Political Science Paper 1

Political Science Paper1 By Muhammad Usman Khan PSP
Contents
Plato ...................................................................................................................... 5
Explain Plato's theory of Justice. How he tries to implement it through educational system
A Note on Philosopher King
Critically examine the concept of "Justice" by Plato
Aristotle ................................................................................................................ 8
Show how Aristotle’s Organic Theory different from Plato’s Idealistic Theory of State ......................... 8
Aristotle was great but not grateful student of Plato” Comment .......................................................... 8
Aristotle was a Realist and not an Idealist- explain w.r.t his theory of the Ends and functions of the
state .................................................................................................................................................... 9
Machiavelli.......................................................................................................... 11
Machiavelli enunciated the philosophy of Art of government for effective discipline and stability in the
state. Analyze and discuss the basis of this philosophy in detail? ....................................................... 11
“Is it correct to call Machiavelli citizen of all states and contemporary of all ages”? Argue ................. 13
THOMS HOBBES ................................................................................................. 14
"Life in state of nature was nasty, poor, brutish and short." (Hobbes) ................................................ 14
Hobbes and Bodin are said to be the proponents of the theory of Absolutism. Do you agree? ........... 15
“Hobbes starts as an individualist but ends as an absolute” Discuss ................................................... 15
- individualism and absolutism in Hobbes .......................................................................................... 15
Leviathan: the first democratic attack on democracy. ........................................................................ 15
Locke .................................................................................................................. 16
Critically examine the concepts of Hobbes and Locke about `Social Contract 2015............................. 16
Locke Vs. Hobbes on: Human nature State of nature Natural law And contract .................................. 16
The natural rights of men are right to live, liberty and property"(Locke) ............................................ 18
Locke was the father of Modern Liberal Democracy-comment .......................................................... 18
ROUSSEAU.......................................................................................................... 19
Appreciation and criticism of Rousseau’s theory of General Will. ....................................................... 19
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MONTESQUIEU ................................................................................................... 21
Examine Montesquieu's theory of separation of powers. Why he has been called "Aristotle" of
eighteen century?.............................................................................................................................. 21
JERMY BENTHAM .............................................................................................. 22
Bantam’s theory of Punishment......................................................................................................... 22
Bentham’s Ùtility’/ Utilitarianism/pleasure pain ............................................................................... 23
Theory of Punishment ....................................................................................................................... 25
KARL MARX ........................................................................................................ 25
It is said that Hegel's dialectical theory was standing on its head but Marx has reserved it ................ 25
Marx’s historical materialism is the application of dialectical materialism to explain historical events ,
processes and developments in society ............................................................................................. 26
Marx's theory of Class Struggle/Socialist Revolution .......................................................................... 28
Political Philosophy of Karl Marx /Marx on State................................................................................ 28
AL-MAWARDI ........................................................................................................ 30
The Imamate is established to replace prophecy in the defence of faith and the administration of the
world". Elaborate this statement of Al-Mawardi with reference to his Theory of Jmarnate. “Al-
Marwardi brought constitutional theory of Islam in line with political reality of his time.” Discuss this
with reference to his views on ‘Khlafat’ and Wizarate’ ....................................................................... 30
FARABI ................................................................................................................ 33
Discuss in detail the concept of "Raisul Awwal"/Ideal Head Of State .................................................. 33
Farabi was much inspired by Plato in his setting of the Ideal City, or the Model State.” Discuss ......... 34
Ideal State of Al-Farabi ...................................................................................................................... 34
Theory of Social Contract ................................................................................................................... 36
IMAM GHAZALI ................................................................................................... 37
Critically appreciate Al-Ghazali theory of Khalafat.............................................................................. 37
Enlist the quantities of Al-Ghazali’s Amir and detail account of his daily routine ................................ 37
IBN-KHULDUN .................................................................................................... 39
Khuldun’s stage in the development of the state/Society................................................................... 39
Ibn-e-khaldun perhaps was the first philosopher to realize the relevant importance of economics to
politics. Discuss.................................................................................................................................. 41
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Discuss in detail Ibne Khaldun’s concept of Àsbiyah .......................................................................... 43

Examples ........................................................................................................................................... 44
ALLAM IQBAL ..................................................................................................... 44
Dr.Iqbal's concept of Ego (Khudi) ....................................................................................................... 44
The Principle of Movement in the Structure of Islam/ Iqbal’s views on Ijtehad................................... 47
Write note on : Iqbal concept of Millat (2011) ................................................................................... 48
State System ...................................................................................................... 50
The nature and emergence of modern nation-state system ............................................................... 50
Islamic concept of state andUmmah. ................................................................................................. 52
Political Concept (Western and Islamic): ......................................................... 53

