at the end of his life he wrote a little book about himself, and wrote it
in the right way. He had always been interested in the subject, and fragments of autobiography
occur in most of his works. Now he gives it undivided attention, and endeavours through fifty-
four chapters to describe his character, constitution, and fortunes. He might have been to us
merely a person of some importance in his time, a funny old man who pottered about, four
centuries ago, beside the springs of science. Hitherto his egotism has rescued him. He is so
supremely interesting to himself that he cannot but interest others; and his little book ranks among
the great autobiographies of the world.
The first statement is in some ways the most remarkable, and indicates the spirit in which he will
review his life. “Before my birth, my mother endeavoured to procure abortion, and failed”.
Another writer, if he had the courage to make such a statement, would certainly turn it to some
literary use. He would become sentimental over the poor infant, entering the world so unwillingly,
so ungraciously received. He would try to arouse pity or indignation. He would probably say that
it was better for him if he had never been born. Cardano does nothing of the sort. Here is a fact,
and a fact of some importance, to be related without lamentation, and without apology. If people
are shocked at it, they are silly; if they pity him for it they are sillier still. He proceeds to calculate
his horoscope.
It is this absence of sentimentally that gives Cardano his value – one might say his charm. Strictly
speaking, there is nothing very attractive about him; there is certainly nothing poetic. But he has
the ability, as well as the wish to be sincere, and his writing affects us with the power of a spoken
work, making us blush sometimes for him, and more frequently for ourselves. Truthfulness is one
of the few virtues to which he lays claim, and for this reason his biographers have accused him of
untruthfulness. “A man,” they argue, “who makes such a claim, must be a liar: we should never
think of making it ourselves”. It is a difficult point; however, it is worth while remembering that
evidence against Cardano’s truthfulness is both scarce and doubtful. “It has never been my habit,”
he says, “to tell lies”. His autobiography may be assumed to be a fairly trustworthy, as well as a
readable book, and on it the following account of him is based.
Demonstrated answer
The two passages deal with lives of eminent people, John Wilmot, a poet and Girolamo Cardano, a
physician. The presentation on the lives of the two scholars show or reveal acute differences in
language and attitude.
The language used in passage (a) suggests an unconventional and perverse life that John Wilmot
led. The words used have some negative connotations. This is true of words such as ‘addicted’,
‘vicious’, ‘licentious’, ‘dissolute’, ‘low’, ‘mean’, ‘intemperance’, ‘negligent’, ‘sensuality’,
‘criminal’, ‘decay’. The word ‘addicted’ suggests being grossly immersed in bad activities or
company as shown also by the word ‘vicious’. The words ‘intemperance’, negligent’, ‘criminal’,
and ‘depraved’ all show the perversity that characterized Wilmot.

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On the other hand, passage (b) uses language that is suggestive of simplicity, sincerity and
truthfulness. Some of the words that are dominant in the passage are ‘truthfulness’ used
repeatedly, ‘fact’ used repeatedly, ‘sincere’, ‘charm’, courage’. Most of the words used here show
the virtues of Girolamo Cardano. These virtues contrast with the vices that are seen in the life of
John Wilmot. The two passages are therefore a stark contrast of the lives of two great scholars-one
filled with vice, the other with virtues.
The language used in passage (a) does not only show vices but reveals also the degree of
perversity. The word ‘addicted’ is suggestive of being ‘dependent’ for life on bad company,
Wilmot could not do without it, the word ‘depraved’ shows the worst degree of fall of Wilmot,
‘inflamed’ is suggestive of being under extreme pressure and heat, ‘paroxysms’ shows extreme or
great measure, so is the word ‘drunken’. ‘Drunken’ further suggests ‘excess’ intake. The extreme
degree is also suggested by use of adverbs in the passage for example. ‘Continually’ to show how
Wilmot immersed himself in beer, ‘wholly’ to show the great negligence.
While the language in passage (a) shows the degree of Wilmot’s perversity, the language in (b) is
meant to show the life and the great work of Cardano in a positive light. The writer uses words
such as ‘supremely’, ‘most remarkable’, ‘fairly’. These words offer praise to Cardano as a scholar.
The writer’s language in some instances is blunt for example when he uses the words ‘silly’ and
‘sillier’. This shows the positive stance that the writer takes in defence of Cardano.
The attitude shown in passage (a) contrasts with that of passage (b). Passage (a) shows a
contemptuous attitude about John Wilmot’s life. The contemptuous attitude is shown by negative
diction used in passage. The writer condemns the irresponsible nature, impiety, Epicurean attitude,
and rebellious life led by Wilmot. The contempt is further heightened by the fact that Wilmot is an
earl which meant that they were societal expectations that he did not live up to. The writer seemed
to be making a deliberate statement about the leaders, as such in this way the passage also becomes
satirical because the people that society looked up to like John Wilmot were given to rebellion,
impiety and perversion.
In contrast passage (b) is full of admiration and praises. The difference in the attitude between the
two works is that the first passage deals with vices while the second deals with virtues. In the
second passage Cardano is praised for his great work as a scholar. The admiration and praise are
shown by words such as ‘most remarkable’, ‘charm’, supremely interesting, ‘undivided attention’,
‘right way’. All these and others are a tribute of praise that is offered to Cardano. The writer has
fallen in love with Cardano and his work to the extent that he applauds and defends him through
and through against his critics.
The language used in passage (a) and the attitude adopted create a sense of revulsion or disgust in
the reader about John Wilmot. The depravity and decay that is shown in his life reveal
recklessness. On the other hand, the language used in passage (b) and the attitude adopted results
in the reader appreciating the role and contribution of Cardano as a great scholar. On a similar
note the reader may appreciate the role of John Wilmot as a great scholar but sympathise with him
for the failings in his social life.

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All in all the two passages are a stark contrast of the lives of great scholars, one given to extreme
freedom and intemperance, the other given to sincerity, virtue and consideration. Through
contrasting language and attitudes the lives of the scholars have been explored as has been
discussed in this presentation.
2) Compare and contrast the following passages from Jane Eyre by Charlotte Bronte (1816-
1855) with Gulliver’s Travels by Jonathan Swift (1667-1745) showing how effective the
subject matters have been treated and conveyed.
a) Arraigned at my own bar, Memory having given her evidence of the hopes, wishes, sentiments I
had been cherishing since last night-of the general state of mind in which I had indulged for nearly
a fortnight past; reason having come forward and told, in her own quiet way, a plain, unvarnished
tale, showing how I had rejected the real and rabidly devoured the ideal; - I pronounced judgment
to this effect:-
That a greater fool than Jane Eyre had never breathed the breath of life: that a more fantastic idiot
had never surfeited herself on sweet lies, and swallowed poison as if it were nectar. ‘You’ I said ‘a
favorite with Mr. Rochester? You gifted with the power of pleasing him? Are you of importance to
him in any way? Go! Your folly sickens me. And you have derived pleasure from occasional
tokens of preference –equivocal tokens, shown by a gentleman of family, and a man of the world,
to a dependent and a novice. How dared you? Poor stupid dupe! Could not even self-interest make
you wiser? You repeated to yourself this morning the brief scene of last night? Cover your face
and be ashamed! He said something in praise of your eyes, did he? Blind puppy! Open their
bleared lids and look on your own accursed senselessness! It does good to on woman to be
flattered by her superior, who cannot possibly intend to marry her; and it is madness in all women
to let a secret love kindle within them, which, if unreturned and unknown, must devour the life that
feeds it: and, if discovered and responded to, must lead, ignis fatuus-like, into miry wilds whence
there is no extrication.
‘Listen, then Jane Eyre, to your sentence: to-morrow, place the glass before you, and draw in chalk
your own picture, faithfully; without softening one defect: omit no harsh line, smooth away no
displeasing irregularity; write under it, Portrait of a Governess, disconnected, poor, and plain”.
‘Afterwards, take a piece of smooth ivory you have one prepared in your drawing –box: take your
palette, mix your freshest, finest, clearest tints; choose your most delicate camel hair pencils;
delineate carefully the loveliest face you can imagine; paint it in your softest shades and sweetest
hues, according to the description given by Mrs. Fairfax of Blanche Ingram: remember the raven
ringlets, the oriental eye;-what! You revert to Mr. Rochester’s as a model!
b) I was chiefly disgusted with modern history. For having strictly examined all the persons of great
name in the strictly examined all the persons of great name in the courts of princes for an hundred
years past, I found how the world had been misled by prostitute writers, to ascribe the greatest
exploits in war to cowards, the wisest counsel to fools, sincerity to flatterers, Roman virtue to
betrayers of their country, piety to atheists, chastity to sodomites, truth to informers. How many
innocent and excellent persons had been condemned to death or banishment, by the practicing of
great ministers upon the corruption of judges, and the malice of factions. How many villains had

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been exalted to the highest places of trust, power, dignity, and profit: how great a share in the
motions and events of courts, councils, and senates might be challenged by bawds, whores, pimps,
parasites, and buffoons. How low an opinion I had of human wisdom and integrity, when I was
truly informed of the springs and motives of great integrity, when I was truly informed of the
springs and motives of great enterprise and revolutions in the world, and of the contemptible
accidents to which they owned their success. Here I discovered the roguery and ignorance of those
who pretend to write anecdotes, or secret history, who send so many kings to their graves with ga
cup of poison; will repeat the discourse between a prince and chief minister, where no witness was
by; unlock the thoughts and cabinets of ambassadors and secretaries of state, and have the
perpetual misfortune to be mistaken. Here I discovered the secret causes of many great events that
have surprised the world, how a whore can govern the backstairs the back-stairs a council, and
the council a senate. A general confessed in my presence, that he got a victory purely by the force
of cowardice and ill conduct; and an admiral, that for want of proper intelligence, he beat the
enemy to whom he intended to betray the fleet. Three kings protested to me, that in their whole
reigns they never did once prefer any person of merit, unless by mistake or treachery of some
minister in whom they confided; neither would they do it if they were to live again; and they
showed with great strength of reason that the royal throne could not be supported without
corruption, because that positive, confident, restive temper, which virtue infused into man, was a
perpetual clog to public business.
Demonstrated answer
The question hinges on the effectiveness of style and the handling of issues or subject matters in
the passages. The two passages deal with two different issues. The first passage from Jane Eyre is
about the sad experiences of Jane Eyre who seem to suffer from a low self esteem. This is shown
through the re- collections that she has. On the other hand the second passage deals with issues
such as corruption, hypocrisy injustice and lies.
Bronte presents Jane Eyre’s low self-esteem through re-collections. These re-collections come as
thoughts that seem to trouble her. The thoughts come as a voice that seems to denigrate her,
showing the impossibility of marrying Mr. Rochester. On the other hand Swift uses the first person
narrative, this makes Swift’s account a personal experience. This experience is not a re- collection
of thoughts as in the first passage but a chronicle or re- count of what the narrator came across in
his search.
In the first passage, Bronte uses personification. Memory has been given human powers, she is
presented as capable to present her cause, evidence, hopes, wishes and sentiments. This
empowerment of memory makes that memory or thoughts to have an everlasting effect on the
reader. The dominance of the thoughts can not be missed. Reason is also presented as capable of
coming forward and taking up a stand. Through personification the writer allows the reader to see
the interplay between memory and Reason. The two appear to be human beings conversing. In the
end reason seem to have an upperhand and in making her (Jane) believe in the impossibility of
marriage to Mr. Rochester.

