HYDRAULICS ANALYSIS

AND MODELLING
PTSP8-105

SESI 10:
NON-UNIFROM FLOW or
VARIED FLOW
Prof. Dr. Ir. Sri Sangkawati, MS
Prof. Dr. Ir. Suripin, M.Eng
RPS SALURAN 23/08/2022 Open Channel
Varied Flow: Gradually and Rapidly Varied Flow,
TERBUKA 30/08/2022
surge, dam break.
06/09/2022 Hydraulic Modelling: Introduction
13/09/2022 Hydraulic Modelling: Dimension Analysis
20/09/2022 Hydraulic Modelling: Model Law
Hydraulic Modelling: Classification According to
27/09/2022
Model Scale

Hydraulic Modelling: Classification According to

04/10/2022
Model Bed
11/10/2022 Ujian Tengah Semester (UTS)
NON-UNIFORM OR As a rule, uniform flow is found only in artificial channels of
VARIED FLOW constant shape and slope, although even under these
conditions the flow for some distance may be nonuniform,
as shown in Figure 10-1.
In natural stream, the slope of the bed and the shape and
size of the cross section usually vary to such an extent that
true uniform flow is rare.
There are two types of nonuniform flow: gradually varied
flow the changing conditions extend over a long distance;
local nonuniform phenomenon or rapidly varied flow the
change may take place very abruptly , and the transition is
thus confined to a short distance.
Figure 10-1. Gradually varied flow can occur with either subcritical or
supercritical flow, but the transition from one condition to
the other is ordinary abrupt.
NON-UNIFORM GRADUALLY VARIED FLOW (GVF)
or [Aliran Berubah Lambat-laun = ABL)
VARIED FLOW

APIDLY VARIED FLOW (RVF)

[Aliran Berubah Tiba-tiba = ABT)
GRADUALLY VARIED Gradually varied flow in an open channel:
FLOW (GVF) the water depth in the channel changes gradually with distance;
the change in velocity occurs gradually with distance so that the effect of
acceleration on the flow between two adjacent sections is negligible;
the calculation of the water level profile can be done based on the
energy principle.

1 2
Δx

V2
hf
2g

Es
h
H V
So ≠ Sw ≠ Se
z

Datum
x

Figure 10-1. Energy relation for nonuniform flow (Varied flow)

 GRADUALLY VARIED Assumptions used:
FLOW (GVF) 1. Small channel bottom slope (less than 5%);
2. The channel is prismatic and there is no lateral inflow and
outflow from the channel;
3. The pressure distribution in the channel section is hydrostatic;
4. The head loss in a gradually changing flow can be determined by
the equation for head loss in uniform flow.
1 2
Δx

V2
2g h The principal forces involved in flowmin open channel are inertia,
gravity, net hydrostatic force due to change in depth, and friction.
f

Es

Refereeing to Fig. 10-1, the total energy of the elementary volume of

h
H V

liquid shown is proportional to:

z

Datum

V2
x

H = z+h+ (10-1)
2g
where z+ h is the potential energy head above the arbitrary datum, and V2/2g
is the kinetic energy head, h being water depth, and V being the mean velocity
in the section.
GRADUALLY VARIED CALCULATION METHODS
FLOW (GVF)
calculation methods
There are several ways that can be used to calculate the
water level profile in irregular permanent flows, namely:
1. The direct step method.
2. The standard step method.
3. Graphical Integration Method
4. Bresse method.
5. Series Method.
6. The Flamant Method.
In the following discussion, we will describe how to solve
these equations using the most widely used methods,
namely the direct step method and the standard step
method.
 The figure below shows a cross-section of the non-
THE DIRECT STEP
uniform flow. Based on the Bernoulli equation, it can
METHOD be written:
V12 V22
h1 + + Δz = h2 + + hf or E1 + So ΔX = E2 + Sf ΔX
2g 2g
E1 E2

E2 − E1 Sf1 + Sf2
ΔX = (10-1) where Sf = (10-2)
𝑉12
Sf So − Sf 2
2𝑔 hf = Sf . X
Q2 n 2 (10-3) v22
Sw 𝑉22 Manning Sf = E2 = h2 + (10-5)
2𝑔 4 2g
h1 2
A R3
Q2 v12
So
h2 Chezy Sf = 2 2 (10-4) E1 = h1 + (10-6)
z = SoX C A R 2g

X The calculation procedure starts with a known depth h1, which is obtained
from the discharge rating curve, then assumes the next depth h2, either
upstream or downstream depending on the subcritical or supercritical
flow type, and calculates the distance ΔX between the two depths. with
equation (10-1).
 A channel is trapezoidal in shape with a side slope of 1 : 1, a bed width of
ILLUSTRATION 5.0 m and a bottom slope of 0.0015. The installation of the control gate
PROBLEM 10-1 structure causes an increase in the water depth upstream of the gate to
5.0 m at a flow rate of 50.0 m3/sec. If the Manning roughness number n =
0.02. Calculate and describe the water level profile that occurs.