Sovereignty ....................................................................................................................................... 53
Attributes of Sovereignty ................................................................................................................... 55
Islamic concept of sovereignty ........................................................................................................... 56
Law.................................................................................................................................................... 57
Liberty ............................................................................................................................................... 57
Equality ............................................................................................................................................. 59
Basic Rights and Duties ...................................................................................................................... 60
Political Participation ........................................................................................ 62
Public Opinion ................................................................................................................................... 63
Discuss organization & functions of pressure groups. Point out indicators of its effectiveness also .... 66
Propaganda ....................................................................................................................................... 67
Political Parties .................................................................................................................................. 68
Political Institutions and Role of Government ................................................. 70
Separation of powers......................................................................................................................... 70
Legislature: ........................................................................................................................................ 71
Importance of executive: ................................................................................................................... 72
Judiciary ............................................................................................................................................ 73
Judicial Review .................................................................................................................................. 73
Forms of Government........................................................................................................................ 74
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Democracy ........................................................................................................................................ 74
Unitary state:..................................................................................................................................... 76
Federal state/ federalism;.................................................................................................................. 76
Parliament and presidential ............................................................................................................... 79
Dictatorship/Totalitarianism .............................................................................................................. 81
Political Ideologies ............................................................................................ 82
Discuss the principles of "Fascism" highlighting its historical background........................................... 82
Nazi Doctrines ................................................................................................................................... 83
Communism ...................................................................................................................................... 84
Communism vs Marxism .................................................................................................................... 84
Socialism ........................................................................................................................................... 84
Liberalism .......................................................................................................................................... 85
Local Self Government....................................................................................... 85
Prerequisites for the success of democratic Political System .............................................................. 87
Political culture.................................................................................................................................. 87
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Plato
Explain Plato's theory of Justice. How he tries to implement it through educational system
A Note on Philosopher King
Critically examine the concept of "Justice" by Plato
The “republic’ is in fact an indictment of Greek life. Plato was sick of amateurish meddlesomeness and
political selfishness in the politicians. Plato realized that cure of all ills of society lay not in politics but in
philosophy. The central doctrine of ‘republic’ is the theory of philosopher-king. Plato argued; “Until
philosopher be kings and kings be philosophers cities and states will never cease from ills”
Basic assumptions of rule of philosophy
The analogy between individual and state and Virtue is knowledge He held that “state is an individual
write large” as the human soul consists of these elements of reason, spirit appetite, so does the state.
The three classes in the state represent. Different elements. Since reasons is predominant in the soul of
philosopher king thus they should be the guardian of the state, Virtue is something that can be learnt
and taught so, virtue and knowledge, according to Plato, are identical. And that wisdom is a quality of
greatest importance to the state. Without it, the ignorant people would govern and the whole citizen lot
is bound to suffer
Plato’s principles of construction of society and state: Similarity between individual and state.
Division f labor as basis of state Functional specialization ensures justice. Justice ensures prevalence of
other virtues. Justice makes a person on integral part of state.
Justice in individual society and state: As each person is dominated by one o0f the three basic
impulses—appetite, spirit, reason Justice will be secured if he lies a life in which his preliminary impulse
is made to serve the Community.
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Device for the supply of philosopher-rulers:
1. System of education
2. 2. System of communism: Restriction on holding Property and Family
Elementary education: It begins at three and ends at twenty it is divided into 3 sub-stages. The first
stage extends from 3 to the age of 6. Education through mythological stories with certain moral and
religious truths is provided to children. The second sub-stage extends from 7 to 18. Reading, writing,
poetry, music and gymnastic is taught in this stage. In the third sub-stage from 18-20 training in mere
gymnastics is imparted.
Higher education: There was to be an eliminating test at the age of twenty(20). Those who failed were
to Become low-ranked soldiers and emphasis is put on the study of mathematics and logic till 30. At the
age of thirty 30 another eliminating test is carried out. Those who failed enter the Administration
positions as auxiliaries. Those who secure superior positions in last, continue Their study for another
period of 5 years the age of 35, those who successfully complete their advanced education are assigned
civil and military administrative positions for fifteen15 years. This period of 15 years is thus the
apprenticeship period. At the age of 50. Those who Have demonstrated real ability and served with
genius become the ruling guardians
Limitations he was to be above everything, even above law since law itself was to flow out of him. The
philosopher was, however not to be absolute to the unlimited extent. He must respect the
Fundamentals of the society, which must not be changed radically at his will These fundamentals relate
to: Regulation of wealth and poverty in the state. The size of the state. The rule of justice, and The
system of education
Criticisms The first is to deny that ruling is a skill in the way in which medicine is. Ruling is not simply
reducible to a science in the way medicine is. One who prescribes for his subjects is doing something
different from one who prescribes for his patients
Men’s interests differ; there is a wide diversity in their aptitudes, abilities, desires, attitudes and so
forth. What will be good for one man may not be good for another. A good society is one which allows
for the full expression of all such interests. The function of the ruler is not to direct the citizens' interests
or behavior along particular lines, and thus to impose his standards
Again we are rejecting Plato's basic beliefs that knowledge of the good is possible and that it will
necessarily lead to virtuous behavior.
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Society run by a few will stultify the development of most of the people who live in it. if one's life is
always directed by some other person, one will never grow up; one will always remain a child. The result
will be a society composed of immature people who will never realize their capacities
Narrow conception of education: Meant for the guardian-class only Education co-existive with life: The
guardian have not time for anything but to acquire education throughout his life.
Education curriculum insufficient for ruler. Education will produce ideal philosophers and not ideal men
of action. Censorship against modern beliefs. It will only hamper the growth of literature and thereby of
the intellect.
Lacks legal enforcement
Based purely on ethical and moral considerations.
Impracticable in modern state:
Opposed to the development of personality:
Water-tight compartmentalization impossible: Disbelief in capacity of masses:
Advocate of totalitarianism:
Denial of family affection Education- a prerogative of the few: Advocate of censorship of intellectual
activities
“The true romance of the Republic is the romance of free intelligence, unbound by
custom, untrained indeed by human stupidity and self will, able to direct the
forces, even of customs and stupidity themselves along the road to a national
life.” (Prof. Sabine)
“Until philosophers are kings or the kings and princes of this world have the spirit
and the power of philosophy and political greatness and wisdom meet in one,
cities will never rest from their evils.” (Plato)
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Aristotle
Show how Aristotle’s Organic Theory different from Plato’s Idealistic Theory
of State
Aristotle was great but not grateful student of Plato” Comment
Plato is regarded as the first political philosopher and Aristotle as the first political scientist.
The title of the “father of the political science” is thus exclusively for Aristotle. Aristotle
analytic scientific and definite in his approach. It is on account of their diametrically opposed
views on various matters that it has been said that you can be either a Platonist or an
Aristotlean. Still no one can deny the fact that Aristotle built his philosophy on the basic
principles when Plato had enunciated earlier
Aristotle’s criticism of the Republic:

Aristotle protests plato’s lacks of practicability the principle objective of the statesman should
be, says Aristotle, the establishment of best practicable state.
Unity of state;
Plato seeks to audience unity to make the state more peaceful, purposeful and perfect. This
conception of state, according to him, can be achieved if diversity in the state is eradicated
Aristotle criticizes the concept of unity advocated by Plato on following grounds
State is a plurality:
State is made up of so many ones of different natures.
Training of guardian classes will sow disunity.

The education of guardian classes will inculcate in them a feeling of superiority. This will
create a gulf between the guardians on the one hand and the artisan classes on the other hand.
Rejection of platonic concept of origin of state in the Division of Labor:

The state is by nature clearly prior to the family and to the individual, science the whole is of
necessity prior to the part.
Communism of family:
Abolition of political families will destroy the very basis of state.
Making are family of the whole state is impossible through communism of wives.
State control over sex is impossible
Child of all gets love from nobody
Leads to division among members;
Communism of property:
common property root of disputes
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denial of private property opposed its human nature;

proper is a source of pleasure’
Communism may solve old problems but will create new ones.
Neglect of lower class:

Plato’s neglect of lower class is so woeful that they are excluded altogether from his system
of education and communism. Platonic system is therefore, equivalent to dividing the state into two
hostile camps.
Rule of Philosophy:
Aristotle is also critical of Plato’s advocacy of rule of philosophy. This in fact leads to the
abandonment of the rule of law.
Aristotle’s criticism of idea:

The fundamental difference between Plato’s and Aristotle is that Plato is an idealism while
Aristotle is a realist.
Sincerity of Plato about supremacy of law is doubtful:

If Plato was sincere about the supremacy of law, he would not have reverted to the
philosophers comprising Nocturnal council.
Difference in form and method of Plato and Aristotle:

Inductive method means that the researcher or analyst does not have any prior nation, idea or
value of his own. He would conduct research with an open mind. He would in this way arrive
at a conclusion on the basis of scientific and empirical analysis. If Aristotle followed.
Inductive method, Plato followed the deductive method. Deductive method means that the
researcher or analyst ahs his own values, notions and presumptions. He tries to establish the
truth of his own values and predetermined notions with the help of the institutions.
Justice “According to Harmon both men sought justice, although each found it in a different place.
This is the essential difference between the two: Plato found justice in the rule of men
Aristotle found it in the rule of Law”
According to Aristotle Justice differs in different forms of states justice in an oligarchy implies the rule
of weather, in democracy the rule of free birth, and in aristocracy the rule of cultured, wise or
virtuous.
Aristotle was a Realist and not an Idealist- explain w.r.t his theory of the Ends
and functions of the state
The fundamental characterized of state. According to Aristotle, is that it is an association of

human beings. The highest form of association. Every associations aims at some good. The
state, which is the highest association aims at the highest good. The other communities that
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were established to do some good to the individual are family and the village They were established
chromatically period to the establishment of the state. But only a state makes possible a letter and
fuller life
“State aims at the highest good”