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Bronte seems to be blunt in her style. Phrases such as “folly sicken me” “Blind puppy”
“senselessness” “madness”, “poor and plain” are all blunt meant to denigrate Jane. In contrast
Swift adopts a satirical style which laughs at human follies. The satire is also used to bring out the
irony associated with the rulers of the day.
Swift makes mockery of the “so called” writers who present wrong and false information to
people. The hypocrisy is exposed through the link or association between two opposing or
contrasting things for example the link between “brave words” and cowards, wisest counsel
attributed to “fools” “sincerity” to “flatterers” “chastity” to sodomites. Through these
combinations swift laughs at the folly of the writers. The other irony is also humorous where Swift
speaks of a whore governing the backstairs. Though lighthearted Swift wants the reader to consider
the issues raised seriously.
While Bronte is blunt in terms of the phrases she used, Swift seems to have a flair for words or
diction associated with pervasion or pervasiveness. For example he refers to “prostitute” “bawds”
“whores” pimps all meant to show how society is now perverse as a result of corrupt leaders.
In both passages the writers use questions which appear to be rhetorical. In the work of Bronte the
questions are used to probe into the thoughts of Jane while in Swift’s work the questions are meant
to propel the reader seriously consider issues under discussion, some of the questions are “How
many innocent and excellent persons had been condemned to death . How many villains had been
exalted to highest places?”
In the work of Bronte, some of the questions are “You gifted with power of pleasing him?” Are
you of importance to him in any way?. “How dared you?.
In Swift’s passage “How many,” has been used repeatedly for emphasis and for the reader to
consider the magnitude.
In contrast Bronte has used a simile “that a more fantastic idiot had never surfeited herself on
sweet lies, and swallowed poison as if it were nectar”. This is meant to show the folly of believing
that Rochester would marry her. The ellipsis help to show how thoughts quickly come into her
mind, at the same time these leave the reader to ponder about what is going on in Jane’s mind. The
exclamation marks are used to show the irony in some of the thoughts of Jane and to capture the
surprise at Jane’s folly.
Swift’s tone is satirical. He mocks human follies with the intention of correcting them. The tone of
the passage by Bronte is blunt and condescending. The reader sympathizes with Jane as thoughts
seem to trouble her and eat away her self esteem.
Comment: Pupils should discuss the passages in detail, looking at all the key aspects of style and
commenting on how the issues or subject matters have been handled. Comments should show a
critical approach.

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Compare and contrast the following passages, passage (A), describing the death of Little Nell
is taken from Charles Dickens’ novel The Old Curiosity Shop (1841) and passage (B),
describing Dickens’ own death is taken from Peter Ackroyd’s biography Dickens (1990),
paying particular attention to the presentation of death.
(a) She was dead. No sleep so beautiful and calm, so free from trace of pain, so fair to look upon. She
seemed a creature fresh from the hand of God, and waiting for the breath of life; not one who had
lived and suffered death.
Her couch was dressed with here and there some winter berries and green leaves, gathered in a
spot she had been used to favour. ‘When I die, put near me something that has loved the light, and
the sky above it always.’ Those were her words.
She was dead. Dear, gentle, patient, noble Nell was dead. Her little bird-a poor slight thing the
pressure of a finger would have crushed-was stirring nimbly in its cage; and the strong heart of its
child-mistress was mute and motionless for ever.
Where were the traces of her early cares, her sufferings, and fatigues? All gone. Sorrow was dead
indeed in her, but peace and perfect happiness were born; imaged in her tranquil beauty and
profound repose.
And still her former self lay there, unaltered in this change. Yes. The old fireside had smiled upon
that same sweet face; it had passed like a dream through haunts of misery and care; at the door of
the poor schoolmaster on the summer evening, before the furnace fire upon the cold wet night at
the still beside of the dying boy, there had been the same mild lovely look. So shall we know the
angels in their majesty, after death.
The old man held one languid arm in his, and had the small hand tight folded to his breast, for
warmth. It was the hand she stretched out to him with her last smile – the hand that had led him
on through all their wanderings. Ever and anon he pressed it to his lips; then hugged it to his
breast again, murmuring that it was warmer now; and as he said it he looked, in agony, to those
who stood around, as if imploring them to help her.
She was dead, and past all help, or needed of it. The ancient rooms she had seemed to fill with
life, even while her own waning fast – the garden she had tended – the eyes she had gladdened –
the noiseless haunts of many a thoughtful hour – the paths she had trodden as it were but
yesterday – could know her no more.
‘It is not’, said the schoolmaster, as he bent down to kiss her on the cheek, and gave his tears free
vent, ‘it is not on earth that Heaven’s justice ends. Think what it is compared with the World to
which her young spirit has winged its early flight, and say, if one deliberate wish expressed in
solemn terms above this bed could call her back to life, which of us would utter it!’
(b) Charles Dickens was dead. He lay on a narrow green sofa – but there was room enough for him,
so spare had he become – in the dining room of Gad’s Hill Place. He had died in the house which

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he had first seen as a small boy and which his father had pointed out to him as a suitable object of
his ambitions; so great was his father’s hold upon his life that, forty years later, he had bought it.
Now he had gone. It was customary to close the blinds and curtains, thus enshrouding the corpse
in darkness before its last journey to the tomb; but in the dining room of Gad’s Hill the curtains
were pulled apart and on this June day the bright sunshine streamed in, glittering on the large
mirrors around the room. The family beside him knew how he enjoyed the light, how he needed
the light, and they understood, too, that none of the conventional sombreness of the late Victorian
period – the year was 1870 – had ever touched him.
All the lines and wrinkles which marked the passage of his life were now erased in the stillness of
death. He was not old – he died in his fifty-eighth year – but there had been signs of premature
ageing on a visage so marked and worn; he had acquired, it was said, a ‘sarcastic look’. But now
all that was gone and his daughter, Katey, who watched him as he lay dead, noticed how there
once more emerged upon his face ‘beauty and pathos’. It was that ‘long-forgotten’ look which he
describes again and again in his fiction. He sees it in Oliver Twist, in the dead face which returns
to the ‘…long forgotten expression of sleeping infancy’, and in that same novel he connects ‘the
rigid face of the corpse and the calm sleep of the child’. In Master Humphrey’s death, too, there
was something ‘so strangely and indefinably allied to youth’. It was the look he recorded in
William Dorrit’s face in death; it was the look which he saw in the faces of the corpses on view in
the Paris Morgue. This connection between death and infancy is one that had haunted him: sleep,
repose, death, infancy, innocence, oblivion are the words that formed a circle for him, bringing
him back to the place from which he had begun. Here, in Gad’s Hill, close to the town in which he
had lived as a small child, here in the house which his father had once shown him; here the circle
was complete.
A death mask was made. He had always hated masks. He had been frightened by one as a child
and throughout his writing there is this refrain - ‘what a very alarming thing it would be to find
somebody with a mask on…hiding bolt upright in a corner and pretending not to be alive!’ The
mask was an emblem of Charles Dicken’s particular fear; that the dead are only pretending to be
dead, and that they will suddenly spring up into violent life. He had a fear of the dead, and of all
inanimate things, rising up around him to claim him; it is the fear of pre-eminently solitary child
and solitary man. But was there not also here some anticipation of the final quietus? The mask
was made, and he was laid in his oak coffin.
This wooden resting place was then covered with scarlet geraniums; they were Charles Dicken’s
favourite flowers and in the final picture of the corpse covered with blossom, we can see a true
representation of Dickens’s own words echoing across the years - ‘Brighten it, brighten it, brighten
it!’ He always wanted colour about him, and he was notorious for his own vivid costumes,
especially youth: and, on the wall above the coffin, his family placed a portrait of him as a young
man. It was no doubt that painted Daniel Maclise, and it shows the Dickens of the 1839 looking
up from his desk, his eyes ablaze as if in anticipation of the glory that was to come. Georgina
Hogarth, his sister -in-law, cut a lock of hair from his head. On his prior instructions, his worse
was shot. And so Charles Dickens lay.

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Passage (a) is about the death of a little sweet, innocent child Nell. An air of innocence and purity
surrounds the dead child. Ironically passage (b) is about the death of Charles Dickens the writer of
the first passage. So while passage (a) is about the death of a little child, (b) is about the death of a
man in his middle ages.
In both passages, though death is a sensitive issue, has been presented in a light manner as a kind
of sleep that people experience. In passage (a) Dickens views death in a positive light, he
associates it with positive elements such as beauty, freedom, freshness and calmness for example
when he says:
‘No sleep so beautiful and calm, so free from trace of pain, so fair to look upon…’
This helps to tone down the horrific effects of death and makes the reader to view death in a
positive light without fear. On a similar note passage (b) describes death as a sleep for example
when the writer says:
‘He lay on a narrow green sofa….’
Even the family treats the dead man as if he is still alive but in a sleep. The statement:
‘The family beside him knew how he enjoyed the light, how he needed the light…’
This like in the first passage tones down the effects of death.
In the first passage the death of Nell is presented as symbolical. The death is seen through images
associated with innocence, purity, divinity for example the writer refers to the “sweet face”,
“young spirit” that winged, “angels in their majesty”, gentle”, “noble” all in reference to Nell. So
the death of Nell can be regarded as symbolic of the death of all young, innocent and beautiful
children, in contrast, Ackroyd seems to present death of Dickens, Ackroyd shows how the circle
begins with perception of death in Dicken’s early works and part of his life as a child, so his death
completes the circle that had began on his first visit to Gad’s Hill.
In both passages death seems to be an end to sorrow and suffering, it is an end of troubles of this
world. In the first passage (a) Dickens speaks of Nell’s cares, sufferings and fatigues as all gone
while Ackroyd in (b) speaks of the “illness” and “wrinkles” that marked Dickens’ passage of his
life as “erased”. Death has not only been presented as an end to sorrow and troubles, but as the
beginning of peace, happiness and beauty. This is captured in Dicken’s words:
‘Sorrow was dead indeed in her, but peace and perfect happiness were born; imaged in her
tranquil beauty and profound repose.’
This is similar to the “stillness of death” and the signs of premature aging which was once so
“marked” and “worn” but now with death it was gone. “Beauty” is also seen on his face though it
is given together with “pathos”. The presentation by the two writers’ points death in a beautiful
manner; it is not something to fear, but something to look forward to.
In the second passage, death has also been presented through the use of a “mask”. The death
“mask” is a symbol of Dickens’ fears in personal life of death. The writer refers to Dickens’ fear

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of the dead and of all inanimate things! Though in his personal life he might have been afraid of
death, the picture of him lying dead is not fierce, but is in actual fact suggestive of calmness.
In the presentation of death both writers seem to bring out the sense of finality. It is certain that
death has occurred. In the first passage (a) the sense of finality is carried through the repeated use
of the phrase “she was dead”. On a similar note, Ackroyd in passage (b) shows sense of finality by
the opening words: “Charles Dickens was dead.” This sense of finality was is further carried in the
words “Now he had gone”. This shows death as certain. The opening of both passages create
suspense to the reader, they both begin in the middle of action. Charles Dickens begins “She was
dead”. Which leaves the reader to ponder about who had died, what had happened. On a similar
note Ackroyd starts with “Charles Dickens was dead”, which leaves the reader to find out what had
led to the death of Charles Dickens.
Both passages show how death of a loved or cherished one deprives those remaining of the person
they adore. Nell was adored by the community, so was Dickens. In the passage death seem to be
presented as communicated to even – the bird through telepathy. The bird was “stirring nimbly in
its cage”, the bird here is used to show how even nature is also affected by the death of Nell.
While the bird is made to suffer as a result of the death of its mistress, the “horse” in passage (b)
also suffers death as a result of the death of its master.
The free vent of tears by the school master and demand for justice in passage (a) and the
preparations of the burial for Dickens are a testimony to the fact that death takes away the loved
ones.
The tone in passage (a) is sympathetic. The writer is sympathetic with Nell and the people around
her who have lost such an innocent and benevolent, kind hearted young girl. The sympathy makes
the reader to love and cherish the young girl though she lies dead. Readers also sympathise with
people such as the headmaster for to them the loss is great. On the other hand, the tone of passage
(b) is detached. The voice seems to be of an observer at a distance chronicling the work, life and
death of Dickens. From time to time the writer seem to be satirical on the work of Dickens, he
refers to the “sarcastic look” “beauty and pathos”, the rigid face of the corpse and the calm sleep of
the child, and also from Ackroyd’s own description sarcasm can be seen, for example when he
says a “picture of the corpse covered with blossom”. So the tone of the two passages are different
may be because in the first, Dickens deals with the death of a child is usually a touching
experience while the second deals with death of a middle aged man which may not be as touching
as that of a young one.
Death therefore is not something that people should fear, it is something that people should look
forward to as it marks an end to the sorrows of this world. Thus death has been presented in a
positive way or light.
Examination type questions
1. Write a critical appreciation of the passage by Gustavo Flaubert paying particular

attention to the stylistic features.

