Fluid Mechanics – II

Pipe Flow
 Lesson Learning Outcomes

 By the end of this lecture, students will be able to:

 Understand the concept of head loss in pipe flow.
 Understand and apply Darcy-Weisbach equation of head loss.
Some Basic Concepts

 Internal vs External Flow

 Compressible vs incompressible Flow
 Uniform vs Non-uniform Flow
 One-, Two-, and Three-Dimensional Flow
 Internal vs External Flow
 A fluid flow is classified as being internal or external, depending on
whether the fluid is forced to flow in a confined channel or over a
surface.
 The flow of an unbounded fluid over a surface such as a plate, a wire, or a
pipe is external flow.
 The flow in a pipe or duct is internal flow if the fluid is completely
bounded by solid surfaces.
 Water flow in a pipe is internal flow, and airflow over a ball or over an
exposed pipe during a windy day is external.
 The flow of liquids in a pipe is called open-channel flow if the pipe is only
partially filled with the liquid and there is a free surface.
Internal vs External Flow
 Viscous vs Inviscid Flow
 When two fluid layers move relative to each other, a friction force
develops between them and the slower layer tries to slow down
the faster layer
 This internal resistance to flow is quantified by the fluid property
viscosity, which is a measure of internal stickiness of the fluid
 Viscosity is caused by cohesive forces between the molecules in
liquids and by molecular collisions in gases
 There is no fluid with zero viscosity, and thus all fluid flows
involve viscous effects to some degree
 Flows in which the frictional effects are significant are called
viscous flows. However, in many flows, there are regions where
viscous forces are negligibly small compared to inertial or pressure
forces  inviscid flow regions
 Compressible vs Incompressible Flow

 A flow is classified as being compressible or incompressible,

depending on the level of variation of density during flow.
 A flow is said to be incompressible if the density remains
nearly constant throughout.
 The densities of liquids are essentially constant, and thus the
flow of liquids is typically incompressible
 Flow of gas under pressure  compressible flow
Uniformity vs Steadiness of Flow

 Steadiness  time ------ t1, t2

 Uniformity  space ----- P1 , P2

One-, Two-, and Three-Dimensional Flows
 A flow field is best characterized by the velocity distribution, and thus a flow is said to
be one-, two-, or three-dimensional if the flow velocity varies in one, two, or three
primary dimensions, respectively
 A typical fluid flow involves a three-dimensional geometry, and the velocity may vary
in all three dimensions, rendering the flow three-dimensional V→ (x, y, z)
 However, the variation of velocity in certain directions can be small relative to the
variation in other directions and can be ignored with negligible error
 In such cases, the flow can be modeled conveniently as being one- or two-
dimensional, which is easier to analyze
 The flow in a pipe is considered one-dimensional when variations of pressure and
velocity occur along the length of the pipe, but any variation over the cross-section is
assumed negligible
 Darcy Weisbach Equation for Head
Loss in Flowing Water

Total Head= Pressure Head + Velocity Head + Elevation Head

Pressure Head = p/γ, γ=ρg

Velocity Head = v2 / 2g

Elevation Head = z

For a steady incompressible inviscid flow,

p1 / γ + V12 / 2g + z1 = p2 / γ + V22 / 2g + z2

For a flow where we consider the frictional resistance,

p1 / γ + V12 / 2g + z1 = (p2 / γ + V22 / 2g + z2) + HL

p1 / γ + V12 / 2g + z - (p2 / γ + V22 / 2g + z2) = HL

Without Frictional Resistance, p1 / γ = p 2 / γ
With Frictional Resistance, p1 / γ = p 2 / γ + h f

Horizontal force on water between section 1 and 2,

p1A = p2A + Frictional Resistance (FR)
(FR) = p1A – p2A
FR / γ = A (p1 / γ – p2 / γ)
FR / γA = p 1 / γ – p2 / γ

p1 / γ - p 2 / γ = h f => FR / γA = hf
FR / (γ x π d2 / 4) = hf
According to Froude, FR = Resistance per unit area per unit velocity x Wetted Area x (Velocity)2
Þ FR = f’ * π d L * v2
Then hf becomes, hf = (f’ * π d L * v2 ) / (γ x π d2 / 4)
hf = (4 f’ L v2) / γd
Introducing f’ = (Cf γ) / 2g
Þ hf = [ 4 (Cf γ/2g) L v2 ] / γd
Þ hf = 4 Cf L v2 / 2gd = f L v2 / 2gd
Section 1 Section 2
Q = (π d2 / 4) v => v = 4Q / π d2
 Darcy Friction Factor Formulae
Laminar Regime

Poiseuille’s Equation
For Laminar Flows, it is a consequence of Poiseuille's law (which stems from an exact
classical solution for the fluid flow) that

f = 64 / Re

where Re is the Reynolds Number

 Darcy Friction Factor Formulae
Turbulent regime
Colebrook–White Equation
The Colebrook–White equation (or Colebrook equation) expresses the Darcy friction factor f as a function of
Reynolds number RN and pipe relative roughness ε/Dh.
The equation can be used to (iteratively) solve for the Darcy–Weisbach friction factor f.
For a conduit flowing completely full of fluid, it is expressed as:

Haaland Equation
The Haaland equation is used to solve directly for the Darcy–Weisbach friction factor f for a full-
flowing circular pipe. It is an approximation of the implicit Colebrook–White equation, but the
discrepancy from experimental data is well within the accuracy of the data.
Examples from Khurmi