If we analyze the above statement, we find that there are three clear parts of it.
Firstly, that state is an association
Secondly, that state is the supreme association or the highest forms of community
Thirdly, the state exists for the supreme good
1.The state is not an association of isolated individuals, but an association of individuals already
united as members of smaller groups, i.e. it is an association of associations. Family and village are
the precursor of the state
2. According to Aristotle, ‘every association aims at some good. The state or political
community which is the highest of all and which embraces all the rest, aims in a greater
degree than any other, at the highest good. “ the state is supreme association dive to two
reasons.
Firstly, it stands the apex of social evolution

The household only satisfies only in racial production and economic spheres. The satisfaction is only
partial to satisfy other needs, man moves into a bigger and more varied form of association, generally
more complex than family and aiming at something more than the supply of daily needs. Village to
be more satisfying than family. But the requirements of people become more complex with the
passage of time so, they looked beyond the border of village
Secondly, man realizes the highest moral perfection of his nature in the state.
His material appetites and biological urges, the lowest in the scale of value, are
reflected in the family, his social sentiments, his desire of companionship and community is
expressed in the village; his moral nature, the quality that makes more specifically human, is
fulfilled in the state. Thus, according to Aristotle, the state is an association of men for the
sake of the best moral life
Functions of the state:

state comes into existence for the sake of life but continues to exist for good life:
as such, the state came into being for the sake of life as did the family or village but the state
continues to exist for good life which implies moral and intellectual satisfaction
Man has real meaning only in a state:

The subordinate associations are imperfect in themselves like parts of a body. A hand or an
eye, to quote an example, hand had no meaning when separated from the body to which they….
Criticism
Origin of state unsatisfactory:
Aristotle begins from a civilized man who form a family consisting of himself, the wife and
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the slave. But the conditions prevailing before that have not been explained. The theory of
origin of state is this incomplete.
Ambiguous theory:
Aristotle considers state as of prime importance in comparison to the individual. But at the
same time, he considers state as an organ for the promotion of good life of the individual. His
theory is as such ambiguous. It is not clear whether the state is an end or means.
Predecessor of totalitarianism:
Aristotle is predecessor of totalitarianism. He considers state as an association of
associations, which only makes possible the individuality of man. It implies that man without
state cannot develop his capabilities fully. This typical of the totalitarian theory which
considers the state as all pervading and supreme to individual.
Machiavelli
Machiavelli gives a system of rules for the acquisition expansion and maintenance of power.
This he does in both his books “the discourses and “the prince” “the discourses is a free
commentary on the history of the Roman Republic and full of lessons and maxims for the
guidance of the popular government “the prince’ is an exhaustive book on the art of absolute
government. Study of Machiavelli becomes complete only when we study both of his books
Machiavelli enunciated the philosophy of Art of government for effective

discipline and stability in the state. Analyze and discuss the basis of this
philosophy in detail?
Subject matter of both essentially same--- the theory of preservation of state