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Next day was a day of mourning to Emma. Everything seemed wrapped in a drifting, clinging,
darkness and sorrow sank deep in her soul with muffled wailing, like the winter wind in a derelict
chateau. It was the spell cast by the departed, the lassitude that follows the event the pain caused
by any accustomed motion breaking or prolonged vibration abruptly ceasing.
Sombrely, melancholy, numbly despairing as when she had returned from La Vaubyessard with
the dance tunes whirling in her head. She now saw a taller handsome and more delightful and a
vaguer Leon. He was far away and yet he had not left her he was here still his shadow seemed to
linger on the walls. She could not take her eyes from the carpet on which he had walked, the chairs
in which he had sat, the river still flowed by, pushing it’s little waves along the slippery bank.
Many a time they had strolled beside it listening to that same murmuring of the water over the
mossy pebbles. The fine sunny days they had had! The lovely afternoon alone together in the shade
at the bottom of the garden! He used to read aloud to her perched on a footstool of dry sticks.,
bareheaded while the cool breeze of the meadows fluttered the pages of his book and the
nasturtiums round the harbour…………He was gone - her only joy in life her only hope of
happiness!
Why had she not seized that happiness when it was offered? Why had she not held it, knelt to it
when it threatened to fly away? She cursed herself for not having given Leon her love. She thirsted
for his lips.
An impulse seized her to run after him, to throw himself into his arms and say ‘it is I I am yours!
but at once Emma felt dismayed at the difficulties of such an undertaking: and vanity of the hope
served but to intensify the desire. From that moment her remembrance of Leon became the centre
of her discontent; it crackled there more fiercely than the fire left burning in the snow by travellers
in the Russian steppes. She ran to it and huddled herself against it, carefully stirred it when it
flagged and cast about her for fresh fuel to revive it, and all that the distant past or the immediate
present could offer, all she felt and she fancied it her sensual longings that now melted into air, her
plans for happiness that creaked like dead branches in the wind, her sterile virtue, her fallen hopes
and her domestic martyrdom – anything and everything she gathered up and used to feed her grief
2. Write a critical appreciation of the following passage from Black boy by Richard Wright
paying attention to narrative features, language and tone.
Summer. Bright hot days. Hunger still a vital part of my consciousness. Passing relatives in the
hallways of the crowded home and not speaking. Eating in silence at a table where prayers are
said. My mother recovering slowly, but now definitely crippled for life. Will I be able to enter
school in September? Loneliness. Reading. Job-hunting. Vague hopes of going north. But what
would become of my mother if I left her in this queer house? And how would I fare in a strange
city? Doubt. Fear. My friends are buying long- pants suits that cost from seventeen to twenty
dollars, a sum as huge to me as the Alps! This was my reality in 1924.
Word came that a near- by brickyard was hiring and I went to investigate. I was frail, not weighing
a hundred pounds. At noon I sneaked into the yard and walked among the aisles of damp, clean-

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smelling clay and came to a barrow full of wet bricks just taken from the machine that shaped
them. I caught hold of the handles of the barrow and was barely able to lift it; it weighed perhaps
four times as much as I did. If I were only stronger and heavier.
Later I asked questions and found that the water boy was missing; I ran to the office and was hired.
I walked in the hot sun lugging a big zinc pail from one labouring gang of black men to another for
a dollar a day; a man would lift the tin dipper to his lips, take a swallow, rinse out his mouth, spit,
and then drink in long, slow gulps as sweat dripped into the dipper. And off again I would go,
chanting:
“Water!”
And somebody would yell:
“Here, boy!”
Deep into wet pits of clay, into sticky ditches, up slippery slopes I would struggle with the pail. I
struck it out, reeling at times from hunger, pausing to get my breath clambering up a hill. At the
end of the week the money sank into the endless expenses at home. Later I got a job in the yard
that5 paid a dollar and a half a day, that of bat boy. I went between the walls of clay and picked up
bricks that had cracked open; when my barrow was full, I would wheel it out onto a wooden
scaffold and dump it into a pond. I had but one fear here: a dog. He was owned by the boss of the
brickyard and the haunted the clay aisles, snapping, growling.
The dog had been wounded many times, for the black workers were always hurling bricks at it.
Whenever I saw the animal, I would take a brick from my load and toss it at him; he would slink
away, only to appear again, showing his teeth. Several of the Negroes had been bitten and had
been ill; the boss had been asked to leash the dog, but he had refused. One afternoon I was
wheeling my barrow toward the pond when something sharp sank into my thigh. I whirled; the
crouched a few feet away, snarling. I had been bitten. I drove the dog away and opened my
trousers; teeth marks showed deep and red.
I did not mind the stinging hurt, but I was afraid of an infection. When I went to the office to report
that the boss’s dog had bitten me, I was met by a tall blonde white girl.
“What do you want?” she asked.
“I want to see the boss, ma’am.”
“For what?”
“His dog bit me, ma’am, and I’m afraid I might get an infection.”
“Where did he bite you?”
“On my leg,” I lied, shying from telling her where the bite was.
“Let’s see,” she said.
“No, ma’am. Can’t I see the boss?”
“He isn’t here now,” she said, and went back to her typing.
I returned to work, stopping occasionally to examine the teeth marks; they were swelling. Later in
the afternoon a tall white man wearing a cool white suit, a Panama hat, and white shoes came
towards me.
“Is this the nigger?” he asked a black boy as he pointed at me.
“Yes, sir,” the black boy answered.
“Come here, nigger,” he called me.
I went to him.
“They tell me my dog bit you,” he said.
“Yes, sir.”

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I pulled down my trousers and he looked.

“Humnnn,” he grunted, then laughed. “A dog bite can’t hurt a nigger.”
3. Write a critical analysis of the following passage from The Tenant of Wildfell Hall by Anne
Bronte, paying attention to style, language and tone.
Near the top of this hill, about two miles from Linden – Car, stood Wildfell Hall, a superannuated
mansion of the Elizabethan era, built of dark grey stone, - venerable and picturesque to look at,
but, doubtless, cold and gloomy enough to inhabit, with its thick stone mullions and little latticed
panes, its time – eaten air holes, and its too lonely, too unsheltered situation, - only shielded from
the war of wind and weather by a group of Scotch firs, themselves half blighted with storms, and
looking as stern and gloomy as the Hall itself. Behind it lay a few desolate fields, and then, the
brown heath clad summit of the hill; before it (enclosed by stone walls, and entered by an iron gate
with large balls of grey granite- similar to those which decorated the roof and gables –
surmounting the gateposts), was a garden, - once, stocked with such hardly plants and flowers as
could best brook the soil and climate, and such trees and shrubs as could best endure the
gardener’s torturing shears, and most readily assume the shapes he chose to give them, - now,
having been left so many years, untilled and untrimmed, abandoned to the weeds and the grass, to
the frost and wind, the rain and the drought, it presented a very singular appearance indeed. The
close green walls of privet, that had bordered the principal walk, were two thirds withered away,
and the rest grown beyond all reasonable bounds; the old boxwood swan, that sat beside the
scraper, had lost its neck and half its body; the castellated towers of laurel in the middle of the
garden, the gigantic warrior that stood on one side of the gateway, and the lion that guarded the
other, were sprouted into such fantastic shapes as resembled nothing either in heaven or earth, or in
the waters under the earth, but, to my young imagination, they presented all of them a goblinish
appearance, that harmonized well with the ghostly legends and dark traditions our old nurse had
told us respecting the haunted hall and its departed occupants.
I had succeeded in killing a hawk and two crows when I came within sight of the mansion; and
then, relinquishing further depredations, I sauntered on, to have a look at the old place, and see
what changes had been wrought in it by its new inhabitant. I did not like to go quite to the front
and stare in at the gate; but I paused beside the garden wall, and looked, and saw no change –
except in one wing, where the broken windows and dilapidated roof had evidently been repaired,
and where a thin wreath of smoke was curling up from the stack of chimneys.
While I thus stood, leaning on my gun, and looking up at the dark gables, suck in an idle reverie,
weaving a tissue of wayward fancies, in which old associations and the fair young hermit, now
within those walls, bore a nearly equal part, I heard a slight rustling and scrambling just within the
garden; and, glancing in the direction whence the sound proceeded, I beheld a tiny hand elevated
above the wall: it clung to the topmost stone, and then another little hand was raised to take a
firmer hold, and then appeared a small white forehead, surmounted with wreaths of light brown
hair, with a pair of deep blue eyes beneath, and the upper portion of a diminutive ivory nose.
4. Write a critical appreciation of the following passage from Great Expectations by Charles
Dickens paying particular attention to methods, diction and tone.
I knocked and was told from within to enter, I entered, therefore and found myself in a pretty large
room, well lit with candles. No glimpse of daylight was to be seen in it. It was a dressing room. As

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I supposed from the furniture, though much of it was of forms and uses then quite unknown to
me,” but prominent in it was a draped table with a gilded looking- glass and that I made out a first
sight to be a fine lady’s dressing - table.
Whether I should have made out this object so soon, if there had been no fine lady siting at it, I
cannot say. In an arm-chair, with an elbow resting on the table and her head leaning on that hand,
sat the strangest lady I have ever seen or shall ever see.
She was dressed in rich materials- satins and lace and silks – all of white. Her shoes were white.
And she had a long white veil depended on her hair and she had bridal flowers in her hair but her
hair was white. Some bright jewels sparkled on her neck and on her hands and some other jewels
were sparkling on the table. Dresses, less splendid than the dress she wore, half packed trunks,
were scattered about. She had not quite finished dressing, for she had one shoe on – the other was
near her hand – her veil was half but arranged, her watch and chain were not put on, and some lace
for her bosom lay with those trinkets, and with her handkerchief and gloves and some flowers and
a Prayer- Book, all confusedly heaped about the locking – glass.
It was not in the first few moments that I saw all these things, though I saw more of them in the
first moments than might be supposed. But I saw that everything within my view which turned out
to be white, had been white long- ago, and lost its lustre, and was faded yellow. I saw the bride
within the bridal dress had withered like the dress and like the flowers and no brightness left but
the brightness of her sunken eyes. I saw the dress had been put upon the rounded figure of a young
woman and that the figure upon which it now hung loose had shrunk to skin and bone. Once, I had
been taken to see some ghastly waxwork at the Fair, representing I know not what impossible
personage lying in state. Once I had been taken to one of our old marsh churches to see a skeleton
in the ashes of a rich dress that had been dug out of a vault under the church.

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Chapter 5
APPRECIATION OF DRAMA
Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter carefully, you should be able to:
(a) Define what “appreciation of drama” is
(b) Outline the main steps in drama appreciation
(c) Write a critical appreciation of a given extract, discussing the specified aspects.
(d) Make a critical appraisal of dramatic techniques used in given extracts.
Introduction
Drama is a form of literary art that is very unique and different from the other genres. It is
primarily written to be performed in front of a live audience. In other words it has to be acted out
by identified professionals who will bring the story into life. This explains the structural
presentation of drama, that is the use of dialogue. The story is developed through the direct
interaction of characters and we are not only concerned by what they say, but also with their
actions and environment. At most times we are closely guided by the playwrights on the
development of the characters. This is done through a number of dramatic techniques that shall be
discussed in this chapter.
Dramatic techniques
In addition to numerous literary and poetic devices discussed in earlier chapters drama has genre-
specific techniques through which playwrights present their plays and characters. Learners should
make an effort to revisit the explanations given on literary devices in the previous chapters . The
dramatic devices outlined here apply mainly to the drama genre and are used by writers in
conjunction with the other common literary devices we have discussed earlier. These dramatic
techniques and their effect on the development of a play are briefly discussed below.
Scene introductions
This is the general background given by writers. This is given primarily to aid live performers to
create their stage set, that is, prepare their stage for live performance. Scene introductions for the
purposes of appreciation is significant as it establishes the scene and introduces the story, therefore
we can tell a lot about a scene basing on the description of the setting and the nature of stage
arrangement as well as the descriptions of the characters
Stage directions
These are the writer’s notes on the action of characters in a particular scene. Through stage
directions we are informed of the actual movements that take place on stage. We get to know of
gestures, nonverbal communications as well as the manner of articulation of a character’s speech.
Thus through an assessment of stage directions we are able to get an insight into a number of
important matters in a given extract. This will be discussed further in the chapter.
Sustained dialogue