Direct Step Method

Solution :
1. Determine the type of water profile, by calculating the normal depth, hn, and
the critical depth, hcr.
The normal water depth, hn can be obtained by the Manning equation:
Manning equation 2ൗ
5h + h2 5h + h2 3
1ൗ
50 = 0.0015 2
1 2 12 0.02 5 + 2h 2
Q = A R 3 So
n
There only one unknown variable, that is normal water depth hn, by using trial
method it was found: hn = 2,537 m
 ILLUSTRATION Critical depth can be calculated by using eq. (9-11):

PROBLEM 10-1 Q2 A3 Substituting all given variables into this equation,

=
g T becomes:

Direct Step Method 502 5+h h 3

= This equation contains only one unknown variable, it
9.81 5 + 2h can be solved by trial to find hcr:
hcr = 1.753 m

Water depth just upstream of the gate, h = 5.00 m

Q2 A3 (9-11)
= So h > hn > hcr, the type of water profile is M1
g T
2. Next we calculate the water level profile, starting from a known depth
upstream of the control point, h = 5.0 m, moving upstream. At this control
point we give the notation x = 0.
3. The calculation results are shown in the following table.
ILLUSTRATION Table 10-1. Calculation results of the water level profile using direct step method
PROBLEM 10-1 h. (m) A. (m ) 2
P (m) R. m V (m/s) v /2g. (m) 2
E. (m) ΔE . (m) S S So- S ΔX. (m) ƩX. (m)
f f-r f-r
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13]
5,00 50,00 19,14 2,61 1,00 0,0510 5,0510 1,11,E-04 0 0
Direct Step Method 4,90 48,51 18,86 2,57 1,03 0,0541 4,9541 0,0968 1,21,E-04 1,16,E-04 1,38,E-03 69,95 69,95
4,80 47,04 18,58 2,53 1,06 0,0576 4,8576 0,0966 1,31,E-04 1,26,E-04 1,37,E-03 70,27 140,22
4,70 45,59 18,29 2,49 1,10 0,0613 4,7613 0,0963 1,42,E-04 1,37,E-04 1,36,E-03 70,62 210,84
4,60 44,16 18,01 2,45 1,13 0,0653 4,6653 0,0960 1,55,E-04 1,49,E-04 1,35,E-03 71,02 281,86
4,50 42,75 17,73 2,41 1,17 0,0697 4,5697 0,0956 1,69,E-04 1,62,E-04 1,34,E-03 71,47 353,33
Given: 4,40 41,36 17,45 2,37 1,21 0,0745 4,4745 0,0952 1,85,E-04 1,77,E-04 1,32,E-03 71,99 425,32
Q = 50,00 m3/s 4,30 39,99 17,16 2,33 1,25 0,0797 4,3797 0,0948 2,02,E-04 1,94,E-04 1,31,E-03 72,58 497,89
4,20 38,64 16,88 2,29 1,29 0,0853 4,2853 0,0943 2,22,E-04 2,12,E-04 1,29,E-03 73,25 571,15
B = 5,00 m 4,10 37,31 16,60 2,25 1,34 0,0915 4,1915 0,0938 2,44,E-04 2,33,E-04 1,27,E-03 74,04 645,18
h = 5,00 m 4,00 36,00 16,31 2,21 1,39 0,0983 4,0983 0,0932 2,69,E-04 2,56,E-04 1,24,E-03 74,95 720,13
m = 1 3,90 34,71 16,03 2,17 1,44 0,1058 4,0058 0,0926 2,96,E-04 2,82,E-04 1,22,E-03 76,02 796,15
3,80 33,44 15,75 2,12 1,50 0,1139 3,9139 0,0918 3,28,E-04 3,12,E-04 1,19,E-03 77,28 873,43
n = 0.020 3,70 32,19 15,47 2,08 1,55 0,1230 3,8230 0,0910 3,63,E-04 3,45,E-04 1,15,E-03 78,80 952,23
So = 0.0015 3,60 30,96 15,18 2,04 1,61 0,1329 3,7329 0,0900 4,03,E-04 3,83,E-04 1,12,E-03 80,63 1.032,86
3,50 29,75 14,90 2,00 1,68 0,1440 3,6440 0,0890 4,49,E-04 4,26,E-04 1,07,E-03 82,87 1.115,72
3,40 28,56 14,62 1,95 1,75 0,1562 3,5562 0,0878 5,02,E-04 4,76,E-04 1,02,E-03 85,66 1.201,39
3,30 27,39 14,33 1,91 1,83 0,1698 3,4698 0,0864 5,62,E-04 5,32,E-04 9,68,E-04 89,23 1.290,61
3,20 26,24 14,05 1,87 1,91 0,1851 3,3851 0,0848 6,32,E-04 5,97,E-04 9,03,E-04 93,88 1.384,49
3,10 25,11 13,77 1,82 1,99 0,2021 3,3021 0,0830 7,12,E-04 6,72,E-04 8,28,E-04 100,16 1.484,65
3,00 24,00 13,49 1,78 2,08 0,2212 3,2212 0,0809 8,05,E-04 7,58,E-04 7,42,E-04 109,05 1.593,70
2,90 22,91 13,20 1,74 2,18 0,2428 3,1428 0,0784 9,14,E-04 8,59,E-04 6,41,E-04 122,45 1.716,15
2,80 21,84 12,92 1,69 2,29 0,2671 3,0671 0,0756 1,04,E-03 9,77,E-04 5,23,E-04 144,71 1.860,86
2,70 20,79 12,64 1,65 2,41 0,2948 2,9948 0,0723 1,19,E-03 1,12,E-03 3,84,E-04 188,45 2.049,32
2,60 19,76 12,35 1,60 2,53 0,3263 2,9263 0,0685 1,37,E-03 1,28,E-03 2,20,E-04 311,48 2.360,79
2,54 19,15 12,18 1,57 2,61 0,3474 2,8874 0,0389 1,49,E-03 1,43,E-03 6,95,E-05 560,05 2.920,84
ILLUSTRATION Column [1], h. The initial water depth, starting from the control depth, in this
case is the depth upstream of the gate, 5.00 m. The calculation
PROBLEM 5-1 goes upstream, the depth decreases. The calculation of the
water level profile is stopped when the water depth reaches
the normal depth.
Direct Step Method
Column [2], A. Cross-sectional area with depth in column [1] in the same
row.
Column [3], P. Wet circumference or perimeter at the corresponding depth.
Column [4], R. Hydraulic radius, R = A/P, column [2] divided by column [3]
Column [5], V. Current velocity, calculated by dividing the discharge, Q, by
the cross-sectional area, A, of column [2]
Column [6], 4, V2/2g. high speed,
Column [7], E. The specific energy, E, is calculated by summing up the water
depth, h, in column [1], with the velocity height, V2/2g, in
column [6].
Column [8], ΔE = E2 – E1. This column is obtained by subtracting the value of E
at the corresponding depth from E for the previous depth.
 ILLUSTRATION Column [9], Sf. By using a certain Manning roughness number, n, then the Sf
value equation can be calculated using following eq. (10-1)
PROBLEM 10-1
Column [10], Sf-av the average of Sf at the relevant depth and the previous depth.
This column is left blank for the first row, because there is no
Direct Step Method previous depth here.
Column [11], the value in this column is obtained by subtracting column [10]
from the value of So.
Column [12], ΔX = X2-X1. The distance increment is calculated by dividing column
[8] by column [11].
Column [13], ƩX. Represents the distance from the control point to the depth
under consideration, and is the accumulation of ΔX from
column [12].