Both portray the theory of the preservation of the state. The only difference is in the
conditions in which both the princely and republican forms of government as advocated in his
two books ‘the prince” was specially meant for the disorderly people while the “Discourses”
for the orderly people.
it is evident that Machiavelli was a staunch apostle of power politics. ‘He writes about
nothing and thinks about nothing except state craft and the art of war” the role aim was the
achievement of national unity. To this end, Machiavelli was willing to subordinate every
means. He was not interested in philosophy or theory of state what he stated were the means
by which the state could be preserved both in the Monarchical and republican form. “he is
according to Dunning, ‘in the fullest sense a student of practical politics, and he seeks to
determine the workings of a real not an ideal political life “the subject matter of both the
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treaties is essentially the same except that as Sabine says “He has one theory for revolutions
and the other for government.
The whole argument of Prince is based upon the premise directly derived from Aristotelian
philosophy that the state is the highest form of human association and that consideration for the
state welfare must be given priority and preference than the well-being of the individuals.
The prince: on the art of Govt. rather a theory: “the prince” is by for rather known for its unqualified
advocacy of an all powerful ruler whose actions are to be unrestricted by moral considerations. It is a
guide for a prince to be a successful ruler. It has not stated anywhere anything about the theory of the
state. Rather it has given tips to the prince to retain his power. These tips are
To use force ruthlessly: Force brutal force, may be necessary but it should be used intelligently and
not senselessly.
To use Persuasion artfully: Force is also expensive as a long term weapon. There are then many
other devices for bulling the people into peace and submission without. Making any real concessions
to them. These are propaganda and religion
To act decisively: Ruler must not hesitation the implementation of his decisions.
To maintain strong national army:
To be expert in the art of war:
To be popular among people:
Batter to be feared than loved: It is much safer for a ruler to be feared than loved. But care should
be taken that fear is not taken to the extent of being hated.
To abstain from property and women of subjects:
To avoid free spending:
To act as a father: He must always bear in mind that his prime duty is to hold the state together.
To act as Fox and Lion: Like cunning as a fox and brave as Lion.
To act as a great pretender: He should appear merciful, faithful, humane and religious.
To pose as courageous:
To play the Balance-of-power game: In case of war between his neighbor the ruler must side one or
the other party, if possible, he should play the balance of power game by supporting the weaker
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against the stronger. He should avoid neutrality because this policy will bring hi no dividend. He
would be hated by both the countries.
To choose councilors: chose his own counselors who inform and advise him an important matters.
To be an expansionist: “every government must either extend its authority or perish”
to possess virtue:the meaning of virtue as far as” the princes the concerned is the combination of
will and intelligence.
To be an opportunist:
He should always bear in mind that thus are no permanent friends or enemies.
To be extreme towards a friend or enemy: he should do everything to help his friend and
everything to ruin his enemy.
To observe utmost secrecy:
To create public spirit:
“Is it correct to call Machiavelli citizen of all states and contemporary of all
ages”? Argue
His explanation was that while Machiavelli “is frequently dismissed today as an amoral cynic who
supposedly considered the end to justify the means,” he is, in fact, “a crystal-clear realist who
understands the limits and uses of power.”
Machiavelli writes, and instead go straight to the truth of how things really work, or what he calls the
“effectual truth.” You will see that allies in politics, whether at home or abroad, are not friends.
Whoever imagines allies are friends, Machiavelli warns, ensures his ruin rather than his preservation.
Machiavelli teaches that in a world where so many are not good, you must learn to be able to not be
good. The virtues taught in our secular and religious schools are incompatible with the virtues one must
practice to safeguard those same institutions. The power of the lion and the cleverness of the fox: These
are the qualities a leader must harness to preserve the republic.
What’s more, Machiavelli says, leaders must at times inspire fear not only in their foes but even in their
allies — and even in their own ministers.
Machiavelli has long been called a teacher of evil. But the author of “The Prince” never urged evil for
evil’s sake. The proper aim of a leader is to maintain his state (and, not incidentally, his job). Politics is an
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arena where following virtue often leads to the ruin of a state, whereas pursuing what appears to be
vice results in security and well-being
THOMS HOBBES
"Life in state of nature was nasty, poor, brutish and short." (Hobbes)
life in the state of nature is solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short:
society is an aggregate of individuals each of whom seeks his own advantages at the cost of
others. Their condition in the absence of a civil power to regulate their behavior is “a war of
every man against every man”
so, life in the state of nature would be intolerable. It is not important for Hobbes to prove that
man once actually lived in a state of nature. Hobbes was not much interested in the actual
history of state of nature. He is interested only in demonstrating what life would be in the
absence of government. He says, “in such a condition, there is no place for industry because
the fruit thereof is not certain and which is worst of all, continuous fear and danger of violent
death; and the life of man solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short”
Self-preservation – chief object of man: The chief object of man’s desire is self-preservation. So,
the thing he most desires to avoid is the loss of life. Thus security is the greatest good, and insecurity
the greatest evil.
Men equal physically and mentally: this results in making the struggle for power complicated as
the man enjoys relative equality—both physical and mental. Equality doesn’t mean absence of
differences from man to man. Some people possess greater muscular power while others are more
cunning. Equality thus refers to equal capacity to kill, equality of experience and equal capacity for
nationality.
Equality makes man individualistic, elf-seeking. Fearful, competitive and

combinative: So, this equality of man is a source of difficulty and not satisfaction. Hobbes says,
“From this equality of ability arises equality of hope in the attaining of our ends. An if any two men
desire the same thing—they become enemies and in the way to their end Endeavour to
destroy or subdue one another. So, man is individual, self-seeking, fearful and competitive.
Establishment of leviathan as Modern state:

It means that men can avoid attacking others and start co-operating for natural
self-preservation only when there arises powerful sovereign authority with over whelming
power to enforce these rules .Hobbes, therefore, argues that Leviathan (Leviathan means moral God
which implies state,
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ruler and government) is everywhere a product of contractual relationship born out of man’s
will to give a part of his liberty and set up a common power to preserve the liberty of all
Hobbes and Bodin are said to be the proponents of the theory of Absolutism.
Do you agree?
“Hobbes starts as an individualist but ends as an absolute” Discuss
- individualism and absolutism in Hobbes
Hobbes philosophy rests upon two important concepts of absolution and individualism. He
has made his ruler an absolute sovereign. Individual’s security is the central point round which the all
other political ideas of Hobbes revolve. Everything in Hobbes political philosophys is for the
individual, of the individual and by the individual and there is nothing beyond the individual.
Since his critics never penetrated deep into his theory, they go the superficial impression that
absolutism was the central part of the system but actually absolutism was only an
accompaniment, a subservient idea of another idea that is individualism.
Hobbessian absolutism and individual are complementary:

The absolute sovereign, according to Hobbes is a men to an end, not an end in itself.
The state is not the end of the individual, but the individual is the end of the state the
sovereign individual was created to provide sufficient security to the individualist life.
Since the absolute is reduce to a utility, a servant in the cause of individual security, a
means to an end, it doesn’t destroy individuality
Sovereign gets absolute power only with the express consent of the individual. He is
their representative. And would not destroy the individuality of his constitution. His
sovereign and absolute powers are derived from the consent of the governed.
Even after the creation of the absolute sovereign, the individual is not completely
swallowed by it, the individuals have liberty to thought, belief, trade, education, art
and literature etc. so long as law doesn’t forbid the individuals are face to do
anything.
Individuals have the right to resistance(though not revolt) as well which clearly shows that individual
still retains individuality.
Leviathan: the first democratic attack on democracy.