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This refers to dialogue between two or more characters in a play or extract. From a sustained
dialogue we are able to determine the relationship between the characters as well as get their views
on a particular aspect. It is through sustained dialogue that the rest of the story unfolds to a great
extent.
Monologue
This is when a character is left alone on stage to express his thoughts on a particular subject. The
main distinction is the fact that the character would be talking aloud to himself and may be
disturbed by the entry of another character on stage as well as some other environmental
considerations (learners are encouraged to note the distinction between a monologue and a
soliloquy)
Soliloquy
This is when a character expresses one’s thoughts on a particular subject. This principally occurs
in the character’s mind .In other words a soliloquy is the expression of ones fears and joys to a
given audience. The main distinction between a soliloquy and a monologue is the fact that the
character is revealing his hidden thoughts to the audience (a mental realm yet a monologue is
basically a one man speech. Consider the following examples
Monologue; a distressed woman talking to herself aloud about her worries on where to get the next
meal
Soliloquy; a suicidal young man contemplating taking his life having sleepless nights on his
intended course of action
Task; what is the difference between the two examples noted above?
Aside
These are utterances that are said on stage that are not meant to be heard by other characters. For
example, a whisper between two characters on a detail that should not be heard by the other
characters would be audible to the audience though the characters would appear to be whispering
on stage.
Irony
This is a mode of expression through words or events conveying a reality different from and
usually opposite to appearance or expectation. The reader is usually given additional information
which one or some or all fictional characters lack. This, therefore, makes the character’s words
have a meaning to the reader that is not perceived by the character. Irony can be dramatic irony
or situational irony.
Use of sensory effects/visual and audio

This involves the use of sound effects or descriptions of environmental effects as thunder
lightning, etc. It also makes reference to aspects of stage lighting. What is of importance is the
ability by a student to relate any effect given or described by the writer to the development of the
extract as a whole.
Use of props and consumes

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Props are objects that are used by characters on stage. These include furniture brooms. As we
appreciate drama extracts we should note carefully the relevance of particular props used on the
development of the character, the scene, the setting, and the general atmosphere as a whole.
Working out meaning

We stated earlier that drama is written primarily for stage performance. It therefore requires
conscious appraisal. This is because we bring the story into life as we go through the text. Finding
meaning is therefore a complex process that calls for careful and repeated reading of the extract.
Some guidelines to identify the themes and working out the meaning could be by identification of
the climax of the extract. The climax of the extract may give hints of the issues under discussion.
The General approach
Comprehension level
The initial stage in drama appreciation is getting the sense of the extract. Remember unlike prose,
we have to move with the action and utterances of characters in order to get a grasp of the story.
This calls for attentive notice to the writer’s use of diction and presentation of character. As we
read we should take note of the stage directions given by the playright. These gives us an insight
into the state of the setting as well as other bodily movements that will aid our understanding .Take
note of the stage directions given below:
On the dark stage the screen is lighted with the image of blue roses.
[Gradually Laura’s figure becomes apparent and the screen goes out, the music subsides.
LAURA is seated in the delicate ivory chair at the small claw-foot table.]
[She wears a dress of soft violet material for a kimono-her hair is tied back from her forehead with
a ribbon. She is washing and polishing her collection of glass. Amanda appears on the fire –
escape steps at the sound of her accent. Laura catches her breath thrusts the bowl of ornaments
away and seat herself stiffly before the diagram of the type writer keyboard as though it held her
spellbound. Something has happened to Amanda. It is written in her face as she climbs to the
landing: a look that is grim and hope –less and little absurd. She has no one of those cheap or
imitation velvety-looking cloth coats with imitation fur collar. Her hat is five or six years old, one
of those dreadful cloche hats that were worn in the late twenties and she is clasping an enormous
black patent-leather pocketbook with nickel clasps and initials. This is her full-dress outfit, the
one she usually wears to the D.A.R. Before entering she looks through the door. She purses her
lips, opens her eyes very wide, rolls them upward, and shakes her head. Then she slowly lets
herself in the door. Seeing her mother’s expression LAURA touches her lips with a nervous
gesture.]
(Taken from the Glass Menagerie by Tennessee William (born 1914)
We should note that already before we get to have a grasp of the interaction of characters our
minds have been given a general idea on the background setting .We also get to know the state of
the various characters .Therefore, stage directions build the foundation on which the write can
develop his/her story.
It is also very important to follow closely the dialogue between characters, taking note of their
manner of articulation and the use of bodily communication. This is explained through the use of

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stage directions .The basic point in comprehension stage is our ability to have a grasp of the
writer’s main idea. Thus it is critical to note the following
 Take note of what the characters say.
 Take note of the characters’ actions
 Take note of the character’s use of diction
 Take note of the manner of articulation
 Take note of stage lighting, costume and relevance of props
 Establish the various relationships between and among characters
 Establish the topical issues being discussed.
 Take note of the environment where the scene is set (setting).
The reader has to look at the ways in which emotions, ideas and movements are conveyed. These
help the reader to gain more information about characters and the situation in the passage. The tone
is of importance in drama. The tone as in a poem/ prose passage will have to be worked out by the
reader. Some stage directions might be helpful in working out the tone as they may show how the
character is speaking e g
ESMERALDA; [Furiously disappointed] You piglet, idiot, cold hearted

imbecile is all you say after all that sacrifice?
ZWINGLI [ Not moved] what do I have to say? I have searched in my heart all I found is
what I said.
Another aspect to consider in the appreciation of a drama passage is the mood. The mood can be
viewed as the feeling of the playwright about the subject communicated. A dramatist uses
language to create the mood. The mood may be tense, relaxed, reflective or dynamic.
B) Judgement level
This is the stage in which we break down the given scene into smaller analysable units. We
focus our attention on identified lines. The main point is to comment on, for example, the
effect of dialogue between two characters on the development of the play .We note also the
authors use of dramatic techniques on the effect of what is being said. Note that we comment
on aspects that are currently before us as compared to only making a summative comment
(For example:, In this instance, stage directions help to reveal character x’s frustration on
being jilted, further compounding a very tense relationship that is revealed at this point).
We should also comment on the use of language in the development and presentation of the
characters, as well as the thematic plot of the extract. Also in this stage, we should be able to
determine the relationship between the characters involved in the extract. Note that we should
give credible reasons on why and how the writer is gradually developing his subject as the
extract is developing. In other words we should identify and explain the issues that we have
raised as and when they have been raised.

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C) Evaluation level
This is the stage where we make an assessment of the impact of the extract as a whole. Focus is
on the holistic comment on the presentation of the writer’s subject against his intention and or
relationship with the reader or critic. We evaluate the general feelings evoked by the extract as
well as the mood and tone of the presentation .We should note any change, in particular,
elements of the extract. For example, are the feelings constant through out, are the characters
static, did the writer use a uniform style through out? etc.
In summary prose appreciation skills should respond to these questions
[i] What is being said by the passage? (Meaning)
[ii] How is that being said? (style)
[iii] Why is it being said that way? (impact)
[iv] How do I feel about the passage (personal judgement)
NB: It is very important to note that comment and appreciation depends on our personal judgement
and experience. It is our duty to read widely so as to familiarise ourselves with a number of writing
styles etc. In the final analysis, we state that the guidelines given here are not in any way
exhaustive but serve a simple purpose of establishing a foundation on which students develop the
basic drama appreciation and analysis techniques, and in the long run develop their own
appreciation styles that are commensurate with their experience of literary and linguistic
development.
Demonstrations
[a] Write a critical appreciation of the following extracts from the Glass Menagerie by
Tennessee William (born 1914), discussing how dramatically effective the writer is in
establishing the characters of the two women and the tension between them.
On the dark stage the screen is lighted with the image of blue roses.
[Gradually Laura’s figure becomes apparent and the screen goes out, the music subsides.
LAURA is seated in the delicate ivory chair at the small claw-foot table.]
[She wears a dress of soft violet material for a kimono. Her hair is tied back from her
forehead with a ribbon. She is washing and polishing her collection of glass. Amanda
appears on the fire–escape steps at the sound of her accent. Laura catches her breath,
thrusts the bowl of ornaments away and seat herself stiffly before the diagram of the type
writer keyboard as though it held her spellbound. Something has happened to Amanda. It
is written in her face as she climbs to the landing: a look that is grim and hope –less and
little absurd. She has no one of those cheap or imitation velvety-looking cloth coats with
imitation fur collar. Her hat is five or six years old, one of those dreadful cloche hats that
were worn in the late twenties and she is clasping an enormous black patent-leather
pocketbook with nickel clasps and initials. This is her full-dress outfit, the one she usually
wears to the D.A.R. Before entering she looks through the door. She purses her lips, opens

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her eyes very wide, rolls them upward, and shakes her head. Then she slowly lets herself in
the door. Seeing her mother’s expression LAURA touches her lips with a nervous gesture.]
LAURA: Hello, Mother, I was – [She makes a nervous gesture toward the chart
on the wall. AMANDA leans against the shut door and stares at LAURA
with a martyred look.]
AMANDA: Deception? Deception? [She slowly removes her hat and gloves,
continuing the sweet suffering stare. She lets the hat and gloves fall on the
floor – a bit of acting.]
LAURA: [shakily] How was the D.A.R. meeting? [AMANDA slowly opens her purse
and removes a dainty white handkerchief which she shakes out delicately
and delicately touches to her lips and nostrils.] Didn’t you go to the D.A.R.
meeting, Mother?
AMANDA: [faintly, almost inaudibly] No. - No [Then more forcibly.] I did not have
the stretch – to go to the D.A.R. In fact, I did not have the courage! I
wanted to find a hole in the ground and hide myself in it for ever! [She
crosses slowly to the wall and removes the diagram of the type-writer
keyboard. She holds it in front of her for a second, staring at it sweetly and
sorrowfully – then bites her lips and tears it into two pieces.]
LAURA: [faintly] Why did you do that, Mother? [AMANDA repeats the same
procedure with the chart of the Gregg alphabet.] Why are you -?
AMANDA: Why? Why? How old are you, Laura?
LAURA: Mother, you know my age.
AMANDA: I thought that you were an adult; it seems that I was mistaken. [She crosses
slowly to the sofa and sinks down and stares at LAURA]
LAURA: Please don’t stare at me, Mother.
[AMANDA closes her eyes and lowers her head. Count ten.]
AMANDA: What are we going to do, what is going to become of us, what is the future?
[Count ten.]
LAURA: Has something happened, Mother? [AMANDA draws a long breath
and takes out the handkerchief again. Dabbing process.] Mother, has –
something happened?

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AMANDA: I’ll be all right in a minute, I’m just bewildered –[Count five.] – by life …I
went to the typing instructor and introduced myself as your mother. She
didn’t know who you were. Wingfield, she said. We don’t have any such
student enrolled at the school! I assured her she did, that you had been going
to classes since early in January. ‘I wonder,’ she said, ‘if you could be
talking about that terribly shy little girl who dropped out of school after only
a few days’ attendance? ‘No, I said, ‘Laura, my daughter, has been going to
school every day for the past six weeks!’ ‘Excuse me,’ she said. She took
the attendance book out and there was your name, unmistakably printed, and
all the dates you were absent until they decided that you’ had dropped out of
school.
Demonstrated Answer
The stage directions in the extract are very detailed. The playwright uses them to set the scene,
create the atmosphere and establish the tension between the two characters. A romantic
atmosphere is created by the mention of “blue roses” and the lighted screen on the dark stage. The
fact that it is a soft colour “blue” and roses are symbols of love, a hint at a softness that the
audience goes on to link with Laura. The music and the “delicate ivory” chair build up the
romantic atmosphere. She appears gradually, giving the audience enough room to merge her
personality and the blue roses, creating a calm and soft romantic girl.
The softness of the scene and the character is taken further through, the description of Laura’s
dressing as “soft violet”. Thus a picture of a calm domestic scene is set and a character who is
deep, serene, romantic and sophisticated is projected onto the audience.
The playwright employs dramatic contrast. Amanda’s appearance is sudden, like an intrusion on
the peaceful scene. The atmosphere is disturbed and tension hangs in the air. The attention of the
audience is held through this device. This dramatic contrast is further explored through the dress of
Laura and Amanda. Laura wears a dress of soft violet material while Amanda wears a cheap or
imitation of velvety looking coat with a that five or six years old. The dress spells tension as a
result of acute differences. Laura’s catching of her breath is a sign that she is surprised or even
frightened. The audience might sympathise with Laura because their hearts would have been won
by how beautifully she would have been depicted.
However, Laura’s actions of thrusting the bowl of ornaments away draws the audience’s suspicion.
The audience wonders why she is pretending and is worried about the disharmony between her
outlook and what she is actually doing-deceiving Amanda. There is suspense as to what is actually
going on.
The stiffness with which she seats at the typewriter is in great contrast to the softness of the earlier
atmosphere. It introduces a sense of discord into the air and captures the attention of the audience.
It surprises the audience.
The stage directions bring out the differences in the two women. Amanda is depicted as rather
grim and dry, whereas Laura is delicate. Even their names seem to suggest the same: Laura –
evoking a softness and sweetness and Amanda being rather harsh or masculine.

