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strength steels
Until 1970´s, fatigue properties of materials were usually studied and evaluated
A study of very high cycle
fatigue in high strength steels
up to the HCF regime (N<106 cycles) beyond which failure was not expected.
However, in the late decades of the 20th century proof of fatigue failure in the
VHCF regime (N>106 cycles) was presented by different material scientists. This
led to an aroused interest in developing a new testing technique where a very
high number of loading cycles is achieved within reasonably short time. The
ultrasonic fatigue testing system was developed for this purpose, testing materials
in the VHCF regime, where specimens are loaded at 20 kHz reaching 1010 cycles
in less than a week. In the ultrasonic fatigue testing system, an electric sinusoidal
signal is generated and then converted to a mechanical sinusoidal vibration. The Mohamed Sadek
mechanical vibration is led through a magnifying horn to the specimen. The
system vibrates at resonance frequency, hence all individual parts of the system
are designed and dimensioned according to the system resonance frequency.
RESEARCH REPORT | Karlstad University Studies | 2020 RESEARCH REPORT | Karlstad University Studies | 2020:22
A study of very high
cycle fatigue in high
strength steels
Mohamed Sadek
Mohamed Sadek
RESEARCH REPORT
ISSN 1403-8099
Distribution:
Karlstad University
Faculty of Health, Science and Technology
Department of Engineering and Physics
SE-651 88 Karlstad, Sweden
+46 54 700 10 00
WWW.KAU.SE
Abstract
2
Table of content
ABSTRACT................................................................................. 2
1. VERY HIGH CYCLE FATIGUE ............................................. 4
2. ULTRASONIC FATIGUE TESTING EQUIPMENT ................. 6
2.1 ASSOCIATED EQUIPMENT ................................................................. 9
3. DIFFERENT TESTING METHODS ....................................... 9
3.1 TESTING FOR FATIGUE STRENGTH................................................... 10
3.1.1 TC/TT-testing of hourglass shaped specimen ........................ 10
3.1.2 Three-point bending................................................................ 14
3.1.3 Torsion.................................................................................... 17
3.1.4 Estimation of fatigue life.......................................................... 18
3.1.5 Estimation of fatigue strength – Staircase method ................. 20
3.1.6 SN-curve................................................................................. 21
3.2 TESTING FOR FATIGUE CRACK GROWTH........................................... 23
3.2.1 Crack growth testing at 20 kHz ............................................... 24
4. MODELLING AND SIMULATION .......................................26
4.1 CALCULATION OF THE STRESS AMPLITUDE AT 20 KHZ ....................... 26
4.2 COMPUTATION OF THE STRESS INTENSITY FACTOR FOR 20 KHZ CRACK
GROWTH TESTING ..................................................................................... 28
4.2.1 Resonance frequency correction ............................................ 29
4.2.2 Crack tip opening displacement - CTOD ................................ 29
4.2.3 J contour integral .................................................................... 32
5. FATIGUE PROPERTIES OF HIGH STRENGTH STEELS ...... 37
5.1 VHCF TESTING OF HIGH STRENGTH STEELS .................................... 38
5.2 FATIGUE STRENGTH ...................................................................... 40
5.3 CRACK INITIATION ......................................................................... 41
5.4 CRACK GROWTH ........................................................................... 43
5.5 FREQUENCY EFFECT ..................................................................... 47
5.6 DAMPING ...................................................................................... 48
5.6.1 Damping measurement .......................................................... 50
CONCLUSION ........................................................................... 52
REFERENCES ........................................................................... 53
3
1. Very high cycle fatigue
In the late 19th century, the German railway engineer August Wöhler
introduced his famous SN-curve containing a relationship between
load and expected fatigue life, it was limited to a fatigue life up to 10 6-
107 cycles, see Figure 1. The fatigue strength at 107 cycles was typically
determined by the staircase method, hence the infinite fatigue limit
(probability of fracture close to zero) was assumed to µ̂y-3σ ̂y where σ̂y
is the standard deviation (often 10 MPa). This assumption is not the
best way to determine the fatigue limit since new research clearly
shows that the difference between µ̂y at 107 and µ̂y at 109 is much high-
er than 3σ̂y=30 MPa [1].
Predominant surface
initiations
5
Figure 2. Typical SN-curve for high strength metals with internal defects [1-3, 8-
10].
6
Figure 3. Ultrasonic fatigue testing equipment with stress and displacement dis-
tribution along the loading axis [4, 11].
7
and specimen). The ultrasonic fatigue testing system, including the
specimen, is considered as a one-dimensional system where the wave
velocity is expressed in Equation 1 and the resulting displacement and
strain distribution shown in Figure 3 and for the specimen only in
Figure 4.
𝑐 = √𝐸𝑑 /𝜌 [1]
𝑈=0 [5]
𝜀 = −𝑘 𝑈0 [6]
𝜎 = −𝐸𝑑 𝑘 𝑈0 [7]
8
Figure 4. Displacement and strain distribution along an elastic bar [11].
10
Figure 5. Ultrasonic fatigue testing setup for hourglass shaped specimen in R=-1
loading ratio [4, 11].
The interaction between the ultrasonic load train and the mounting
rig is at the zero displacement point within the horn, see Figures 3
and 5 [11].