We can as such conclude by saying that Leviathan was the first democratic attack on
democracy “ He attacked democracy with the instrument of democracy itself. Democracy is
normally defined as “government of the people, for the people and by the people” Hobbes
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government can be said to be government of the individual, for the individual and by the
individual. It is anti thesis of the democratic government.
Hobbes, as we know, never allowed the associations or institutions of indivdiuls to be formed

best they should oppose the sovereign. He also did not give the right of opposition to any
section of the population. He thought that sovereign has the power to punish any seditious
activity best it should lead to the dissolution of civil society. In this way be uses the most
democratic method for crushing democracy. He uses the theory of consent. It is the
individuals themselves, who have, by them willing consent, instituted the sovereign,
transferred their natural rights to him and empowered him to act on their behalf. What else is
meant democracy?
Locke
Critically examine the concepts of Hobbes and Locke about `Social Contract
2015
Locke Vs. Hobbes on: Human nature State of nature Natural law And contract
“Locke and Hobbes, says Johns” agree about the end for the sake of which state exists, it is the peace
security and well-being of individual members. But they disagree fundamentally about the way in
which this end can bet be attains because their conceptions of human motivation differ so profoundly
Human Nature:
While Hobbes man is moved solely by animal considerations of bodily comforts, Lockes
man, at least sometimes, hears the voice of duty. And white Hobbes’ man is always utterly
selfish Locke’s man is sometimes really altruistic. For Hobbe’ man is merely an animal, a
creature of nature, for Locke he is a member of moral order and subject to a moral law.
State of nature:
Moral law is however only an “ought’ it states not the way in which men behave, but only the
way in which they ought to behave. Locke was not behind to the fact that men do not always
or even very often do what they ought. But this in itself in enough to distinguish man from
the brutish animal of Hobbes
Lockean state of nature has two characteristic.

That is a state of perfect freedom in which men do as they like but within the limits
imposed by the law of nature.
Men are equal not in capacity but in rights they possess. These rights are conferred by
the laws of nature which are capable of being understood by rational men.
Locke was perfectly a rationalist and therefore he thought its proper and advisable to take the
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middle course. Clearly lockean state of nature is the anti-thesis of Hobbesian state of nature.
Laws of nature:
Man in the state of nature was governed, according to Locke, by the laws of nature. The law
of nature recognizes equality of personal independence. It is the birth-right of everymen. This
quality of independence embraces life, liberty and property. These are inherent and natural
rights of man.
Like Hobbes, Locke makes the law of self-preservation as the first law of nature. “everyone,
as he is bound to preserve himself unlike Hobbes, however Locke broadens the law of nature
and makes his natural man a social animal . he says, “one ought also as much as he can, to
preserve the rest of mankind” Natural law not only confers right, it imposes duties also.
Inconveniences of state of nature So the Lockes’ state of nature thought not a state of violence and
anarchy as in Hobbes’ was attended with many inconveniences
The lack of an establish, settled and known law. Law in the state of nature is
sufficiently unclear. Every individual interprets it in his own way which leads to
confusion.
The lack of known, indifferent and impartial judge.
Lack of an executive power to enforce just decisions.
Social contract:
In other words, Locke is sounding the necessity of the three organs of the government i.e. the
legislature judiciary and executive. It is in order to remove these inconveniences that the
individuals enter into contract and create the state. There is a fundamental difference between
the notions of the contracts of Hobbes and Locke. Hobbes contract is a hard necessity as the
lives of the individuals are not secure or rather they are in imminent danger. With Locke, the
contract is only a sort of convenience which may be entered into just to remove certain
difficulties.
There was no pressing necessity for it. Hence the nature of the state that follows
the contract in the two cases in basically different. In Hobbes it has to become an absolute
sovereign while in the case of Locke it remains a limited sovereignty with a number of
restriction. To get out of the inconvenience of Lockean state of nature, the free and equal men
consent to surrender their natural liberty. No one is compelled to be a party of this contract.
Those who do not wish to form a community simply remain in the state of nature. In Hobbes on the
other hand, people surrender all their rights except the right to life which also can be taken away
under due process of law.
Is the Lockean contract, those who have entered in the compact, agree to be governed by
majority decision. Contract, both in the case of Hobbes and Locke, once made is irrevocable.
For Hobbes the contract is binding on all generations. However in Locke it is a contract to
which each generation must give consent for “a child is born a subject of no country or
government
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Criticism:
Locke probably did not realize that majority could also be tyrannical. The rights in his case
are transferred to the majority of people instead of one person as in the case of Hobbes. It is
not better for individuals to be deprived of their individual rights by majority than by a single
tyrant
it is difficult it imagine how Hobbesian individual, depicted as selfish and animal like, can think
sudden if creating a state. It is therefore right to hold that the contract idea is a sham in Hobbes’
theory, it is essential to that of Locke.
The natural rights of men are right to live, liberty and property"(Locke)
Locke was the father of Modern Liberal Democracy-comment