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The description of Amanda’s actions also creates suspense. There is a vivid description of her
facial expressions and body movements. All these are eye catching. For example, pursing lips,
opening eyes very wide and rolling them. All this is very dramatic. It makes the audience wonder
what is going on as it is an unlikely reaction to the peaceful calm atmosphere prevailing before she
comes into the house. It heightens suspense among the audience.
Dramatic tension is achieved by Amanda’s slow entrance and Laura’s reaction to it. She touches
her lips nervously. There is suspense about the nature of the relationship between the two women.
The slow entrance of Amanda, and the looking at the door makes her appear lacking in trust,
suspicious and also like an eaves dropper.
Tension is worsened by Amanda’s picture - leaning against the shut door as if to say there is no
way of escape for Laura. The audience’s heart goes to Laura who has “a matyred look”. It is as if
Amanda is a predator and Laura the prey. “Matyred look”
is also suggestive of suffering gravely. The idea is further developed through the paradox “sweet
suffering stare” which captures Amanda’s mixed feeling for Laura.
The audience is shocked by Amanda’s utterance “Deception. Deception?” The utterance seems out
of place because Laura in the minds of most of the audience, is too sweet to be deceptive.
Exaggeration is employed to expose Amanda’s melodramatic nature. Through melodrama, the

intense emotions of Amanda are shown. Letting the gloves and the hat fall on the floor is a
dramatic act of hopelessness and disappointment. And it is done so slowly when the audience is
itching to know what the real issue is. The drama continues with Amanda speaking faintly, but
there is nothing yet to draw audience sympathy towards her.
Again there is dramatic contrast when Amanda says “-No- No. (Then more forcibly) “I did not
have the strength……”
The audience must have been frightened by this. It could even make the audience jump because
there is no warning that there will be a change in the pitch of Amanda’s voice. This shows Amanda
as irate and bad tempered.
The fact that there is no hint as to what has happened so far, is an effective way of creating
suspense. There is more drama in the tearing of the diagram. Now there is alarm, especially when
the audience and Laura does not know why Amanda is doing it. Laura and the audience are at loss
as to why Amanda is acting out of control, making the latter sympathetic to the former. Amanda is
presented here as short tempered, too emotional, irate and violent.
The pauses where Amanda counts to five, create dramatic tension together with the rhetoric
questions;
AMANDA: Why? Why? How old are you, Laura?”
They also show Amanda as being too emotional to be reasonable.
Very dramatic is the fact that the unraveling of the mystery only comes right at the end and is a
blow to both Laura and the audience. The character of Laura in the audience’s mind is shattered.

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There is a big contrast between the Laura in the extract and her real character. The revelation itself
is very dramatic because the audience does not see the truth coming until it hits them. The real
character of Laura is of a deceitful, dishonest, cunning, crafty, nervous, shy and pretentious girl.
On the other hand the real character of Amanda is of a loving, concerned, determined and a too
trusting mother who has been disappointed by her daughter.
Demonstration 2
Write a critical appraisal of the following extract from Arms and the Man by Bernard Shaw,
paying attention to the effect of the dramatic techniques used to portray character.
They go into the house together affectionately. Sergius, left alone with Raina, looks anxiously at
her, fearing that she is still offended. She smiles, and stretches out her arms to him.
SERGIUS [hastening to her] Am I forgiven?
RAINA [placing her hands on his shoulders as she looks up at him with admiration and worship]
My hero! My king!
SERGIUS. My queen! [He kisses her on the forehead].
RAINA. How I have envied you, Sergius! You have been out in the world, on the field of battle,
able to prove yourself there worthy of any woman in the world; whilst I have had to sit at
home inactive – dreaming – useless – doing nothing that could give me the right to call
myself worthy of any man.
SERGIUS. Dearest: all my deeds have been yours. You inspired me. I have gone through the war
like a knight in a tournament with his lady looking down at him!
RAINA. And you have never been absent from my thoughts for a moment. [Very solemnly]
Sergius: I think we two have found the higher love. When I think of you, I feel that I could
never do a base deed, or think an ignoble thought.
SERGIUS. My lady and my saint! [He clasps her reverently].
RAINA [returning his embrace] My lord and my –
SERGIUS. Sh – sh! Let me be the worshipper, dear. You little know how unworthy even the best
man is of a girl’s pure passion!
RAINA. I trust you. I love you. You will never disappoint me, Sergius. [Louka is heard singing
within the house. They quickly release each other]. I can’t pretend to talk indifferently
before her: my heart is too full. [Louka comes from the house with her tray. She goes to the
table, and begins to clear it, with her back turned to them]. I will get my hat; and then we
can go out until lunch time. Wouldn’t you like that?
SERGIUS. Be quick. If you are away five minutes, it will seem five hours. [Raina runs to the top
of the steps, and turns there to exchange looks with him and wave him a kiss with both
hands. He looks after her with emotion for a moment; then turns slowly away, his face

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radiant with the loftiest exaltation. The movement shifts his field of vision, into the corner
of which there now comes the tail of Louka’s double apron. His attention is arrested at
once. He takes a stealthy look at her, and begins to twirl his moustache mischievously, with
his left hand akimbo on his hip. Finally,. Striking the ground with his heels in something of
a cavalry swagger, he strolls over to the other side of the table, opposite her, and says]
Louka: do you know what the higher love is?
LOUKA [astonished] No, sir.
SERGIUS. Very fatiguing thing to keep up for any length of time, Louka. One feels the need of
some relief after it.
LOUKA [innocently] Perhaps you would like some coffee, sir? [She stretches her hand across the
table for the coffee pot].
SERGIUS [taking her hand] Thank you, Louka
LOUKA [pretending to pull] Oh, sir, you know I didn’t mean that. I’m surprised at you!
SERGIUS [coming clear of the table and drawing her with him] I am surprised at myself, Louka.
What would Sergius, the hero of Slivnitza, say if he saw me now? What would Sergius, the
apostle of the higher love, say if he saw me now? What would the half dozen Sergiuses
who keep popping in and out of this handsome figure of mine say if they caught us here?
[Letting go her hand and slipping his arm dexterously round her waist] Do you consider my
figure handsome, Louka?
LOUKA. Let me go, sir. I shall be disgraced. [She struggles: he holds her inexorably]. Oh, will
you let go?
SERGIUS [looking straight into her eyes] No.
LOUKA. Then stand back where we cant be seen. Have you no common sense?
SERGIUS. Ah! That’s reasonable. [He takes her into the stable yard gateway, where they are
hidden from the house].
LOUKA [plaintively] I may have been seen from the windows: Miss Raina is sure to be spying
about after you.
SERGIUS [stung: letting her go] Take care, Louka. I may be worthless enough to betray the
higher love; but do not you insult it.
LOUKA [demurely] Not for the world, sir, I’m sure. May I go on with my work, please, now?
SERGIUS [again putting his arm round her] You are a provoking little witch, Louka. If you were
in love with me, would you spy out of windows on me?
LOUKA. Well, you see, sir, since you say you are half a dozen different gentlemen all at once, I
should have a great deal to look after.

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SERGIUS [charmed] Witty as well as pretty. [He tries to kiss her].
LOUKA [avoiding him] No: I don’t want your kisses. Gentle- folk are all alike: you making love
to me behind Miss Raina’s back; and she doing the same behind yours
SERGIUS [recoiling a step] Louka!
LOUKA. It shews how little you really care.
Demonstrated answer
Students are expected to discuss the general themes of deceit or treachery and adultery in love
relationships. They are also expected to discuss the characters of Raina, Sergius and Louka and the
techniques used, showing the impact of those techniques.
KEY ELEMENTS
- Raina and Sergius offering each other lip service when behind each other’s backs
they are involved in infatuation.
- Louka used as a commentator – offering comments on “gentle folk”.
- Note the use of dramatic irony, exaggeration, suspense, satire.
- Students expected to comment in detail on the stage directions.
Character Traits
Raina
- Flatterer – flatters Serguis
- Pretentious and hypocritical
- Double faced.
- Appears to be forgiving by nature, trusting, well intentioned and affectionate. But

all these appear to be smokescreens to hide her true character.
- Unfaithful (though suggested not stated or seen).
Note: The last section is what we get at first sight on the character of Raina.
Sergius
- Pretentious – clasps Raina reverently – makes him a pretender or charlatan.
- Mischievous, lustful – stealthy looks at Louka and begins to twirl his moustache.
- Crafty
- Double faced – which makes him a liar and hypocritical
- Unfaithful
- Flirteous and seductive
Louka
- Witty, intelligent, innocent frank, honest and brave.

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Dramatic Techniques
Dramatic Irony-to the audience all the actions of Raina of being forgiving, affectionate, trusting
and well intentioned are overturned. The dramatic end of the play upsets the audience’s
expectations, as Raina seems to have an affair behind Sergius’ back.
Stage Directions
Including gestures-for example when Raina smiles and stretches her arms” Sergius appears to be
forgiving by nature”. When she places her hands on his shoulder, she appears to be affectionate.
- When Sergius stealthly looks at Louka and twirls his moustache, he is mischievous.
- When he puts his arm around her and tries to kiss her, he is flirteous and seductive.
Exaggeration
Raina looks at Sergius with “admiration and worship”. Sergius also worships Raina, views her as
“my saint” and reverently claspses her. The words “my saint” becomes ironical. The gentle aspects
expected from them are not what we see. It is actually the opposite. In the use of the words, Louka
is therefore satirical, mocks or laughs at the folly of Sergius and Raina.
Note: students should explain in detail, show and support their points. What has been given here is
a guideline. A student may have a different argument or view that is still acceptable.
Examination type Questions

1 Write a critical appreciation of the following extract from Julius Caesar by William
Shakespeare paying attention to language and tone
Brutus: What said Popilius Lena?
Cassius He wish’d to – day our enterprise might thrive.
I fear our purpose is discovered.
Brutus: Look how he makes to Caesar. Mark him.
Cassius: Casca, be sudden, for we fear prevention.
Brutus, what shall be done? If this be known,
Cassius or Caesar never shall turn back, For I will slay myself.
Brutus: Cassius, be constant.
Popilius Lena speaks not of our purposes;
For look, he smiles, and Caesar doth not change.
Cassius: Trebonius knows his time; for look you,

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Brutus, he draws Mark Antony out of the way.
[Exeunt Antony and Trebonius.
Decius: Where is Metellus Cimber? Let him go
And presently prefer his suit to Caesar.
Brutus: He is address’d; press near and second him.
Cinna: Casca, you are the first that rears your hand.
Caesar: Are we all ready? What is now amiss?
That Caesar and his Senate must redress?
Metellus: Most high, most mighty, and most puissant Caesar,
Metellus Cimber throws before thy seat
An humble heart.[Kneeling.]
Caesar:I must prevent thee, Cimber.
These couchings and these lowly courtesies
Might fire the blood of ordinary men,
And turn pre-ordinance and first decree
Into the law of children. Be not fond
That will be thaw’d from the true quality
With that which melteth fools – I mean, sweet words,
Low-crooked curtsies, and base spaniel fawning.
Thy brother by decree is banished;
If thou dost bend, and pray, and fawn for him,
I spurn thee like a cur out of my way
Know, Caesar doth not wrong; nor without cause.
Will he be satisfied.
1. Write a critical appraisal of the following passage from The Trials of Brother Jero by
Wole Soyinka paying attention to his portrayal of character.
CHUME: I am nearly late for work.