Q2 n 2
Sf = (10-3)
4 The results as shown in Table 10-1, can then be developed into a water level
2
A R3 profile, by making a graph of the relationship between distance, column [13] with
channel bottom height and water level. The bottom height of the channel is
obtained by multiplying the distance in the column [13] with So, while the water
level is the sum of the base height and the water depth at the same distance..
 ILLUSTRATION 10,00

Channel bed Water surface Uniform water depth 9,00

PROBLEM 10-1 8,00

7,00
Direct Step Method

Height from datum, m

6,00

5,00

4,00

3,00

2,00

1,00

0,00
3000 2750 2500 2250 2000 1750 1500 1250 1000 750 500 250 0

Distance, m

Figure 10-2. Water surface profile M1 calculated using direct step method
 Metoda ini dikembangkan dari persamaan energi total dari aliran
STANDARD pada saluran terbuka
STEP METHOD
V12 V22
z1 + h1 + = z2 + h2 + + hf
2g 2g (10-7)
E1 E2

E1 = E2 + hf (10-8)

The calculation starts by knowing the total energy head at the control point E1, where the
water depth, h1 and the height of the bottom of the channel from the reference point, z1,
are known. Next, determine the distance from the control point upstream or downstream
(depending on the location of the control point) along X,

The right-hand parameter (eq. 10-7) that can be directly calculated is z2 = z1 + Δz, where Δz
is the product of the slope of the channel bed (So) and the difference in the distance
between the two points to be calculated (Δz = So.ΔX), The other three parameters are
functions of water depth h2, so by assuming the water depth h2, the energy height at point
(2) can be calculated. Trial is needed to find the fittest h2 so that the eq. (10-7) is met.
 ILLUSTRATION Repeat illustration problem 10-1 using standard state method!
PROBLEM 10-1
Solution :
1. Determine the type of water profile, by calculating the normal depth, hn, and the critical depth, hcr.
Standard Step Method
The normal water depth, hn can be obtained by the Manning equation:
2ൗ
3h + h2 3h + h2 3
1ൗ
25 = 0.0015 2
0.017 3 + 2h 2
Criticaldepth, hcr can be obtained using eq. (9-11)

Q2 A3 There only one unknown variable, that is normal water depth hn, by using trial method it was found:
= (9-11) hn = 2,537 m
g T
502 5+h h 3 This equation contains only one unknown variable, it can be solved
= by trial to find hcr. It was found hcr = 1.753 m
9.81 5 + 2h

Water depth just upstream of the gate, h = 5.00 m

So h > hn > hcr, the type of water profile is M1
2. Next we calculate the water level profile, starting from a known depth upstream of the control
point, h = 5.0 m, moving upstream. At this control point we give the notation x = 0.
3. The calculation results are shown in the following table.
 ILLUSTRATION Table 10-2. Calculation results of the water level profile using standard step method
PROBLEM 10-1 X, m
[1]
Z, m
[2]
h, m
[3]
A, m
2