To vary the loading ratio, an identical second horn is mounted to the
bottom end of the specimen, see Figure 6. To superpose a static load
(i.e. mean load) the whole load train is installed in a tensile testing rig.
By adding a booster to the system, compressive forces are possible [4,
5]. The booster is not necessary when tensile mean load (R>-1) is de-
sirable. Two identical horns are enough when mounted as the bottom
horn in Figure 6. For a compressive mean load (R<-1) however, two
identical boosters are required, one above the top horn and one under
the bottom horn. The boosters are fully constrained in the mounting
rig like the one in Figure 6 [11].
11
Figure 6. Ultrasonic fatigue testing setup for hourglass shaped specimen in vary-
ing loading ratio R≠-1 [4, 11].
12
that a thickness to length (or largest dimension) ratio as low as 6-8%
is manageable. A smaller thickness will cause perturbation in the vi-
bration frequency and will require special measure regarding the at-
tachment to the horns [11, 14, 15].
a) b)
13
𝜔
𝑘= [8]
𝑐
1 𝑅
𝛼= 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ( 2) [9]
𝐿2 𝑅1
𝛽 = √𝛼 2 − 𝑘 2 [10]
cos(𝑘𝐿1 ) 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ(𝛼𝐿2 )
𝜑(𝐿1 , 𝐿2 ) = [11]
𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ(𝛽𝐿2 )
1 1
𝐿1 = arctan[ (𝛽 coth(𝛽𝐿2 ) − 𝛼 tanh(𝛼𝐿2 ))] [12]
𝑘 𝑘
The strain and stress functions for the end-part of the specimen (L2 <
x < L) are expressed in Equations 13 and 14.
and for the mid-part of the specimen (0 < x < L2), see Equations 15
and 16.
𝜕4 𝑢(𝑥,𝑡) 𝜕2 𝑢(𝑥,𝑡)
𝐸𝐼 + 𝜌ℎ𝑏 =0 [17]
𝜕𝑥 4 𝜕𝑡 2
where I=bh3/12, ρ is the density of the material, b and h are the width
and height of the cross-section and u(x,t) is the displacement of point
x (along the specimen length) at time t. By using the correct boundary
conditions, this differential equation is solved, and the length and
resonance length of the specimen are extracted and given in Equa-
tions 18 and 19.
1/4
𝐸ℎ 2
2𝐿 = 0,507 ( 2
) [18]
𝜌𝑓
1/4
𝐸ℎ 2
2𝐿1 = 0,28 ( 2
) [19]
𝜌𝑓
15
Figure 8. Three-point bending fatigue testing setup [4, 11, 18]
16
3.1.3 Torsion
A new technique in torsion loading using ultrasonic fatigue system
was introduced by [19] in the late 1980´s and has been reused and
developed by other researchers [15, 20-22]. Special design of the me-
chanical parts of the equipment is required to achieve torsion reso-
nance vibration in the specimen, Figure 10. The amplitude control is
basically the same as for the axial loading tests. Since the resonance
vibration in torsion is depending on the shear modulus, which is
smaller than the elastic modulus, the vibrating parts in the system
needs to be redesigned for 20 kHz resonance twisting oscillation [11].
a) b)
Twist oscillator
Axial oscillator
Torsional horn Connecting pin
Axial horn
Specimen
Torsional horn
Specimen
Figure 10. Ultrasonic fatigue testing setup for torsion; a) direct system and b)
indirect system [4, 11, 15].
The torsion specimen (Figure 11) has the same design as the axially
loaded specimen (Figure 7a) but with different dimensions. For the
specimen to have a twisting resonance frequency at 20 kHz it is de-
signed shorter and thicker than the uniaxial specimen is with the
same resonance frequency.
17
Figure 11. Hourglass shaped torsion specimen with 20 kHz resonance frequency
[11, 15].
Two different setups exists today, direct and indirect systems, see
Figure 10. In the direct system, the converter/oscillator generates
twist oscillations transferred to the specimen through a torsion horn,
see Figure 10a [20, 21]. In the indirect system an axially oscillating
converter/oscillator is connected to a torsion horn through an axially
vibrating horn, Figure 10b. The axially oscillating horn magnifies the
displacement oscillation from the converter, and the perpendicularly
attached torsion horn transform the axial vibration to torsional vibra-
tion. The specimen is attached to the torsional horn and vibrated at its
and the systems resonance frequency. Just as for the axially loaded
specimen the maximum displacement is at the ends of the specimen
while the maximum strain is at the middle of the specimen [15, 22].
1 𝑥 1 𝑥−µ 2
(− ( ) )
𝑃 (𝑥 ) = ∫ 𝑒 2 𝜎 𝑑𝑥 [20]
2𝜋 −∞
𝜎√
18
∑𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖
µ̂ = [21]
𝑛
∑𝑛 ̂ )2
𝑖=1(𝑥𝑖 −µ
𝜎̂ = √ [22]
𝑛−1
𝑥 𝑐
𝐹𝑋 (𝑥) = 1 − 𝑒 −(𝑎) [24]
𝑥
ln[1 − 𝐹𝑋 (𝑥)] = −( )𝑐 [25]
𝑎
19
ln[− ln(1 − 𝐹𝑋 (𝑥))] = 𝑐 ln(𝑥) − 𝑐 ln(𝑎) [26]
and consequently:
𝑖−1/2
ln[−ln(1 − )] ≈ 𝑐 ln(𝑥(𝑖) ) − 𝑐 ln(𝑎) [27]
𝑛
where
𝑖−1/2
𝑢𝑖 = ln[−ln(1 − )] [28]
𝑛
𝑧𝑖 = ln[𝑥(𝑖) ] [29]
so
𝑢𝑖 ≈ 𝑐 𝑧𝑖 − 𝑐 ln(𝑎) [30]
𝐴 1
µ̂𝑦 = 𝑆0 + 𝑑 ( ± ) [31]
𝐶 2
1 1
where + is used when event analysed is failure and - when the event
2 2
analysed is non-failure.