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AMOPE: I know you can’t wait to get away. You only use your work as an excuse. A Chief
Messenger in the Local Government Office – do you call that work? Your old school
friends are now Ministers, riding in long cars… [Chume gets his bike and flees. Amope
shouts after him, craning her neck in his direction.]
AMOPE: Don’t forget to bring some more water when you’re returning from work. [She relapses
and sighs heavily.] He doesn’t realize it is all for his own good. He’s no worse than other
men, but he won’t make the effort to become something in life. A Chief Messenger. Am I
to go to my grave as the wife of a Chief Messenger?
[She is seated so that the Prophet does not immediately see her when he opens the window
to breathe some fresh air. He stares straight out for a few moments, then shuts his eyes
tightly, clasps his hands together above his chest, chin uplifted for a few moments’
meditation. He relaxes and is about to go in when he sees Amope’s back. He leans out to
try and take in the rest of her but this proves impossible. Puzzled, he leaves the window and
goes round to the door, which is then seen to open about a foot and shut rapidly.
Amope is calmly chewing kola. As the door shuts she takes out a notebook and a pencil
and checks some figures.
Brother Jeroboam known to his congregation as Brother Jero, is seen again at the window,
this time with his canvas pouch and divine stick. He lowers the bag to the ground eases one
leg over the window.]
AMOPE: [without looking back.] Where do you think you’re going? [Brother Jero practically
flings himself back into the house.]
AMOPE: One pound, eight shillings and ninepence for three months. And he calls himself a man
of God.
[She puts the notebook away, unwraps the brazier and proceeds to light it preparatory to
getting breakfast.
The door opens another foot.]
JERO: [Coughs.] Sister…. My dear sister in Christ…..
AMOPE: I hope you slept well, Brother Jero….
JERO: Yes, thanks be to God. [Hems and coughs.] I –er – I hope you have not come to stand in
the way of Christ and his work.
AMOPE: If Christ doesn’t stand in the way of me and my work.
JERO: Beware of pride, sister. That was a sinful way t talk.
AMOPE: Listen, you bearded debtor. You owe me one pound, eight and nine. You promised you
would pay me three months ago but of course you have been too busy doing the work of
God. Well, let me tell you that you are not going anywhere until you do a bit of my own
work.

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JERO: But the money is not in the house. I must get it from the post office before I can pay you.
AMOPE: [ fanning the brazier.] You’ll have to think of something else before you call me a fool.
Brother Jeroboam shuts the door.
A woman trader goes past with a deep calabash bowl on her head.]
AMOPE: Ei, what are you selling?
[The trader hesitates, decides to continue on her way.]
AMOPE: Isn’t it you I’ m calling? What have you got there?
TRADER: [stops, without turning round.] Are you buying for trade or just for yourself?
AMOPE: It might help if you first told me what you have.
TRADER: Smoked fish.
AMOPE: Well, let’s see it.
TRADER: [hesitates.] All right, help me to set it down. But I don’t usually stop on the way.
AMOPE: Isn’t it money you are going to the market for, and isn’t it money I ‘m going to pay you?
TRADER: [as Amope gets up and unloads her.] Well, just remember it is early in the morning.
Don’t start me off wrong by haggling.
AMOPE: All right, all right. [Looks at the fish.] How much a dozen?
TRADER: One and three, and I’m not taking a penny less.
AMOPE: It is last week’s, isn’t it?
TRADER: I’ve told you, you‘re my first customer, so don’t ruin my trade with the ill- luck of the
morning.
AMOPE: [holding one up to her nose.] Well, it does smell a bit, doesn’t it?
TRADER: [putting back the wrapping.] Maybe it is you who haven’t had a bath for a week.
AMOPE: Maybe it is you who haven’t had a bath for a week.
AMOPE: Yeh! All right, go on. Abuse me. Go on and abuse me when all I wanted was a few of
your miserable fish. I deserve it for trying to be neighbourly with a cross – eyed wretch, a
pauper that you are….
TRADER: It is early in the morning, I am not going to let you infect my luck with your foul
tongue by answering you back. And just you keep your cursed fingers from my goods
because that is where you’ll meet with the father of all devils if you don’t.

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[She lifts the load to her head all by herself.]
AMOPE: Yes, go on. Carry the burden of your crimes and take your beggar’s rags out of my sight
….
TRADER: I leave you in the hands of your flatulent belly, you barren sinner. May you never do
good in all your life.
AMOPE: You’re cursing me now, are you?
[She leaps up just in time to see Brother Jero escape through the window.]
Help! Thief! Thief! You bearded rogue. Call yourself a prophet? But you’ll find it is easier
to get out than to get in.
You’ll find that out or my name isn’t Amope….
[She turns on the trader who has already disappeared.]
Do you see what you have done, you spindle – leg toad?
Receiver of stolen goods, just wait until the police catch up with you…..
2. In the following passage from Waiting for Godot by Samuel Beckett). Estragon and
Vladimir are trying to ”take their lives” because to them the world is full of troubles and
miseries. They have tried to wait for Godot to help them end their suffering but Godot has
failed to turn up.
Write a critical commentary of the extract paying attention to it’s dramatic techniques.
ESTRAGON : Oh yes, let’s go far away from here.
VLADIMIR : We can’t.
ESTRAGON : Why not?
VLADIMIR : We have to come back tomorrow
ESTRAGON : What for?
VLADIMIR : To wait for Godot
ESTRAGON : Ah! (Silence). He didn’t come?
VLADIMIR : No.
ESTRAGON : And now it’s too late.
VLADIMIR : Yes, now it’s night
ESTRAGON : And if we dropped him? (Pause) If we dropped him?
VLADIMIR : He’d punish us. (Silence. He looks at the tree.)

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ESTRAGON : (looking at the tree). What is it?
VLADIMIR : It’s the tree.
ESTRAGON : Yes, but what kind?
VLADIMIR : I don’t know. A willow.
(Estragon draws Vladimir towards the tree. They stand motionless before it.
Silence).
ESTRAGON : Why don’t we hang ourselves?
VLADIMIR : With what?
ESTRAGON : You haven’t got a bit of rape?
VLADIMIR : No.
ESTRAGON : Then we can’t. (Silence)
VLADIMIR : Let’s go.
ESTRAGON : Wait; there’s my belt.
VLADIMIR : It’s too short.
ESTRAGON : You could hang on to my legs.
VLADIMIR : And who’d hang on to mine?
ESTRAGON : True
VLADIMIR : Show all the same. (Estragon loosens the cord that holds up his trousers
which are too big for him. They falls about his ankles. They look at the
cord.) It might do at a pinch. But is it strong enough?
ESTRAGON : We’ll soon see. Here
(They each take an end of the cord and pull. It breaks. They
almost fall).
VLADIMIR : Not worth a curse. (Silence)
ESTRAGON : You say we have to come back tomorrow?
VLADIMIR : Yes.
ESTRAGON : Then we bring a good bit of rope.
VLADIMIR : Yes. (Silence)

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ESTRAGON : Didi
VLADIMIR : Yes
ESTRAGON : I can’t go on like this.
VLADIMIR : That’s what you think
ESTRAGON : If we parted? That might be better for us.
VLADIMIR : We’ll hang ourselves tomorrow. (Pause) Unless Godot comes.
ESTRAGON : And if he comes?
VLADIMIR : We’ll be saved.
(Vladimir takes off his hat (Lucky’s) peers inside it, feels about inside it,
shakes it, knocks on the crown, puts it on again.
ESTRAGON : Well? Shall we go
VLADIMIR : Pull on your trousers.
ESTRAGON : What?
VLADIMIR : Pull on your trousers?
ESTRAGON : You want me to pull off my trousers?
VLADIMIR : Pull on your trousers.
ESTRAGON : (realizing his trousers are down). True
He pulls up his trousers.
VLADIMIR : Well? Shall we go?
ESTRAGON : Yes, let’s go.
They do not move.
CURTAIN
Write a critical appreciation of the following passage from Antony and Cleopatra by William
Shakespeare paying attention to language and tone.
Enter, below, Antony, borne by the Guard.
Cleopatra: Osun,
Burn the great sphere thou mov’st in !

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Darkling stand
The varying shore o’ th’ world. O Antony,
Antony, Antony! Help, Chairman; help, Iras, help;
Help, friends below! Let’s draw him hither.
Antony Peace!
Not Caesar’s valour hath o’earthrown Antony,
But Antony’s hath triumph’d on itself.
Cleopatra: So it should be, that none but Antony
Should conquer Antony; but woe ‘tis so!
Antony: Iam dying, Egypt, dying; only
I here importune death a while, until
Of many thousand kisses the poor last
I lay upon the lips.
Cleopatra: I dare not, dear.
Dear my lord, pardon! I dare not.
Lest I be taken. Not th’ impericious show
Of the full-fortun’d Caesar ever shall
Be brooch’d with me. If knife, drugs, serpents, have
Edge, sting or operation, I am safe.
Your wife Octavia, with here modest eyes
And still conclusion, shall acquire no honour
Demuring upon me. But come, come, Antony-
Help me, my women-we must draw thee up;
Assist good friends.
Antony: O, quick, or I am gone.
Cleopatra: Here is sport indeed! How heavy weighs my lord!
Our strength is all gone into heaviness;

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That makes the weight. Heard I great Juno’s power,
The strong –wing’d Mercury should fetch thee up,
And set thee by Jove’s side. Yet come a little.
Wishers were ever fools. O come, come, come,
[They heave Antony aloft to Cleopatra.
And welcome, welcome! Die where thou hast liv’d.
Quicken with kissing. Had my lips that power,
Thus would I wear them out.
All:A heavy sight!
5. Write a critical appreciation of the following extract from The Ruffian on the Stair
[1967] by Joe Orton showing how effectively in dramatic terms the writer captures the
thoughts and feelings of Joyce as the scene unfolds.
Morning
JOYCE pauses in cleaning the room.
JOYCE. I can’t go the park. I can’t sit on cold stone. I might
get piles from the lowered temperature. I wouldn’t want
them on top of everything else.
She puts down the duster, apathetically.
I’d try, maybe, a prayer. But the Virgin would turn a deaf
ear to a Protestant. [Pause]. I can’t be as alone as all that.
Nobody ought to be. It’s heartbreaking.
She listens. There is silence.
The number of humiliating admission I h’ve made. You’d
Think it would draw me closer to somebody. But it doesn’t.
Three short rings are given on the doorbell.
Who’s there?
No answer.

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What do you want? [Making up her mind] I;II answer the
Door to no one. They can hammer it down. [Pause]. Is it the
Milk? [Calling]. Are you deaf? No, it wouldn’t be him. He
Only rings for his money.
She stands behind the door.
[Loudly]. Are you insurance? [Pause]. But he comes on
Friday. This is a Wednesday.
She backs away from the door, anxious.
Nobody comes of a Wednesday. [She bends down and peeps
Through the letter-box]. If it’s money you’re after, there’s
Not a thing in my purse.
She bites her lip, standing in thought.
[Loudly]. Are you from the Assistance? They come any
time. I have had them on Monday. They come whenever they
choose. It’s right. With a smile and growing confidence].
You’re the Assistance, aren’t you? [Her voice rises]. Are you
Or aren’t you?
Glass is heard breaking from the bedroom. She runs to the
entrance of the bedroom and leaps back, startled; a piece of
brick has been thrown through the window. JOYCE stares, her
mouth trembling. Another piece of brick hurtles through the
window, smashing another pane.
[Screaming]. It’s him! He’s breaking in. God Almighty, what
shall I do? He’II murder me!
She stamps on the floor.
Mary! Mary!
She runs to the door, opens it and runs out into the passage.

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her frantic tones can be heard crying:
Mrs O’Connor! Mrs O’Connor!
She runs back into the room; slams the door shut.
The lock drops with a crash on the floor. She picks it up stares
at it and then shrieks with fright.
It’s come off! It’s broke!
She tries to fit the lock back on the door.
I ‘ve told him so often. I’ve told him to – mend it!
She gives breathless. Then she tries to pull the settee out
into the room, but gives up and picks up a chair which she
pushes against the door and sits on.
He’II easily fling this aside. Oh, Michael, I’m to be murdered
Because you’re too bone idle to fix a lock.
There is a prolonged ringing on the door bell
Let me alone! I’m going to report you. I’ve seen them at the
station. They’ve set a trap. I’m safe here. We have an
extremely strong and reliable Chubb lock on the door. So
you’re trapped. Ha, Ha! The detectives are watching the
house.
The front door is kicked. The chair pushes away and JOYCE
is flung aside. She backs into the bedroom.
If it’s the gun you want, I don’t know where he’s put it.
He’s taken it. [Pause]. I may be able to find it. Is that what
You want?
Outside the door a burst of music is heard from a transistor
radio. There is knocking. The bell rings. A sudden silence.
Laughter. Silence. A splintering of wood.

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[JOYCE calls shrilly]. I’ve told hubby. He’s seeing some-
one. You’II laugh on the other side of your face.
Suddenly, giving up all pretence, she bursts into tears.
Go away. There’s a good boy. I don’t know what you want.
I’ve no money. Please go away. Please go away. Please, please, please…….
[She sobs].