[4]
P, m
[5]
V, m/dtk
[6]
2
V /2g, m
[7]
E1, m
[8]
R, m
[9]
Sf
[10]
Sf-av
[11]
ΔX, m
[12]
hf
[13]
E2
[14]
0 0 5,000 50,00 19,14 1,00 0,0510 5,0510 2,61 1,11E-04
50 0,075 4,929 48,94 18,94 1,02 0,0532 5,0572 2,58 1,18E-04 1,14E-04 50 0,00572 5,0515
Standard Step Method 100
200
0,150
0,300
4,878
4,736
48,18
46,11
18,80
18,40
1,04
1,08
0,0549
0,0599
5,0829
5,0959
2,56
2,51
1,23E-04
1,38E-04
1,20E-04
1,30E-04
50
100
0,00601
0,01305
5,0769
5,0829
300 0,450 4,595 44,09 18,00 1,13 0,0656 5,1106 2,45 1,56E-04 1,47E-04 100 0,01470 5,0959
400 0,600 4,455 42,12 17,60 1,19 0,0718 5,1268 2,39 1,76E-04 1,66E-04 100 0,01659 5,1102
500 0,750 4,317 40,22 17,21 1,24 0,0788 5,1458 2,34 1,99E-04 1,88E-04 100 0,01877 5,1270
600 0,900 4,180 38,37 16,82 1,30 0,0865 5,1665 2,28 2,26E-04 2,13E-04 100 0,02127 5,1453
Given: 700 1,050 4,046 36,59 16,44 1,37 0,0952 5,1907 2,23 2,57E-04 2,42E-04 100 0,02416 5,1665
Q = 50,00 m3/s 800 1,200 3,913 34,88 16,07 1,43 0,1047 5,2181 2,17 2,92E-04 2,75E-04 100 0,02747 5,1907
900 1,350 3,784 33,24 15,70 1,50 0,1153 5,2493 2,12 3,33E-04 3,13E-04 100 0,03127 5,2181
B = 5,00 m 1.000 1,500 3,658 31,67 15,35 1,58 0,1270 5,2850 2,06 3,79E-04 3,56E-04 100 0,03562 5,2494
1.100 1,650 3,536 30,18 15,00 1,66 0,1399 5,3259 2,01 4,32E-04 4,06E-04 100 0,04058 5,2853
h = 5,00 m 1.200 1,800 3,418 28,77 14,67 1,74 0,1539 5,3719 1,96 4,92E-04 4,62E-04 100 0,04620 5,3257
m = 1 1.300 1,950 3,305 27,45 14,35 1,82 0,1691 5,4241 1,91 5,59E-04 5,25E-04 100 0,05254 5,3716
1.400 2,100 3,198 26,22 14,05 1,91 0,1853 5,4837 1,87 6,33E-04 5,96E-04 100 0,05958 5,4241
n = 0.020 1.500 2,250 3,099 25,10 13,76 1,99 0,2023 5,5511 1,82 7,13E-04 6,73E-04 100 0,06728 5,4838
1.600 2,400 3,007 24,08 13,51 2,08 0,2198 5,6268 1,78 7,98E-04 7,55E-04 100 0,07554 5,5513
So = 0.0015 1.700 2,550 2,924 23,16 13,27 2,16 0,2375 5,7110 1,75 8,87E-04 8,42E-04 100 0,08423 5,6267
1.800 2,700 2,849 22,37 13,06 2,24 0,2547 5,8041 1,71 9,76E-04 9,31E-04 100 0,09311 5,7110
1.900 2,850 2,785 21,68 12,88 2,31 0,2711 5,9061 1,68 1,06E-03 1,02E-03 100 0,10188 5,8042
V12 V22
z1 + h1 + = z2 + h2 + + hf 2.000 3,000 2,730 21,11 12,72 2,37 0,2860 6,0163 1,66 1,14E-03 1,10E-03 100 0,11026 5,9061
2g 2g 2.100 3,150 2,685 20,63 12,59 2,42 0,2993 6,1342 1,64 1,22E-03 1,18E-03 100 0,11796 6,0162
E1 E2 2.200 3,300 2,649 20,26 12,49 2,47 0,3105 6,2590 1,62 1,28E-03 1,25E-03 100 0,12476 6,1343
2.300 3,450 2,620 19,96 12,41 2,50 0,3198 6,3895 1,61 1,33E-03 1,31E-03 100 0,13053 6,2590
2.400 3,600 2,598 19,74 12,35 2,53 0,3271 6,5247 1,60 1,37E-03 1,35E-03 100 0,13527 6,3895
2.500 3,750 2,581 19,57 12,30 2,56 0,3328 6,6638 1,59 1,41E-03 1,39E-03 100 0,13902 6,5248
E1 = E2 + hf 2.600 3,900 2,569 19,44 12,26 2,57 0,3372 6,8057 1,58 1,43E-03 1,42E-03 100 0,14192 6,6638
2.700 4,050 2,560 19,35 12,24 2,58 0,3404 6,9499 1,58 1,45E-03 1,44E-03 100 0,14412 6,8057
2.800 4,200 2,553 19,28 12,22 2,59 0,3428 7,0955 1,58 1,46E-03 1,46E-03 100 0,14576 6,9497
2.900 4,350 2,548 19,23 12,21 2,60 0,3446 7,2424 1,58 1,48E-03 1,47E-03 100 0,14699 7,0954
3.000 4,500 2,545 19,20 12,20 2,60 0,3456 7,3906 1,57 1,48E-03 1,48E-03 100 0,14781 7,2428
 ILLUSTRATION Column [1], X. Location of the point where the water depth is calculated.
PROBLEM 10-1 Column [2], z. Channel bed level. It is calculated based on the known bad level
(i.e. at the control point z1 = 2,00) and the channel bed slope, So, z2
Standard Step Method = z1 + So(X2 – X1).
Column 3, [h]. Estimated water depth.
Column 4, [A]. Wet cross-sectional area, A, calculated for the depth, h, in column
[3].
Column [5], P. Wet circumference or perimeter at the corresponding depth,
column [3].
Column [6], V. Flow velocity, V = Q/A, column [4] : column [5].
Column [7], V2/2g. High speed.
Column [8], E1. The total energy head is the sum of the bottom level of the
channel, z, in column [2], water depth, h, column [3], and energy
height V2/2g, column [7], or E = z+h+V2/2g.
Column [9], R. Hydraulic radius for water depth, h; R = A/P, column [4] : column
[5]
 ILLUSTRATION Column [10], Sf. The slope of the energy line, which is calculated according to
PROBLEM 10-1 equation (10-3).
Column [11], Sf-av. The average of Sf at the relevant depth and the previous depth for
Standard Step Method the specified distance.
Column [12], X . The distance between the calculated water depth point and the
previously calculated water depth location.
Column [13], hf. The energy loss along X is calculated from the equation, , which is
taken from column 10, and X from column 11.
Column [14], E2. Is the total energy head, which is calculated by subtracting the
total energy head (column [8]) by energy height loss, hf (column
[13]). If the difference between E1 in column [8] of previous line
(column [8] and H2 in column [14] is within an acceptable range,
then the estimated water depth h in column [3] is correct, and the
calculation can be continued at the next point. On the other hand,
if the difference is still far, it needs to be repeated with the new h
value.
 ILLUSTRATION 10,00