𝐵𝐶−𝐴2
𝜎̂𝑦 = 1,62 𝑑 ( + 0,029) [32]
𝐶2
𝐴 = ∑𝑙𝑖=1 𝑖 𝑓𝑖 [33]
𝐵 = ∑𝑙𝑖=1 𝑖 2 𝑓𝑖 [34]
𝐶 = ∑𝑙𝑖=1 𝑓𝑖 [35]
𝐵𝐶−𝐴2
In [24] it is stated that Equation 32 is valid only if > 0,3. This is
𝐶2
𝑑
generally the case when ̂ is chosen within the range of 0,5-2.
𝜎𝑦
3.1.6 SN-curve
Linear fatigue response and curvilinear fatigue response are two
mathematical relationships used to describe most of all produced SN-
data. However, occasionally there are some cases where these two
mathematical relationships are not sufficient. The linear and curvilin-
ear fatigue responses are presented in Equations 36 and 37, respec-
tively [13].
2
𝐿𝑜𝑔10 (𝑁) = 𝑏0 + 𝑏1 𝐿𝑜𝑔10 (𝑆) + 𝑏2 𝐿𝑜𝑔10 (𝑆) [37]
21
Linear fatigue response
Define Xi and Yi as follows:
𝑛 𝑛
∑𝑖=1 𝑋𝑖 ∑𝑖=1 𝑌𝑖
∑𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑋𝑖 𝑌𝑖 −
𝑏1 = (∑𝑛
𝑛
𝑋𝑖 )2
[40]
𝑛 2
∑𝑖=1 𝑋𝑖 − 𝑖=1
𝑛
∑𝑛 𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑌𝑖 −𝑏1 ∑𝑖=1 𝑋𝑖
𝑏0 = [41]
𝑛
𝑌̂𝑖 = 𝑏0 + 𝑏1 𝑋𝑖 [42]
∑𝑛 ̂ 2
𝑖=1(𝑌𝑖 −𝑌𝑖 )
𝜎̂ = √ [43]
𝑛−𝑝
𝑛 𝑛
∑𝑖=1 𝑋𝑖 ∑𝑖=1 𝑌𝑖
(∑𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑋𝑖 𝑌𝑖 − )2
2
𝑅 = 𝑛 2
𝑛
𝑛 2 [44]
(∑𝑛 2 (∑𝑖=1 𝑋𝑖 ) )(∑𝑛 𝑌 2 −(∑𝑖=1 𝑌𝑖 ) )
𝑖=1 𝑋𝑖 − 𝑛 𝑖=1 𝑖 𝑛
22
3.2 Testing for fatigue crack growth
In [26] an ASTM standard method for crack growth testing is de-
scribed. The method assumes the theory of linear elasticity and does
not consider the local crack-tip effects such as crack closure and re-
sidual stresses. Crack growth rates are revealed from near-threshold
to Kmax, expressed by the crack growth rate (da/dN) versus the crack
tip stress-intensity factor range (K). The stress-intensity factor rang-
es from Kmin to Kmax for positive loading ratios (R = Kmin/Kmax =
Pmin/Pmax > 0) and from zero to Kmax for negative loading ratios.
The stress-intensity threshold is the value where the crack growth rate
approaches zero, or an arbitrary value of 10-10 m/cycle. This arbitrary
threshold value is estimated from the linear regression of the log
da/dN vs log K curve where a minimum of five data points with
equal spacing between 10-9 to 10-10 m/cycle. It is required that the K
is the dependent variable since the range is specified by the da/dN.
In the low crack growth rate regime (da/dN < 10-8 m/cycle) a variabil-
ity of the rate can be as high as a factor of five or more due to high
sensitivity to small changes in K and other factors such as micro-
structural differences, residual stresses, changing crack tip geometry,
force precision and environmental control.
The tests start with the pre-cracking of the specimen. It is important
that the force distribution during pre-cracking is symmetrical with
respect to the notch (this is important throughout the test and not on-
ly during pre-cracking). The pre-crack should not be less than 10% of
the width, 10% of the thickness or 1mm, whichever is greater. Prefer-
ably, the pre-cracking is done at the lowest stress-intensity possible,
pre-cracking growth rates less than 10-8 m/cycle are recommended.
After pre-cracking, the test proceeds with incremental crack growth
under K-increasing or K-decreasing procedure. For the K-increasing
procedure the force amplitude is kept constant while the stress-
intensity is increased with the growth of the crack. This procedure is
not suitable for crack growth rates below 10-8 m/cycle since prior
loading history may influence near-threshold growth rates. However,
the K-decreasing procedure is recommended for growth rates below
10-8 m/cycle.