Locke appears to be a true democrat when he says that the establishment of a commonwealth stands
for the complete security of natural rights of men. Natural rights of citizens are:
1. Right to life
2. . Right to property
3. . Right to liberty
“Most distinctive contribution of Locke to political theory is the doctrine of natural rights.”
(Dunning)
Locke was of the view that the right of property is a most important because all other natural rights
are analogous to the right of private property. He further maintained that the right to private
property existed in the state of nature under the operation of natural law. Locke thought of natural
rights as things which man brings with him from birth. Society exists to protect them; they can be
regulated only to the extent that is necessary to give them effective protection.
According to Locke, “God, who has given the world to men in common, has also given reason to
make use of it to the best advantage of life and convenience. The earth and all that is therein, is
given to men for support and comfort of their being and all the fruits it naturally produces and
beasts it feeds, belongs to mankind in common, as they are produced by the spontaneous hand of
nature, and nobody has originally a private dominion, exclusive of the rest of mankind, in any of
them, as they are thus in their natural state. Whatsoever he removes out of the state that nature
has provided and left it in, he ahs mixed his labor with and joined to it something that is his own
and thereby makes it his own property.”
Locke is regarded as the champion of people’s rights and a harbinger of their sacred and
fundamental liberties. His social contract did not create the irresponsible, cruel and absolutist
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“Leviathan” of Hobbes, but reserved the sovereign rights to the final judge of all actions, the
community. The ultimate supreme power is not vested in the scepter of king; but it remains in the
hands of the people.
The basic rights of the individual life, liberty and property are to be protected rather than restricted
by the state. The king has neither the divine authority nor any moral justification to over load the
subject. All men are equal in the eye of Almighty God and their basic rights must not be violated
under the civil laws of the state
ROUSSEAU
Appreciation and criticism of Rousseau’s theory of General Will.
General will, in political theory, a collectively held will that aims at the common good or
common interest. The general will is central to the political thought of Jean-Jacques
Rousseau and an important concept in modern republican thought. Rousseau distinguishes the
general will from the particular and often contradictory wills of individuals and groups. In The
Social Contract (1762), Rousseau argues that freedom and authority are not contradictory,
since legitimate laws are founded on the general will of the citizens. In obeying the law, the
individual citizen is thus only obeying himself as a member of the political community.
Dr. McDoughall defines General Will as “The General Will is conceived as coming to be when every
individual in a group or society has a conception or idea of the group as a whole and identifies his
good with the good of that whole.”
Rousseau says, “there is a difference between the actual will and the real will. The actual will
of an individual is his impulsive and irrational will. It is based upon self interest and is not. related to
the well-being of society. On the other hand, the real will of the individual is a
rational will which thinks more of common good or interest. It is based on reason. An
overage man has both actual and real will. The general will is the sum total or rather the
aggregation or synthesis of the real will of individuals in the society as citizens. The general
will is for the general good of the community, not for the private benefits of various
members
Rousseau general will is announced through voting and every citizens enjoys vote equal to
others. In voting the citizens is required to abstain all communications which would
encourage the formation of groups. One must consult only one’s own conscience and ask
oneself what the general will, which is one’s own real, will require
In Rousseau’s political order, sovereignty and general will are interchangeable concepts.
They mean one and the same thing. Men entered into the social pact and merged their will
into the general will which is the concrete manifestation of sovereignty. There is now born a
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“public person” which in its “passive role’ in termed as state and in its ‘active role’ is the
sovereign. The people have also a dual role. When they exercise their sovereignty through the
determination of public policy they are citizens, when they obey, they are subjects
Characteristics of the General Will:

1. Unity:
It is not self-contradictory. It is indivisible, because if it were divided it would not remain General
Will but would become Sectional Will.
2. Unlimited:
It is unlimited. Rousseau assigns absolute powers to his sovereign by following the Hobbes’s line of
action.
3. Inalienable:
The General Will and sovereignty are inalienable and undetectable.
4. Un-representable:
The General Will cannot be represented. That is why Rousseau laid the foundation of direct
democracy. The General Will can conveniently be realized in a small city state where the population
can assemble and pass laws for their interest. It does not admit of representative democracy.
Criticism
Fore-runner of totalitarian: It has been remarked by Bertrand Russell that the doctrines enshrined
in his Social Contract, “though they pay lip service to democracy, tend to the justification of the
totalitarian state.”
Concept of General will not clear:

Sometimes it is will of all, sometimes will of the majority and sometimes the will of single
individual.
Contradiction of freedom;
Rousseau advocates compulsion.
Wrong to hold that General will cannot be represented.
Inapplicable to big states.