PROBLEM 10-1 Channel bed Water surface Uniform flow depth 9,00

8,00

7,00
Standard Step Method

Height from datum, m

6,00

5,00

4,00

3,00

2,00

1,00

0,00
3.000 2.750 2.500 2.250 2.000 1.750 1.500 1.250 1.000 750 500 250 0

Distance, m

Figure 10-3. Water surface profile M1 calculated using standard step method
 ILLUSTRATION 10,00
Direct step method Standard step method Uniform flow depth
PROBLEM 10-1 9,00

8,00

7,00
Standard Step Method

Height from datum, m

6,00

5,00

4,00

3,00

2,00

1,00

0,00
3000 2750 2500 2250 2000 1750 1500 1250 1000 750 500 250 0

Distance, m

Figure 10-4. Comparison of water surface profile M1 calculated using direct

step method and standard step method
RAPIDLY VARIED FLOW (RVF)

HYDRAULIC
JUMP
RAPIDLY VARIED Hydraulic jump
FLOW (RVF)
The well-known rapidly varied flow is hydraulic jump. It is
occurred when a supercritical changes to subcritical flow,
trough which depth increases abruptly in the direction of flow.

Hydraulic jump is one subject which has extensively been

studied in the field of hydraulic engineering. It is an intriguing
and interesting phenomenon that has caught the imagination of
many research workers since its first description by Leonardo
da Vinci. The Italian engineer Bidone (1818) is credited with the
first experimental investigation of this phenomenon.
RAPIDLY VARIED A hydraulic jump primarily serves as an energy dissipator to
FLOW (RVF) dissipate the excess energy of flowing water downstream of
hydraulic structures, such as spillways and sluice gates. Some of
the other uses are:

a) efficient operation of flow-measurement flumes,

b) mixing of chemicals,
c) to aid intense mixing and gas transfer in chemical processes,
d) in the desalination of sea water, and
e) in the aeration of streams which arc polluted by bio-
degradable wastes.
RAPIDLY VARIED The hydraulic jump can also occur from an upstream condition of
FLOW (RVF) uniform supercritical flow to a nonuniform S1 curve downstream when
there is an obstruction on the steep slope, or from a nonuniform
upstream condition to a nonuniform downstream condition, as
illustrated by the H3-H2 or A3-A2. An combination of M3-M2 is also
possible.

In the channel bed continuous at a uniform slope, a jump will form when the
slope change from steep to mild, as on the apron at the base of the spillway or
weir.
HYDRAULIC JUMP

Figure 10-5.

Figure 10-5 . A schematic sketch of a typical hydraulic jump in a

horizontal channel. Section 1, where the incoming supercritical stream
undergoes an abrupt rise in the depth forming the commencement of the
jump, is called the toe of the jump.
 HYDRAULIC JUMP Momentum Equation:

h2
h1

෍ Fx = ma
Figure 10-6.
Fx = force in x direction, N
FP1 = hydrostatic force in section 1, N
γ γ
FP2 = hydrostatic force in section 2, N FP1 − FP2 = Q(V2 − V1 ) or γA1 hc1 − γA2 hc2 = Q(V2 − V1 )
m = mass of water in control volume, kg g g
V = velocity, m/s
a = acceleration, m/s2 γ γ
Q = discharge, m3/s γA1 hc1 + QV1 = γA2 hc2 + QV2
g g
ϒ = unit weight, N/m3
hc = depth to the centroid of the end
area, m Q2 Q2 Q2
A = cross section area, m2
+ A1 hc1 = + A2 hc2 or + Ahc = constant (10-9)
gA1 gA2
gA
 HYDRAULIC JUMP In the case of rectangular channel, hc = h/2, and A = Bh, and we can
in Rectangular use discharge per unit width, q = Q/B. Substituting for these into Eq.
(10-11), become:
channel
2 2
q2 y12 q2 h22
Q Q + = + = constant
gA1
+ A1 hc1 =
gA2
+ A2 hc2 (10-11) gh1 2 gh2 2