The K-decreasing test procedure is conducted by incremental de-
crease of the force amplitude. It is recommended that the shedding of
23
the force amplitude is conducted by steps of maximum 10% of previ-
ous Pmax and an in-step crack growth of at least 0.5mm allowing the
establishment of at least five da/dN vs K data point per decade of
crack growth rate with approximately equal spacing.
For a constant normalized K-gradient the K is expressed by Equa-
tion 45.
24
1 𝑅
𝛼1 = 𝑙𝑛( 2) [46]
2𝐿2 𝑅1
𝛽1 = √𝛼12 − 𝑘 2 [47]
𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑘𝐿1 ) 𝑒𝑥𝑝(𝛼1 𝐿2 )
𝜑1 (𝐿1 , 𝐿2 ) = [48]
𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ(𝛽1 𝐿2 )
Figure 12. Crack propagation measurement specimen designed for 20 kHz reso-
nance frequency [11, 15].
1 1
𝐿1 = arctan[ (𝛽1 coth(𝛽1 𝐿2 ) − 𝛼1 )] [49]
𝑘 𝑘
and the strain and stress functions for the mid-part of the specimen
(0 < x < L2) are expressed in Equations 50 and 51.
To test for fatigue, or any other material property for that matter, it is
necessary to investigate the solid mechanics of the specific material
and specific specimen shape. This is done either analytically or using
FEM. The latter is appropriate when the specimen geometry and/or
testing characteristics are complicated.
For the fatigue strength testing, it is necessary to determine the rela-
tionship between the displacement amplitude at the top of the speci-
men and the stress amplitude at the middle of the specimen. This can
be done analytically according to the method described in sections
3.1.1 and 3.2 or by a FEM simulation as described in section 4.1.
When testing for fatigue crack growth rates, e.g. Paris law parameters,
the relationship between the displacement amplitude at the top of the
specimen and the stress intensity factor at the crack tip at the middle
of the specimen is now required. Two appropriate methods are de-
scribed in sections 4.2.2 and 4.2.3 where both methods require FEM
assistance, at least when specimen geometry is non-uniform.
26
specimens under a sinusoidal displacement placed on the top surface.
The maximum stress is of course located at the mid part of the speci-
men where the cross-section is minimum.
Figure 13. Stress and displacement distribution of hourglass shaped smooth and
notched specimens [15].
The m-factor is computed for the torsion specimen with the same
principle as for the uniaxial and bending specimens. Figure 15 shows
a FEM model of the torsion specimen with the relating displacement,
angle of twist and shear stress distribution. As clearly seen, the dis-
placement and the angle of twist is zero at the middle of the specimen
with maximum values at the ends. Expectedly, the maximum value of
the shear stress is at the middle of the specimen and minimum at the
ends [15, 22].
27
Figure 15. Displacement, angle of twist and shear stress distribution in the hour-
glass shaped torsion specimen [15].
28
4.2.1 Resonance frequency correction
The prediction of the eigenfrequencies in VHCF-testing is important
due to the frequency sensitivity of the ultrasound fatigue testing sys-
tem. During fatigue crack growth testing, a crack is initiated and
grows under controlled conditions. The existence of a crack and the
growth of it directly affects the stiffness and hence the resonance fre-
quency of the specimen. Under longitudinal vibration, a cracked spec-
imen behaves as a longer specimen and the eigenfrequency conse-
quently decreases. When modelling for the computation of the stress
intensity factor, it is desired to have a valid model for the frequency
change due to the crack growth, i.e. prediction of the eigenfrequencies
of a fatigue crack growth specimen containing cracks of different
lengths [32]. Gudmundson [33] has described a first order perturba-
tion method predicting change in eigenfrequencies of structures con-
taining small cracks, notches or other cut-outs of material. A method
correcting for the perturbation (geometrical change of a structure) has
been derived and used for three different examples.
The linear modal analysis model of a cracked beam in FEM does not
allow any boundary conditions, hence the crack surface inter-
penetration is inevitable and results in a large difference between the
computed modal frequencies of a cracked specimen and the experi-
mentally measured ones. Another method used for resonance fre-
quency correction of cracked beams has been introduces by [34]. A
simple formula (Equation 52) has been derived for calculation of the
so-called “effective natural frequency, ω0”.
2𝜔1 𝜔2
𝜔0 = [52]
𝜔1 +𝜔2
29
(uy). The stress intensity factor is proportional to crack tip opening
and is calculated by Equation 53 with measured uy [31, 35].
(1+𝜈) 𝜃 3𝜃 3
𝑢𝑦 (𝑟, 𝜃) = 𝐾𝐼 √2𝜋𝑟 [(2𝜅 + 1)𝑠𝑖𝑛 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ] + 𝑂(𝑟) + 𝑂 (𝑟 2 ) …
4𝜋𝐸 2 2
[53]
𝜅+1 𝑟
𝑢𝑦 (𝑟) = 𝐾𝐼 √ [54]
2𝐺 2𝜋
a) b)
KI
y r
KI, CT
q
Crack tip
x Distance from crack tip, r
Figure 16. a) x, y- and r, 𝜃-coordinate systems at the crack tip [31] and b) linear
extrapolation of KI [36].