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Chapter 6
Cross appreciation of literature genres
Learning objectives
After studying this chapter one should be able to:
a) Show an understanding of cross genre appreciation
b) Outline the main challenges associated with cross appreciation of literature genres
c) Examine the relevant approaches to the cross analysis of given genres
d) Compare and contrast given passages, poems and or plays
Introduction
The core- business of literature study is “the Appreciation,” of texts; extracts or the entire set book.
Comment and appreciation is usually directed towards one particular genre. How, for instance, do
we react to a situation requiring one to compare and contrast Prose and poetry or drama? This
chapter aims to give students and teachers a general hint on how to go about it when comparing
and contrasting literary works taken from different genres.
The approach
The fundamental point to note in cross appreciation is that it tests for a wholistic knowledge of all
the literature genres. Therefore in order to effectively tackle questions requiring cross appreciation,
one should be aware of all main steps in appreciation of literature. The skills that are required
when comparing prose passages or a drama and poetry are the same, but the comparison should be
in the light of the genres used. In this light, we would suggest that one revisits the earlier chapters
that dealt with the appreciation of different genres. Cross appreciation is therefore an overall
appreciation off all literature genres still centering on various aspects of literature ranging from
treatment of the subject, attitude of the writers’ tone, to stylistic and narrative features.
Methodology
The general methodology we discussed in earlier chapters applies to cross appreciation of genres.
The main challenge is psychological, that inherent fear in our minds of “getting it right”. To this
effect we should firmly place in our mind the definition and value of literature which we discussed
in the first chapter, that is the study of works of literary art, which is the expression of human
thought and feeling in written form in the mediums of prose, drama or poetry. Therefore
literature genres all spring from one basic foundation which is: the profound desire by humanity to
express ideas on different aspects of life. Our principal motive in appreciation is to establish the
main idea behind a piece of writing. We explore the various ways in which the writer has
presented the subject as well as make an evaluation on the effectiveness of literary and linguistic
techniques in the presentation of the subject.

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Important points to note
 Identify the main subject of discussion in both genres. In most instances the subject
between two different extracts being compared is the same. What differs is the manner of
presentation.
 Explain the development of the subject matter noting particular use of genre- specific
linguistic techniques in the development of the main idea. This will prove to the main point
of variance as different genres are presented differently.
 Consider the use and impact of literary devices in the development of the subject matter. At
this point we take particular note of general devices that apply to all the genres as well as
other devices that may be genre- specific in nature, this will form areas of similarity and
contrast respectively.
 Evaluate the general effectiveness of each writer in the presentation of the subject
discussing issues such as the mood .tone feelings etc. At this point we can make a
judgement on which piece of writing presented the subject matter in a stronger manner etc.
Remember that when comparing and contrasting pieces of work we use the tennis ball
technique we discussed in chapter three. At the end of the day the essay we present should be
interwoven with references and evaluations from both genres.
Comprehension level
The initial stage in cross appreciation is getting the sense of the extracts. Remember we have to
have around knowledge of the characteristics of the genres being, contrasted in order to get a grasp
of the story. This calls for attentive notice to the writer’s use of diction and presentation of
characters.The reader has to look at the ways in which emotions, ideas and movements are
conveyed. These help the reader to gain more information about characters and the situation in the
passage.
B) Judgement level
This is the stage in which we break down the given extracts in smaller units that can be easily
dealt with. For example, breaking a poem into stanzas or lines, a passage into paragraphic units
etc. This will make it possible for us to focus on identified lines. The main point is to comment
on for example the effect of dialogue between two characters on the development of the play.
The writer’s use, of language to portray character in a poem or prose passage. We note also the
authors use of dramatic and literary techniques on the effect of what is being said. Note that we
comment on aspects that are currently before us as compared to only making a summative
comment
We should also comment on the use of language in the development and presentation of the
characters as well as the thematic plot of the extract, noting any similarities or differences in
the manner of presentation. Note that we should also give credible reasons on why and how
the writers gradually develop their concerns. In other words we should identify and explain the
issues that we have raised as and when they have been raised, commenting on any similarity of
difference.

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C) Evaluation level
This is the stage where we make an assessment of the impact of the extracts as a whole. Focus
is on the holistic comment on the presentation of the writers subjects vis a vis their intention
and or relationship with the reader or critic. We evaluate the general feelings evoked by the
extracts as well as the mood and tone of the presentations .We should note any change in
particular elements of the extracts, for example, are the feelings constant through out, are the
characters static, did the writers use a uniform style through out? etc.
NB: It is very important to note that comment and appreciation of different genres depends on our
personal judgement and experience. It is our duty to read widely so as to familiarise ourselves with
a number of writing styles etc. We urge learners to engage in reading a variety of texts across all
the genre and desist from the habit of being enslaved to only one form of literature. In doing so we
shall be able to gain critical appreciation skills that will enable us to tackle all genres with ease, be
it cross appreciation or the general independent analysis. In the final analysis we state that the
guidelines given here are not in any way exhaustive but serve a simple purpose of establishing a
foundation on which students develop the basic cross appreciation and analysis techniques and in
the long run develop their own appreciation styles that are commensurate with their experience, in
literary and linguistic development.
Demonstrations
1. Compare and contrast the following passages from “The Grass Is Singing (1950) by
Doris Lessing with the poem”, The Zulu Girl by Roy Campbell (1901-1957). Does
your study of one clarify your reading of the other in any way?
The Zulu Girl

When in the sun, the hot red acres smoulder
Down where the sweating gang it’s labour plies
A girl flings down her hoe, and from her shoulder
Unslings her child tormented by the flies
She takes him to a ring of shadow pooled
By thorn-trees purpled with the blood of ticks
While her sharp nails, in slow caresses ruled
Prowl through his hair sharp electric clicks
His sleepy mouth plugged by the heavy nipple
Tugs like a puppy, grunting as he feds
Through his frail nerves her own deep languor’s ripple
Like a broad river sighing through its reeds
Yet in that drowsy stream his flesh imbibes

An old unquenched unsotherable heat -
The curbed ferocity of beaten tribes
The sullen dignity of their defeat
Her body looms above him like a hill
Within whose shade a village lies at rest,
Or the first cloud so terrible and still
That bears the coming harvest in it’s breast .

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The Grass Is Singing
His eyes were inflamed: she could see he had been drinking. She said in kitchen kaffir: ‘Get the
boys on to the lands in ten minutes’. ‘The boss is better?’ he asked with hostile indifference. She
ignored the question, and said, ‘You can tell them that I will take two and six off the ticket of
everyone of them that isn’t at work in ten minutes. ‘She held out her wrist and pointed to the
watch, showing him the time interval.
The man slouched and stooped in the sunshine, resenting her presence; the native women stared
and laughed; the filthy, underfed children crowded around, whispering to each other; the starved
dogs slunk in the background among the vines and mealies. She hated the place, which she never
entered before. ‘Filthy savages!’ she thought vindictively. She looked straight into the reddened,
beer-clouded eyes of the headman, and repeated. ‘Ten minutes’. Then turned and walked off down
the winding path through the trees, listening for the sounds of the natives turning out of the huts
behind her.
She sat in the car waiting, beside the land where she knew they were supposed to be reaping
maize. After half an hour a few strugglers arrived, the head boy among them. At the end of an hour
not more than half of the labourers were present: some had gone visiting to neighbouring
compounds without permission, some lay drunk in their huts. She called the head boy to her, and
took down the names of those who were absent, writing them in her big awkward hand on a scrap
of paper, spelling the unfamiliar names with difficulty. She remained there the whole morning,
watching the struggling line of working boys, the sun glaring down through the old canvas hood on
to her bare head. There reluctantly, in a sullen silence; and she knew it was because they resented
her, a woman, supervising them.
Demonstrated answer
The passage and the poem are both about oppression and exploitation that groups of people are
subjected to. In both the passage and the poem, there seem to be a spirit of resistance and defiance
that is building up within the oppressed. In both presentations tension hangs in the air.
The passage is in third person narrative which allows the narrator to give full details of the
exploitation and suffering that people are exposed to. The writer interspaces her narrative with
graphic descriptions of the people, their dogs and the atmosphere around them for example the
“filthy, underfed children crowded” the ‘starved’ dogs “slunk,” create pictures of sick,
malnourished people suffering under the grip of poverty. This grim picture is also portrayed in the
poem. The child is “sickly” , has a ‘sleepy’ mouth, frail nerves and is drowsy. So both the passage
and the poem show the grim realities that are products of oppression.
In both instances the environment under which people work is shown to be hostile, unfriendly and
unconducive. This is shown through graphic images, for example in the poem the poet refers to
“red hot acres smoulder” showing excessive heat from the sun, the thorn trees suggestive of
hardships, “blood of ticks” suggestive of exploitation and the flies that torment the child. Similarly
in the passage the environments seem to be filthy squalid and unconducive. The sun is “glaring”

104
which is suggestive of excessive or extreme heat which should be understood not just literary but
is also symbolic of the anger and the spirit of defiance that is building up within the two groups of
labourers.
Anger, resentment and bitterness hang in the air in both the passage and the poem. The writer in
the passage captures the resentment through words such as “slouched” reluctantly” stooped and
‘sullen’. The poem shows it through words such as ‘unquenched’ “unsmotherable” “ferocity”
“terrible”, looms and ‘sullen’. While the diction in the passage seems to bring out disinterest and
discomfort, the one in the poem is a militant protest against oppression.
Though it is true to say both the passage and the poem deal with oppression, the levels at which
they deal with oppression differ. The passage seems to deal with oppression on a literary level
while the poem takes oppression to a deeper level which is symbolical or metaphorical. This is
shown by the prevalence of symbols in the poem as opposed to the passage. Some of the symbols
in the poem are the child, its gaining of strength, a symbol of the awakening of once a weak nation
that is now ready to defend its dignity. The “cloud” is also symbolic of forces of change, this
symbol is further developed through the image of “harvest”. The symbol of mother and child
represents a nation that is fostering spirit of resistance to its young generation. The metaphorical
level makes the issues raised in the poem subtler than those raised in the passage.
The irony in the two works is that in the poem, the woman (the Zulu Girl) is a victim of oppression
while in the passage a woman seem to be a perpetrator of that oppression. Through the
presentation of the Zulu Girl the poet evokes feelings of sympathy for the mother and the child
while through the presentation of the woman in the passage, the writer arouses feelings of
revulsion, anger and disgust as she ill-treats the labourers. The woman here is domineering and
exacting. This contrasts with the woman in the poem who even though she is physically exhausted
still feeds and “prowls” the child’s hair. Though the act seems mechanical there is an element of
love in the woman as opposed to the cold heartedness and resentment shown by the woman in the
passage.
The tone of the poem is sympathetic. The poet sympathizes with the mother and child for the
difficulties and discomforts they suffer. The tone helps to arouse feelings of sympathy in the
reader. The tone is also hopeful that one day the sufferings would come to an end. The optimism
manifests itself through the hope carried in the child. On the other hand, the writer of the passage
sounds detached, unconcerned or not moved by the state of the labourers. This allows the reader to
assess the situation independently.
The passage clarifies the poem. From the reading of the poem one gets the impression that the
poem is just about mother and child or girl, but the reading of the passage refers to the “working
boys” “natives” “savages” which are suggestive of the fact that this is a group of people, most
probably a nation that is suffering under oppression. The subject of the passage is laid out in a
clearer way than in the poem. In the poem there are subtler issues that one would miss without the
help of the passage.