q2 q2 h22 h12 q2 h1 + h2
− = − or = h1 h2 (10-12)
gh1 gh2 2 2 g 2
Q = discharge, m3/s
ϒ = unit weight, N/m3
hc = depth to the centroid of the end Solving Eq. (10-12) by the quadratic formula gives:
area, m
a = cross section area, m2 h1 8q2 (10-13)
q = unit discharge, m3/s-m h2 = −1 + 1 + 3
2 gh1
g = acceleration due to gravity, m/s2
h = water depth, m

h1 =
h2 8q2
−1 + 1 + 3
(10-14)
2 gh2
HYDRAULIC JUMP On non-dimensional,
h2 h2 2q2
in Rectangular h1
1+
h1
= 3 = 2F12
gh1
(10-15)
channel
where F1 = Froude number of the approach flow. Solving for (y2/y1) yields
v1
F1 = h2 1
gh1 (10-16)
= −1 + 1 + 8F12
h1 2
Eq. (10-16) above can also be expressed in terms of F2 = the subcritical Froude
V2 number on the downstream of the jump as:
F2 =
gh2
h1 1 (10-17)
= −1 + 1 + 8F22
h2 2
This equation which relates the ratio of the sequent depths (h1/h2) to the initial
Froude number F1 in a horizontal frictionless rectangular channel is known as
the Belanger momentum equation. For high values of F1 , say F1 > 8.0, Eq. (7-
6) above can be approximated for purposes of quick estimation of the sequent
depth ratio as

h2 Τh1 ≈ 1.41F1 (10-18)

 HYDRAULIC JUMP Energy Loss
in Rectangular The energy loss EL in the jump is obtained by the energy equation applied to
sections 1 and 2 as
channel
EL = E1 − E2

V2 q2 q2
F2 =
gh2 EL = h1 + − h2 +
2gh12 2gh22

1 q2 h22 − h12
EL = h1 − h2 +
2 g h12 h22
q2 h1 + h2 (10-12)
= h1 h2
g 2 Substituting for q2/g from Eq. (7-2) and simplifying
3
h2
h2 − h1 3
EL −1
or h1
EL =
4h1 h2
=
h (10-19)
h1 4 2
h1
HYDRAULIC JUMP The relative energy loss
in Rectangular EL EL E1 E1 F12
= ൘ while
channel E1 h1 h1 h1
= 1+
2
so 3
h2
EL −1
h1
=
E1 h F12
4 2 1+ 2
h1

Substituting for (h1/h2) from Eq. (7-7) and simplifying,

3
EL −3 + 1 + 8F12
=
E1 8 2 + F 2 −1 + 1 + 8F 2
1 1
(10-20)

Equation (7-10) gives the fraction of the initial energy lost in the hydraulic jump. The
variation of EL/E1 is highlights the enormous energy dissipating characteristic of the jump.
At F1 = 5, about 50 per cent of the initial energy in the supercritical stream is lost and at F1 =
20, EL/E1 is about 86 per cent.
 Conjugate or Initial and final depths of a hydraulic jump are called conjugate
or sequent depths in the sense that they occur simultaneously.
Sequent Depths
h1 = initial supercritical depth
h2 = actual subcritical depth in the channel

Compare: h’1 > h2 ↔ h’2 > h1

h h1’ = conjugate depth of h1

h2' = conjugate depth of h2

For jump: supercritical depth must increase from y1 to h’2

Jump will move downstream until h’2 is achieved. “running jump”
In the opposite case, jump tends to move upstream.
Figure 10-7.
Momentum and conjugate depth relationships for the hydraulic jump.
 Illustration Analyze the water surface profile in a long rectangular channel lined
with concrete (n = 0.013). The channel is 5 m wide, the flow rate is 25
Problem 10-2 m3/s, and the channel slope changes abruptly from 0,015 to 0,0016. Find
also the horsepower loss in the resulting jump.

Solution: 2ൗ
5h1 5h1 3
1ൗ
Eq. for normal water depth 25 = 0.015 2
0.013 5 + 2h1
1 2ൗ 1ൗ2
Q = A x R 3 So This equation can be solved by trial, we obtain h1 = 0.761 m (normal depth on the
n
upper slope)
Using similar procedure, we can find the normal depth, h2 = 1.638 m (normal depth on
Eq. for critical water depth in the lower slope)
rectangular channel

3 q2 3 25 2
hcr = 5
g hcr = = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟔𝟔 𝐦
9.81
Thus flow is supercritical (h1 < hcr) in the upper slope, and subcritical (h2 > hcr)
in the lower slope, so hydraulic jump must be occur.
 Illustration Solution (continued) :
Problem 10-2 Applying Eq. (10-13) to determine the depth conjugate to the h1 = 0.761 m, we
get:

0.761 8x52
h1′ = −1 + 1 + = 2.235 m
2 9.81x0.7613
h1 8q2
h2 = −1 + 1 + 3 (10-13)
2 gh1 h1” > h2, therefore a jump on the upper slope must rise to 2.235 m, after which
the surface must rise still more long an S1 curve. When the flow enters the
h2 8q2 lower slope, the depth would therefore be greater than h2 = 1.366 m and so in
h1 = −1 + 1 + 3 (10-14)
2 gh2 Zone 1. Because an M1 curve cannot bring the water surface down from 2.235
m to 1.366 m, such a profile and jump cannot occur (Fig. 10-8).