30
In an attempt to measure the fracture toughness KIC in different struc-
tural steels, Wells [37] has observed the crack tip blunting and noticed
that the material fracture toughness is proportional to the CTOD. Us-
ing Equation 54 with ry as r relates the fracture toughness to the
CTOD. The plastic zone at the crack tip is presumed to make the crack
to behave as if it were slightly longer, see “the Irwin plastic zone cor-
rection, ry” in Figure 17b [31, 38].
𝜅+1 𝑟𝑦
𝐶𝑇𝑂𝐷 = 𝛿 = 2𝑢𝑦 = 𝐾𝐼 √ [55]
𝐺 2𝜋
𝑎𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝑎 + 𝑟𝑦 [56]
a) b)
Plastic zone
Blunted crack
Sharp crack
uy
ry
rp
Figure 17. a) Crack tip blunting and b) The Irwin plastic zone correction [31].
𝐾𝐼 𝜃 𝜃 3𝜃
𝜎𝑦𝑦 = cos ( ) [1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( )] [57]
√2𝜋𝑟 2 2 2
𝐾𝐼
𝜎𝑦𝑦 = [58]
√2𝜋𝑟
31
Substituting σyy with the yield strength (σys) gives the Irwin plastic
zone correction, see Equations 59 and 60.
2
𝑟𝑝 1 𝐾𝐼
= 𝑟𝑦 = ( ) (Plain stress) [59]
2 2𝜋 𝜎𝑦𝑠
2
𝑟𝑝 1 𝐾𝐼
= 𝑟𝑦 = ( ) (Plain strain and 3D) [60]
2 6𝜋 𝜎𝑦𝑠
4 𝐾𝐼 2
𝐶𝑇𝑂𝐷 = 𝛿 = [61]
√3𝜋 𝜎𝑦𝑠 𝐸´
𝐸
where E´= ( ) for plane strain and 3D.
1−𝜈2
32
Nonlinear elastic
material
Stress
Elastic-plastic
material
Strain
Figure 18. Stress-strain behaviour of elastic plastic and nonlinear elastic materi-
als [31].
Similarly, to how the energy release rate is related to the stress inten-
sity factor in linear elastic materials, the J-integral relates the energy
release rate to the stress intensity factor in nonlinear elastic materials,
Equation 62.
𝑑Π
𝐽=− [62]
𝑑𝐴
Π=𝑈−𝐹 [63]
33
Figure 19. Nonlinear energy release rate [31].
Π = 𝑈 − 𝑃Δ [64]
Π=𝑈 [65]
𝑃
𝑈 ∗ = ∫0 Δ 𝑑𝑃 [66]
Π = 𝑈 − 𝑃Δ = −𝑈 ∗ [67]
𝑑𝑈 ∗
𝐽=( ) [68]
𝑑𝑎 𝑃
𝑑𝑈
𝐽 = −( )Δ [69]
𝑑𝑎
34
Finally, by invoking the definitions of U and U*, the J-integral can be
expressed as in Equation 70 and 71.
𝑃 𝜕∆
𝐽 = ∫0 ( )𝑃 𝑑𝑃 [70]
𝜕𝑎
∆ 𝜕𝑃
𝐽 = − ∫0 ( )∆ 𝑑∆ [71]
𝜕𝑎
𝜕𝑢𝑖
𝐽 = ∫Γ (𝑤 𝑑𝑦 − 𝑇𝑖 𝑑𝑠) [72]
𝜕𝑥
where Γ is an arbitrary path around the crack tip (Figure 20), w is the
strain energy given by Equation 73.
𝜀
𝑤 = ∫0 𝑖𝑗 𝜎𝑖𝑗 𝑑𝜀𝑖𝑗 [73]
𝑇𝑖 = 𝜎𝑖𝑗 𝑛𝑗 [74]
and
35
Path independence
The path independence of the J-integral indicated that the path be-
tween A and B could equivalently be chosen along (Γ1) or along (Γ- +
Γ2 + Γ+), see Figure 20, also shown in Equation 76.
𝜕𝑢𝑖
∫ (𝑤 𝑑𝑦 − 𝑇𝑖 𝑑𝑠)
Γ1 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢𝑖 𝜕𝑢𝑖
= ∫ (𝑤 𝑑𝑦 − 𝑇𝑖 𝑑𝑠) + ∫ (𝑤 𝑑𝑦 − 𝑇𝑖 𝑑𝑠)
Γ− 𝜕𝑥 Γ2 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢𝑖
+ ∫ (𝑤 𝑑𝑦 − 𝑇𝑖 𝑑𝑠)
Γ+ 𝜕𝑥
[76]
𝜕𝑢𝑖 𝜕𝑢𝑖
∫Γ+(𝑤 𝑑𝑦 − 𝑇𝑖 𝑑𝑠) = ∫Γ−(𝑤 𝑑𝑦 − 𝑇𝑖 𝑑𝑠) = 0 [77]
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢𝑖 𝜕𝑢𝑖
∫Γ1 (𝑤 𝑑𝑦 − 𝑇𝑖 𝑑𝑠) = ∫Γ2 (𝑤 𝑑𝑦 − 𝑇𝑖 𝑑𝑠) [78]
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
1 1
𝐽= (𝐾𝐼 2 + 𝐾𝐼𝐼 2 ) + 𝐾𝐼𝐼𝐼 2 [79]
𝐸´ 2𝐺
During uniaxial loading, i.e. KII and KIII are much smaller than KI,
Equation 79 simplifies to Equation 80.