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2. Compare and contrast the following passage from The Adventures of Tom Sawyer by
Mark Twain and the poem The Chimney Sweeper by William Blake, paying particular
attention to the presentation of childhood.
Huckleberry was cordially hated and dreaded by all the mothers of the town because he was idle,
and lawless, and vulgar, and bad – and because all their children admired him, and delighted in his
forbidden society; and wished they dared to be like him. Tom was like the rest of the respectable
boys in that he envied Huckleberry, his gaudy outcast condition, and was under strict orders not to
play with him. So he played with him every time he got a chance. Hukleberry was always dressed
in the cast off clothes of full grown men, and they were in perennial bloom and fluttering with
rags. His hat was a vast ruin with a wide crescent lopped out of its brim; his coat , when he wore
one ,hung nearly to his heels, and he had the rearward buttons far down the back ;but one
suspender supported his trousers ; the seat of the trousers bagged low and contained nothing ; to
fringed legs dragged in the dirt when not rolled up.
Huckleberry came in and went at his own freewill. He slept on doorsteps in fine weather, and in
empty hog heads in wet; he did not have to go to school or to church, or call any being master, or
obey anybody; he could go fishing or swimming. When and where he chose, and stay as long as it
suited him; nobody forbade him to fight; he could sit up as late as he pleased; he was always the
first boy that went barefooted in the spring and the last to resume leather in the fall; he never had
to wash, nor put on clean clothes; he could swear wonderfully. In word, everything that goes to
make life precious, that boy had. So though ever harassed, and hampered, he was respectable boy
in St Petersburg. Tom hailed the romantic outcast
The Chimney Sweeper

When my mother died I was very young
And my father sold me while yet my tongue
Could scarcely cry “weep!” weep!’ weep!’ weep!’
So your chimneys I sweep, and in soot I sleep
There’s little Tom Dacre, who cried when his head,

That curled like a lamb’s back was shaved; so I said
‘Hush, Tom! Never mind it, for when your head’s bare
You know that the soot cannot spoil your white hair
And so he was quite, and that very night,

As Tom was a sleeping, he had such a sight!-
That thousands of sweepers, Dick, Joe, Ned and jack,
Were all of them locked up in coffins of black?
And by came an angel, who had a bright key,

And he opened the coffins and set them all free
Them down a green plain, leaping, laughing, they run
And wash in a river, and shin in the sun
Then naked and white, all their bags left behind,

They rise upon clouds and spot in the wind;
And the angel told Tom, if he’d be a good boy,

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He’d have God for his father, and never want joy
And so Tom awoke, and we rose in the dark,

And got with our bags and our brushes to work
Though the morning was cold, Tom was happy and warm;
So if all do their duty, they need not fear harm
Demonstrated answer
The poem and the passage deal with childhood but from different perspectives. Twain, in the
passage from “The Adventures of Tom Sawyer” deals with delinquency which seems to be a wave
that Huckleberry had set in motion while on the other hand the poem “Chimney Sweeper” deals
with abuse of children in industries following the wave of industrialization. The poem is about cry
by a children against child labour
In the passage childhood is presented through two contrasting characters. These are Huckleberry
and Tom Huckleberry is “idle, lawless, vulgar and bad “, this shows delinquency while Tom is
respectable “. Tom’s delinquency is shown by his act of disobeying the parents to play with
Huckleberry. In contrast in the poem, the children are seen working as Chimney Sweepers have
been deprived of their childhood as they are not given an opportunity to enjoy it but are exploited
in factories. Through this poem Blake attacks the cruel world that deprives children of their right to
enjoy childhood
In both the poem and the passage, there seems to be lamentations over sadness and lack of freedom
in childhood. In the poem, Blake used negative diction to show how sadness characterise
childhood
Some of the words used are “woe,” used repeatedly, “crying”, “misery”, death”. On the other hand,
Twain uses words such as “harassed” and “hampered” to show the lack of freedom that the other
boys suffered from. Twain’s passage also uses contrast to bring out childhood views and dreams.
The contrast is brought out through two different perceptions about the same person or character
Huckleberry. To the old, he is a juvenile or a delinquent, but to the young he is a hero. This shows
how childhood is beset with short-sightedness and myopic views of freedom and adventure.
Through this Twain shows the old age generation clash between parents and children.
While parents in the passage are concerned about childhood, those in the poem seem unconcerned
as they leave children to wallow in misery. The child shows that one can sing, dance but still be
unhappy, so this shows how his childhood is characterised by unhappiness
The poem and the passage also contrast the unfairness of how children of the same age, in the
same environment can be exposed to different childhood experiences. Both the poet and the writer
wrote from a European context and surrounding. When other children are busy enjoying their
childhood with parental guidance to guard against delinquency some are condemned to factories
where they are exposed to unconducive working conditions. Note how the word “snow” in the

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poem makes the conditions unconducive. When some parents guide children through childhood
delinquencies, others choose to condemn their children to industry.
The childhood experiences in the poem show the hypocrisy of old people. Old persons pretend to
praise or worship God when they deprive young people of their childhood joys, while on the other
hand in the passage, the parents have a practical realistic view about childhood experiences.
The poem is a sympathetic appeal or call by children who suffer from forced labour for the world
to give an ear and do something to let children enjoy their childhood. On the other hand the
passage is a balanced presentation and assessment of both children and parents view about
childhood experience and its challenges. The poem evokes feelings of sympathy for the child and
others who suffer the same predicament .The passage leaves the reader amused by the views of
children about freedom, adventure, heroic acts. The writer shows how it is important to guide
children during the childhood stage, if not guided childhood degenerates into juvenile delinquency
which is characteristic of Huckleberry.
The poem and the passage deal with childhood, but from different perspectives which explains
why there are differences in the presentation of childhood.
NB: Theoretical and lacks literary evidence from the texts.
Examination type question
1. Compare and contrast the following passage, describing Dickens’ own death taken from
Peter Ackroyd’s biography Dickens (1990) and the poem , Remembrance “by Emily Bronte
.Paying particular attention to the presentation of death.
Charles Dickens was dead. He lay on a narrow green sofa – but there was room enough for him,
so spare had he become – in the dining room of Gad’s Hill Place. He had died in the house which
he had first seen as a small boy and which his father had pointed out to him as a suitable object of
his ambitions; so great was his father’s hold upon his life that, forty years later, he had bought it.
Now he had gone. It was customary to close the blinds and curtains, thus enshrouding the corpse
in darkness before its last journey to the tomb; but in the dining room of Gad’s Hill the curtains
were pulled apart and on this June day the bright sunshine streamed in, glittering on the large
mirrors around the room. The family beside him knew how he enjoyed the light, how he needed
the light, and they understood, too, that none of the conventional sombreness of the late Victorian
period – the year was 1870 – had ever touched him.
All the lines and wrinkles which marked the passage of his life were now erased in the stillness of
death. He was not old – he died in his fifty-eighth year – but there had been signs of premature
ageing on a visage so marked and worn; he had acquired, it was said, a ‘sarcastic look’. But now
all that was gone and his daughter, Katey, who watched him as he lay dead, noticed how there
once more emerged upon his face ‘beauty and pathos’. It was that ‘long-forgotten’ look which he
describes again and again in his fiction. He sees it in Oliver Twist, in the dead face which returns
to the ‘…long forgotten expression of sleeping infancy’, and in that same novel he connects ‘the

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rigid face of the corpse and the calm sleep of the child’. In Master Humphrey’s death, too, there
was something ‘so strangely and indefinably allied to youth’. It was the look he recorded in
William Dorrit’s face in death; it was the look which he saw in the faces of the corpses on view in
the Paris Morgue. This connection between death and infancy is one that had haunted him: sleep,
repose, death, infancy, innocence, oblivion are the words that formed a circle for him, bringing
him back to the place from which he had begun. Here, in Gad’s Hill, close to the town in which he
had lived as a small child, here in the house which his father had once shown him; here the circle
was complete.
A death mask was made. He had always hated masks. He had been frightened by one as a child
and throughout his writing there is this refrain - ‘what a very alarming thing it would be to find
somebody with a mask on…hiding bolt upright in a corner and pretending not to be alive!’ The
mask was an emblem of Charles Dicken’s particular fear; that the dead are only pretending to be
dead, and that they will suddenly spring up into violent life. He had a fear of the dead, and of all
inanimate things, rising up around him to claim him; it is the fear of pre-eminently solitary child
and solitary man. But was there not also here some anticipation of the final quietus? The mask
was made, and he was laid in his oak coffin.
This wooden resting place was then covered with scarlet geraniums; they were Charles Dicken’s
favourite flowers and in the final picture of the corpse covered with blossom, we can see a true
representation of Dickens’s own words echoing across the years - ‘Brighten it, brighten it, brighten
it!’ He always wanted colour about him, and he was notorious for his own vivid costumes,
especially youth: and, on the wall above the coffin, his family placed a portrait of him as a young
man. It was no doubt that painted Daniel Maclise, and it shows the Dickens of the 1839 looking
up from his desk, his eyes ablaze as if in anticipation of the glory that was to come. Georgina
Hogarth, his sister -in-law, cut a lock of hair from his head.
On his prior instructions, his horse was shot. And so Charles Dickens lay
Remembrance
Cold in the earth- and the deep snow piled above thee,
Far, far, removed, cold in the dreary grave!
Have I forgot, my only Love, to love thee,
Severed at last by Time’s all-severing wave?
Now, when alone, do my thoughts no longer hover

Over the mountains, on that northern shore,
Resting their wings where heath and fern- leaves cover
That noble heart forever, ever more?
Cold in the earth, and fifteen wild Decembers

From those brown hills have melted into spring:
Faithful, indeed, is the spirit that remembers
After such years of change and suffering;
Sweet Love of youth, forgive, if I forgot thee,

While the world’s tide is bearing me along;

109
Other desires and other hopes beset me,

Hopes which obscure, but cannot do thee wrong;
No later light has lightened up my heaven,

No second morn has ever shone for me;
All my life’s bliss from thy dear life was given,
All my life’s bliss is in the grave with thee.
But, when the days of golden dreams had perished,

And even Despair was powerless to destroy;
Then did I learn how existence could be cherished,
Strengthened, and fed without the aid of joy.
Then did I check the tears of useless passion-

Warned my young soul from yearning after thine;
Sternly denied its burning wish to hasten
Down to that tomb already more than mine.
And, even yet, I dare not let it languish,

Dare not indulge in memory’s rapturous pain;
Once drinking deep of that divinest anguish,
How could I seek the empty world again?

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1

‘A’ LEVEL LITERATURE IN ENGLISH .......................Error! Bookmark not defined.

‘A’ Level Literature in English Practical Criticism Page 1

‘A’ Level Literature in English Practical Criticism Page 2

INTRODUCTION TO ADVANCED LEVEL LITERATURE AND SYLLABUS ANALYSIS.

By the end of this chapter one should be able to;

c) Interpret the advanced level literature syllabus.

e) Describe the main terms used in the literature assessment.

What is literature in English

Basis for the study of literature

‘A’ Level Literature in English Practical Criticism Page 3

Why is literature important?

Judgement and decision making

In our study of literature we continue to gain experience in discrimination to compare our

‘A’ Level Literature in English Practical Criticism Page 4

1) Develop an awareness and appreciation of literature as a tool for personal, national

1) Paper one; Comment and appreciation

‘A’ Level Literature in English Practical Criticism Page 5

Notes on paper selection

Option A: Paper 1, 2 and 3

Option B: Paper 1, 2 and 4

Option C: Paper 1, 2 and 5

Option D: Paper 1, 3 and 4

Option E: Paper 1, 3 and 5

Option F: Paper 1, 4 and 5

1) Availability of the set books on the market

3) Level of linguistic difficulty of set texts (eg contemporary vs Chaucerian literature)

4) Environmental influences (Zimbabwean vs West African literature): A student would

‘A’ Level Literature in English Practical Criticism Page 6

The Literature examination

Examination skill development:

‘A’ Level Literature in English Practical Criticism Page 7

Definition of key words.

‘A’ Level Literature in English Practical Criticism Page 8

COMMENT AND APPRECIATION

After studying this topic, the student should be able to:

Preliminary introduction to literary devices

‘A’ Level Literature in English Practical Criticism Page 9

ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL CRITICISM

‘A’ Level Literature in English Practical Criticism Page 10

Tired with all these, for restful Death I cry,

As to behold desert a beggar born,

And needing nothing trimmed in jollity

And purest faith unhappily forsworn,

And gilded honour shamefully misplaced,

And maiden virtue rudely trumpeted,

And right perfection wrongfully disgraced,

‘A’ Level Literature in English Practical Criticism Page 11

And strength by limping sway disabled

And art made tongue-tied by authority,

And folly- doctor-like-controlling skill,

And simple truth miscalled simplicity,

And captive good attending captain ill:

Tired with all these, from these would I be gone,

Save that, to die, I leave my love alone.

Death of a soldier by Chengerai Hove

He died in summer greens, and mud,

I saw the green leaves

Sure, he died, no doubt

'A' Level Literature in English Practical Criticism-1

'A' Level Literature in English Practical Criticism-1

'A' Level Literature in English Practical Criticism-1