S1 curve

h1

h1’
hcr h2

Figure 10-8.
Lower slope, mild
 Illustration Solution (continued) :
Problem 10-2 Applying Eq. (10-14) to determine the depth conjugate to the h2 = 1.366 m, we
get:
1.366 8x52
h′2 = −1 + 1 + = 1.126 m
2 9.81x1.3663

h1 8q2
h2’ > h1, this lower conjugate depth of 1.126 m will occur downstream of the break in
h2 =
2
−1 + 1 + 3
gh1
(10-13) slope. The water surface on the lower slope can rise from 0.761 m to 1.126 m, via an M3
curve. So this water surface profile and jump will occur (Fig. 10-9).

h2 8q2
h1 = −1 + 1 + 3 (10-14)
2 gh2
h1
hcr
M3 curve
h2
h2 − h1 3 H2’
EL = (10-19)
4h1 h2 Figure 10-9.
Lower slope, mild

1.366 − 1.126 3
EL = = 0.0182 m
4x1.366x1.126

γQEL 9,810x25x0.182
PLoss = = = 5.996 hp
745 745
 FRICTIONLESS In this section the surge wave resulting from a sudden change in flow
POSITIVE SURGE (due to a gate or other mechanism) that increases the depth is studied.
WAVE IN A A rectangular channel is assumed, and friction is neglected.
RECTANGULAR Such a situation is shown in Fig. 10-21 shortly after a sudden, partial
closure of a gate. The problem is analyzed by reducing it to a steady-
CHANNEL state problem, as in Fig. 10-22.

The continuity equation yields, per unit width,

V1 + c y1 = V2 + c y2 (10-21)
Figure 10-21 Positive surge wave in a
rectangular channel

and the momentum equation for the control volume 1 - 2, neglecting

shear stress on the floor, per unit width, is
γ 2 γ
y1 − y22 = 𝑦1 V1 + c V2 + c − V1 − c (10-22)
2 g

Figure 10-22 Surge problem reduced to a

steady-state problem by superposition of
surge velocity
 FRICTIONLESS By elimination of V2 in the last two equations,
POSITIVE SURGE y2 y2
1ൗ
2
WAVE IN A V1 + c = gy1
2y1
1+
y1 (10-23)
RECTANGULAR
CHANNEL
In this form the speed of an elementary wave is obtained by letting y2
approach y1, yielding
V1 + c = gy (10-24)

For propagation through still liquid V1→0, and the wave speed is c =
√(gy) when the problem is converted back to the unsteady form by
superposition of V = -c.

In general, Eqs. (10-21) and (10-22) have to be solved by trial. The

hydraulic-jump formula results from setting c = 0 in the two equations.
 Illustration A rectangular channel 3 m wide and 2 m deep, discharging 18 m3/s,
suddenly has the discharge reduced to 12 m3/s at the downstream end.
Problem 10-3 Compute the height and speed of the surge wave.

Solution With Eqs. (10-21) and (10-22),

2
6 = 4 + c 𝑦2 − 2 → 𝑐 =
𝑦2 −2
2x2
y22 − 4 = c + 3 3 − V2
9,81
V1 + c y1 = V2 + c y2
γ 2 γ
Eliminating c and V2 gives
y1 − y22 = 𝑦1 V1 + c V2 + c − V1 − c
2 g 2
4 2 4 y2 − 2 4
y22 − 4 = +3 3− y2 + 2 y2 = = 0,407
9,81 𝑦2 − 2 𝑦2 3y2 − 4 9,81
B1 = 3 m, y1 = 2 m
V1 = 3 m/s
V1y1 = 6 m2/s
V2y2 = 4 m2/s After solving for y2 by trial, y2 = 2.75 m. Hence, V2 = 4/2.75 = 1.455 m/s,
The height of surge wave is 0.75 m, and the speed of the wave is

2 2
c= = = 𝟐, 𝟔𝟔𝟕 𝐦/𝐬
y2 −2 2,75−2
 FRICTIONLESS The negative surge wave appears as a gradual flattening and lowering of
a liquid surface. It occurs, for example, in a channel downstream from a
NEGATIVE SURGE
gate that is being closed or upstream from a gate that is being opened. Its
WAVE IN A propagation is accomplished by a series of elementary negative waves
RECTANGULAR superposed on the existing velocity, each wave traveling at less speed
CHANNEL than the one at next greater depth.

Application of the momentum equation and the continuity equation to a

small depth change produces simple differential expressions relating
wave speed c, velocity V, and depth y.

Integration of the equations yields liquid-surface profile as a function of

time, and velocity as a function of depth or as a function of position along
the channel and time (x and t). The fluid is assumed to be frictionless, and
vertical accelerations are neglected.
 FRICTIONLESS In Fig. 10-23a an elementary disturbance is indicated in which the flow
NEGATIVE SURGE upstream has been slightly reduced. For application of the momentum
WAVE IN A and continuity equations it is convenient to reduce the motion to a
RECTANGULAR steady one, as in Fig. 10-23b, by imposing a uniform velocity c to the
CHANNEL left.