𝐾𝐼 2
𝐽= [80]
𝐸´
36
In validating the J-integral in the estimation of the stress intensity in
nonlinear elastic materials, Hutchinson, Rice and Rosengren all used
the following power-law relationship between plastic strain and stress
[39-41]:
𝜀 𝜎 𝜎
= + 𝛼( )𝑛 [81]
𝜀0 𝜎0 𝜎0
A fatigue crack´s total life is divided into three major stages, Figure
21. The first stage is of course the crack initiation where the crack is
starting at a surface or at a sub-surface stress concentration point.
The second stage is the crack growth. After initiation phase, the crack
grows at significantly higher rates. Finally, the crack has grown to a
final length where the remaining, un-cracked area is simply too small,
to carry the load and the last stage, the brittle final crack occurs. For
internal fatigue crack initiations, growth rates during the crack
growth phase are significantly higher than during the initiation phase.
The crack growth portion of the total fatigue life has been reported to
be less than 1% of the total fatigue life in high strength steels [42].
Hence, the average crack growth rate over the entire lifetime will not
da
be correct, in fact often smaller than the lattice spacing < 10−11
dN
m/cycle.
Figure 21. Crack initiation and crack growth portions of the total fatigue life [15].
37
As mentioned in chapter 1, the new SN-curve (Figure 2) contains two
regions where fatigue strength is decreasing. In the first region, i.e.
N<106 cycles, the crack initiation mechanism is being proposed as
surface initiations [2, 3, 10]. In the third and last region, i.e. N>108
cycles, the stresses are lower and insufficient for the crack to be initi-
ated at the surface. However, at the very high cycle regime a new initi-
ation mechanism starts to occur. Even at low stress levels, after 10 8
loading cycles, sub-surface non-metallic inclusions in the material are
now possible initiation sites and replaces the surface initiations as the
dominant initiation site [1-3, 8-10].
∆K2th
where G is the shear modulus, Ws = is the fracture energy, ais
2E
the applied stress amplitude, σRFL is the fatigue limit at R stress ratio
and a0 is the crack initiation size considered as the inclusion size. By
implementing the Paris´s fatigue crack growth law, an expression
(Equation 83) for the prediction of the total fatigue life (Nf) has been
derived:
(1−𝑛/2)
9𝐺𝑊𝑠 𝑎0
𝑁𝑓 = 𝑅 )2 𝑎 + 𝑛
𝑛
[83]
(𝜎𝑎 −𝜎𝐹𝐿 0 𝐶𝜎𝑎𝑛 𝛽1𝑛 𝜋 2 ( −1)
2
39
gated. The same material has been tested under 100Hz uniaxial load-
ing at three different loading ratios, R=-1, 0 and 0.3. From the results,
the authors have concluded that during R=-1 testing the initiations
have occurred only at the surface, hence a continuously decreasing
SN-curve. While during the R=0 and 0.3 tests, a mixture of surface
and subsurface initiations has been observed. In fact, the probability
of subsurface initiations has increased with the increasing mean load.
The reason behind this effect has been due to the contained compres-
sive residual stresses in the carburized layer restraining crack initia-
tion. However, during increased mean load, i.e. increased applied
maximum stress, it has been easier to overcome the compressive re-
sidual stresses at the surface and the likelihood of surface initiations
increase. The surface initiations from the R=0 and 0.3 tests have been
related to short fatigue lives, and the subsurface initiations (all with
FGA formation) have been related to long fatigue lives. For the R=-1
test however, FGA formation has occurred at the long-life region
(N>106) while at the short life (N<5*105) no FGA formation has oc-
curred. Generally, it has been concluded that the fatigue strength of
the material has decreased with the increasing loading ratio.
1/3
∆𝐾𝑡ℎ = 𝐶 (𝐻𝑉 + 120) (√𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑂𝐷𝐴 ) [84]
(𝐻𝑉+120) 1−𝑅 𝛼
𝜎𝐹𝐿 = 𝐴 1/6 ( ) [85]
(√𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑂𝐷𝐴 ) 2
where A is 1,43 for surface crack and 1,56 for subsurface crack, C is
0,0033 for surface crack and 0,00254 for subsurface crack, R is the
stress ratio and =0,226+HV*10-4.
The morphology of the ODA contains of granular-like looking, zigzag
shaped surface, hence the alternative designation fine granular area
40
(FGA). This differs from the flat transgranular morphology outside
the ODA. The crack growth inside the ODA is clearly not cycle-by-
cycle growth. However, Murakami introduced the hypothetical cycle-
by-cycle rate equation (Equation 86) based on the master curve of
ODA presented in [52].
2
𝑑 √𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑖𝑛𝑐 1 √𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑂𝐷𝐴 √𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑐
= ( − 1)1−𝐵 [86]
𝑑𝑁𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑂𝐷𝐴 𝐴𝐵 √𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑖𝑛𝑐 √𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑂𝐷𝐴
where √areainc represents the size of the inclusion and the constants A
and B are extracted from the master curve of ODA.
Paris introduced a simple model (Equation 87) for estimation of crack
growth life (Np) which is considered as the number of cycles between
a0 (initial crack size/inclusion size) and af (final crack size) [11].
𝜋 𝐸2
𝑁𝑝 = [87]
2(𝜎𝐹𝐿 )2
41
steels, cracks initiates at irreversible persistent slip bands (PSB’s).
These cracks obtain good correlation between the fatigue limit and the
ultimate tensile strength and hardness. Equation 88 presents a linear
relationship between the fatigue limit and the hardness of a material
with HV < 400 regardless of microstructure, with FL is in MPa and
HV in kgf/mm2 [51, 52].
For high strength steels (HV > 400) however, fatigue failure will most
probably originate at a defect, e.g. a non-metallic inclusion and the
above displayed relation between the fatigue limit and the hardness is
no longer valid. Anyhow, the fatigue limit is strongly influenced by the
defect size.
42
Figure 23. Fatigue crack sub-surface initiation [15].
43
occurs between ai and af. The total fatigue crack growth life is ex-
pressed in Equation 89 [42, 57].
𝑑𝑎 ∆𝐾𝑒𝑓𝑓 3
=𝑏 ( ) [90]
𝑑𝑁 𝐸√𝑏
The relative portions of the different phases of the total fatigue life are
estimated from Equations 91-93.
𝛼
𝜋 𝐸2 1 𝑎0 ( −1)
2
𝑁𝑖𝑛𝑡 = [( ) − 1] [91]
2 (∆𝜎)2 2(𝛼−1) 𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡
2
𝜋 𝐸2 𝑎0
𝑁𝑎0−𝑎𝑖 = [1 − √ ] [92]
2 (∆𝜎)2 𝑎𝑖
𝜋 𝐸2 𝑎0 𝑎
𝑁𝑎𝑖 −𝑎𝑓 = [𝑥 3 √ − 𝑥3√ 0] [93]
2 (∆𝜎)2 𝑎𝑖 𝑎𝑓
Figure 24. Relative fatigue crack propagation for small and long cracks [42, 57].
44
The used parameters are according to Figure 24. Ni is computed from
Equation 94 (Ni = Nexperimental - Nfish-eye), where Nexperimental is the total
fatigue life determined experimentally.
Crack growth rate testing have been conducted on high strength steels
by different laboratories [15, 28]. Within the previously mentioned
FREQTIGUE project [15], crack growth rate measurements on auto-
motive steels have been performed at three different load frequencies
(35 Hz, 130 Hz and 20 kHz). The 20 kHz tests have been carried out
on six high strength steels, three bar grades (38MnSiV5, 50CrV4 and
16MnCr5) and three sheet grades (M800HY, CP1000 and DP1180), at
R=-1 and R=0.1 load ratios using ultrasonic fatigue equipment. The
results have been analysed according to the Paris law.
𝑑𝑎
= 𝐶 (∆𝐾)𝑚 [95]
𝑑𝑁
The 20 kHz testing yields data points only at low crack growth rates
and is therefore insufficient for the estimation of C and m. However,
considering all data point from all three frequencies, and defining a
common Paris law curve, the results have showed better estimation of
the parameters. Figure 25 shows two examples of such plot.
45
Figure 25. da/dN vs ΔK plot for 38MnSiV5 steel grade at R=-1 and R=0,1 load
ratio respectively [15].
As seen in Figure 25, the data points from the 20 kHz testing covers
the lower ΔK regime. This was the case for nearly all six materials.
46
Figure 26. da/dN vs ΔK plot for a) vacuum tests and b) ambient air tests at dif-
ferent loading ratios [28].
47
Guennec et al. [58] have studied the frequency effect on the ductile
ferritic-pearlitic S15C steel using five different loading frequencies
(0,2Hz, 2Hz, 20Hz, 140Hz and 20kHz). The resulted SN-curves
showed a decreasing fatigue strength with decreasing load frequency
(more pronounced at lower strength levels for the 0,2-140Hz tests)
where the largest gap was between 140Hz and 20kHz. However, an
increase in the yield strength due to higher strain-rates was observed
in the 0,2-140 Hz frequency range. Taking this into account, the SN-
curves were normalized by plotting a/ys against life time and the
differences between the SN-curves of 0,2-140 Hz diminished and the
gap between 140Hz and 20kHz decreased but was still pronounced.
In the extensive research project (FREQTIGUE) [15], the major ob-
jective was to investigate the influence of the load frequency on fa-
tigue strength and the effect of the 20 kHz load frequency of the ultra-
sonic fatigue testing system. Six different automotive steels were test-
ed at different frequencies (1-20 000 Hz) at seven different facilities.
The results of the project showed evidence of a load frequency influ-
ence on the fatigue strength. It was concluded that the fatigue
strengths for several steel grades was slightly lower at 20 kHz than at
lower load frequencies. This effect is thought to be due to softening of
the material caused by localized internal friction at this high frequen-
cy.