The continuity equation is

V − δV − c y − δy = V − c y

or, by neglecting the product of small quantities,

(10-21)
c − V δy = yδ𝑉

The momentum equation produces

γ 2
γ 2 γ
y − δy − y = V − c y V − c − V − δV − c
Figure 10-23 Elementary wave 2 2 g
 FRICTIONLESS After simplifying,
NEGATIVE SURGE c−V (10-22)
WAVE IN A δy = δV
g
RECTANGULAR
Equating δV/δy in Eqs. (10-21) and (10-22) gives
CHANNEL
c − V = ± gy
(10-23)
c = V ± gy

The speed of an elementary wave in still liquid at depth y is √(gy) and

with flow the wave travels at the speed √(gy) relative to the flowing
liquid.
Eliminating c from Eqs. (10-21) and (10-22) gives
dV g
=±
dy y
and integrating leads to V = ±2 gy + constant
 FRICTIONLESS For a negative wave forming downstream form a gate (Fig. 10-24) by using the
NEGATIVE SURGE plus sign, after an instantaneous partial closure, V = V0 when y = y0, and
WAVE IN A Vo = 2 gyo + constant
RECTANGULAR
After eliminating the constant,
CHANNEL
(10-24)
V = Vo − 2 g yo − y
The wave travels in the +x direction, so that
(10-25)
c = V + gy = Vo − 2 gyo + 3 gy
If the gate motion occurs at t = 0, the liquid-surface position is expressed by x
= ct, or
x= Vo − 2 gyo + 3 gy t (10-26)

Eliminating y from Eqs. (12.12.5) and (2-6) gives

Figure 10-24 Negative wave after gate Vo 2 x 2

closure V= + − gyo
3 3t 3 (10-27)
which is the velocity in terms of x and t.
 FRICTIONLESS
NEGATIVE SURGE
WAVE IN A
RECTANGULAR
CHANNEL

Figure 10-24 Negative wave after gate closure

 Illustration In Fig. 10-24 find the Froude number of the undisturbed flow such that the depth y1,
at the gate is just zero when the gate is suddenly closed. For V0 = 6 m/s, find the
Problem 10-3 liquid-surface equation.

Solution:
It is required that V1 = 0 when y1 = 0 at x = 0 for any time after t = 0. In Eq. (10-24),
with V = 0, y = 0,
𝑉𝑜
𝑉𝑜 = 2 𝑔𝑦𝑜 𝑜𝑟 𝐹𝑜 = =2
𝑔𝑦𝑜
For V0 = 6,
Vo2 62
yo = = = 0,92 m
4g 4x9,81
Figure 10-24 Negative wave after
gate closure By Eq. (10-26)
x= 6 − 2 9,81x0,92 + 3 9,81y t = 9,39 y t

The liquid surface is a parabola with vertex at the origin and surface concave
upward.
 In Fig. 10-24 the gate is partially closed at the instant t = 0 so that the
Illustration discharge is reduced by 50 percent. V0 = 6 m/s, y0 = 3 m. Find V1, y1, and the
Problem 10-4 surface profile.

Solution:
The new discharge is
6x3
q= = 9 = V1 y1
2
By Eq. (10-24)
V1 = 6 − 2 9,81 3 − 𝑦1
V = Vo − 2 g yo − y

Then V1 and y1 are found by trail from the last two equations, V1 = 4.24 m/s, y1 =
2.12 m. The liquid-surface equation, from Eq. (10-26), is

x= Vo − 2 gyo + 3 gy t x = 6 − 2 3g + 3 gy t or x = 9,39 y − 4,84 t

which holds for the range of values of y between 2.12 and 3 m.

 Dam Break An idealized dam-break water-surface profile, Fig. 10-25 can be
obtained from Eqs. (10-24) to (10-27). From a frictionless, horizontal
channel with depth of water y0 on one side of a gate and no water on
the other side of the gate, the gate is suddenly removed.

Vertical accelerations are neglected. V0 = 0 in the equations, and y

varies from y0 to 0. The velocity at any section, from Eq. (10-24), is

V = −2 g yo − y (2-8)

always in the downstream direction. The water-surface profile is, from

Figure 10-25 Dam-break profile
Eq. (2-6),

(2-9)
x= 3 gy − 2 gyo t
Dam Break

Figure 10-25 Dam-break profile

Dam Break At x = 0, y = 4y0/9, the depth remains constant and the velocity past the
section x = 0 is, from Eq. (2-8),

2
𝑉=− 𝑔𝑦𝑜
3

also independent of time.

The leading edge of the wave feathers out to zero height and moves
downstream at V = c = -2√(gy0). The water surface is a parabola with
vertex at the leading edge, concave upward.

With an actual dam break, ground roughness causes a positive surge,

or wall of water, to move downstream; i.e., the feathered edge is
retarded by friction.
TUGAS Cari dan pilih kasus aliran berubah (lambat
laun atau tiba-tiba), atau keruntuhan
bendungan.
Buat perhitungan secara manual, dan
menggunakan perangkat lunak. Diskusikan
hasilnya.