5.6 Damping
When computing the stress or the stress intensity factor, one needs to
consider the energy dissipation (internal friction Q-1) due to anelastic
relaxation during dynamic computations. In crystalline materials,
there are different mechanisms producing anelastic relaxation . Point
defect relaxation, dislocation relaxation and interface relaxation are
three mechanisms caused by interaction between the motion of a de-
fect and the applied stress [59, 60]. Point defect relaxation implies
diffusive redistribution of point defects under an applied external
stress. The redistribution occurs due to mainly two phenomenon,
Gorsky (1935) relaxation where an interstitial atom (IA) moves from
compressed to dilated regions (observed only for hydrogen) and the
more common phenomenon where point defects are reoriented due to
anisotropy of the applied stress and the defect-induced distortion.
48
Snoek (1941) relaxation describes the anelastic relaxation due to in-
teraction between IA and host metal atoms that leads to deformation
and relaxation of the crystal lattice and, hence, energy losses (i.e. car-
bon atoms in α-Fe).
Dislocations are line defects in crystals with complex distortion
and/or stress fields [60]. Dislocation relaxation occurs in plastically
deformed metals and alloys with high density of dislocations and is
caused by movement of the dislocations themselves due to nucleation
and propagation of thermal or geometrical kinks (Bordoni and Nib-
lett-Wilks peaks), jointly by dislocations and proper lattice point de-
fects (Hasiguti peaks), jointly by dissolved foreign IA and dislocations
at elevated temperatures (Snoek-Köster relaxation and dislocation
enhanced Snoek effect), or dislocation climbing at elevated tempera-
tures. Interface relaxation occurs in polycrystalline materials due to
grain boundary relaxation where sliding of grain boundaries is caused
by shear stresses along the boundary of two adjacent crystals. A spe-
cial type of grain boundary relaxation is the twin boundary relaxation
where the sliding boundary is the separation of two twin crystals that
are mirror image of each other. The last main type of anelastic relaxa-
tion in crystalline materials is the thermoelastic relaxation where irre-
versible heat flow relaxes the temperature gradient arisen due to spa-
tially inhomogeneous stress variations leading to entropy production
and dissipation of mechanical energy.
The internal friction 𝑄 −1 is related to the ratio between the absorbed
energy ∆𝑊 and the maximum elastic stored energy 𝑊 during one cy-
cle, Equation 96.
∆𝑊
𝑄−1 = [96]
2𝜋𝑊
49
ing factors; R for mass proportional damping and R for stiffness
proportional damping. For a given angular frequency (ω) the Rayleigh
damping is expressed as in Equation 97 and illustrated in Figure 27
[59, 61].
𝛼𝑅 𝛽𝑅 𝜔
𝜉= + [97]
2𝜔 2
x = Rw + R
w
Damping rate, x
Stiffness-proportional
damping
x = Rw, R = 0
Mass-proportional
damping
x = R, R = 0
w
Frequency, w
Figure 27. Rayleigh damping versus frequency [59].
50
and iterative optimization to compute the resonance frequency, f0,
and the exponential decay parameter, k, of the signal. The relation-
ship in Equation 98 is then used to calculate the mechanical loss coef-
ficient (Q-1) of the material.
Figure 28. Schematic view of the damping measurement setup with the IET-
apparatus [62].
𝑘
𝑄−1 = [98]
𝜋 𝑓0
𝑚 𝑓02 𝐿3
𝐸𝑑 = 0,9465( )( 3 )𝑇1 [99]
𝑏 𝑡
where m is the mass and L, b and t are the dimensions of the speci-
men. T1 is a correction factor depending on the (t/L) ratio.
𝑡
𝑇1 = 1 + 6,858 ( )2 [100]
𝐿
For low damping rates (x<<1) the Rayleigh damping factor x is half
the loss coefficient parameter Q-1 measured with IET-apparatus.
𝑄−1
𝜉= [101]
2
The IET equipment can provide damping and elastic modulus of spec-
imens with resonance frequencies approximately 100-25 000 Hz. Alt-
hough experience have showed that specimens with resonance fre-
51
quency below 250 Hz are difficult to use. Such low frequencies can
instead be measured with the dynamic mechanical analyser, DMA.
The specimen is under forced vibration at pre-chosen frequencies
while the DMA measures the damping ratio as the ratio between the
loss modulus (G´´) and the storage modulus (G´). This ratio is plot-
ted as the phase distortion tan() and is equal to the internal friction
(Q-1) parameter [64].
𝐺 ´´
tan(𝛿 ) = [102]
𝐺´
Conclusion
52
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56
Nomenclature
Acronym Description
59
A study of very high cycle fatigue in high
strength steels
Until 1970´s, fatigue properties of materials were usually studied and evaluated
A study of very high cycle
fatigue in high strength steels
up to the HCF regime (N<106 cycles) beyond which failure was not expected.
However, in the late decades of the 20th century proof of fatigue failure in the
VHCF regime (N>106 cycles) was presented by different material scientists. This
led to an aroused interest in developing a new testing technique where a very
high number of loading cycles is achieved within reasonably short time. The
ultrasonic fatigue testing system was developed for this purpose, testing materials
in the VHCF regime, where specimens are loaded at 20 kHz reaching 1010 cycles
in less than a week. In the ultrasonic fatigue testing system, an electric sinusoidal
signal is generated and then converted to a mechanical sinusoidal vibration. The Mohamed Sadek
mechanical vibration is led through a magnifying horn to the specimen. The
system vibrates at resonance frequency, hence all individual parts of the system
are designed and dimensioned according to the system resonance frequency.
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