Impracticable theory:
Man is born free only in the sense that freedom is his inborn right; it is the necessary condition for
the development of the various potentialities of human nature. We can say that he is born for
freedom that he ought to be free. The second part of the first sentence that he is everywhere in
chains imply that customs and conventions of society and state regulations imposer upon him
certain artificial and unnecessary restraints which arrest the development of his personality
The basic problem of Rousseau has, therefore, been to reconcile liberty with authority
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because he considered man in the state of nature as completely free but in chains in the
political society he tried to set up a community which is ruled by the general will so that each
man may remain as free as he originally was
MONTESQUIEU
Examine Montesquieu's theory of separation of powers. Why he has been

called "Aristotle" of eighteen century?
Liberty lies in subjection to law instead of subjection to persons, secured best by separation
of powers. Montesquieu subjected the constitution of England to a critical examination with a
view to finding out a machinery of government which would best ensure liberty. He began by
pointing out that liberty was possible in a country where all parts of government were subject
to law and control. He found in the separation of the three powers of government, i.e.
Executive, legislature and judicial the best guarantee for liberty.
If the legislative power is united with the executive power in the hands of one person or of
one body of officials, there can be no liberty; nor can there be any liberty if the power to
judge is not separated from the legislative and executive powers.The legislature must check to
executive and the judiciary and be checked by them.
Montesquieu used the theory of separation of powers no in furtherance of democracy but in order to
ensure personal liberty of individuals. He instead, therefore, that all the three branches of the
government should be coequal and in separate hands. Montesquieu like Locke, had no theory of
sovereignty
He believed that the separation of powers among the different organs of the government is the
best safeguard against tyranny. He pleads that each power must be exercised by a separate organ
and a system of checks and balances should thus be established for solidarity and harmony of the
state
Criticism:
1. Montesquieu’s study of English constitution is not very correct until this day; there is no full
separation of powers between different governmental agencies. There the House of Lords is a
legislative as well as a judicial body. The Lord Chancellor partakes of all the three functions of
government.
2. If all the branches are made separate and independent of each other, each branch will endeavor to
safeguard its interests and possibly may jeopardize other’s interest.
3. Perfect separate power in the functions of the government is impossible.

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Relation between Forms of Government and religion & Size of State:
Montesquieu was of the view that certain religions had a definite affinity for certain types of
governments. Islam goes well with Democratic Republican form of government, wherein
fundamentals of religion i-e., equality, fraternity and freedom are deeply inculcated and practiced for
the security of mankind and glory of the state. Roman Catholicism is closely affiliated with
monarchial form of government with arbitrary rule and Protestantism even in this modern age is
deeply attached with despotism and cruel expansionism.
Republican form of government is possible only in a state of small size; monarchy(king with law)
suited the moderate-sized state while a big country or an empire must have despotic
government(king with no law). Real democracy is possible only ion small city-state. France of
Montesquieu’s time was too large for a republic form of government, Monarchy would suit her best
Montesquieu as the Aristotle of 18th Century

1. Montesquieu follows the inductive and historical methods of Aristotle and like him, takes keen
interest in the practical political activities.
2. Like Aristotle, Montesquieu too pays his attention on the influence of physical environment on the
life of man and social institutions.
3. Montesquieu steps into the shoes of Aristotle, when he recognizes basic types of government i-e,
republican, monarchial and despotic. . Both uphold monarchy as the best
form of government.
4. Montesquieu closely follows Aristotle when he says that the fundamental types of political
constitutions are fixed once and for all but they are different to some extent under the impact of the
local conditions.
5.Montesquieu’s observation that the law of a society gives to its unique and particular character,
has its parallel in Aristotle’s statement that the constitution of a state determines the very life and
character of its people, if there occurs a change in the constitution, the state itself becomes
altogether a different state.
JERMY BENTHAM
Bantam’s theory of Punishment
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Bentham’s Ùtility’/ Utilitarianism/pleasure pain
A government which fails to enact laws securing the greatest

happiness of the greatest number will only invite resentment and breed revolution. It will be
of no importance as how the government is constituted. His second book “the principles of
Morals and legislation” opens with the famous words;
"Nature has placed man under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure. It is for
them alone to point out, what we ought to do as well as to determine, what we shall do..... We owe to
them all our ideas; we refer to them all our judgments and all the determinations of life".
Utility according to Bentham, means all that is good, pleasant useful, agreeable,
advantageous and beneficial. Summed up one word utility thus means pleasure
Bentham holds that there are four sources of pleasure and pain:
Physical (nature)
Political
Moral
Religious
He has enumerated 14 simple pleasures of

Sense Wealth Skill Amity Good name Power Piety Benevolence Malevolence Memory Imagination
Expectation Association Relief
There are, according to him twelve 12 simple pains of

Senses Privation Awkwardness Enmity Ill name Piety Benevolence Malevolence Imagination
Expectation
Bentham held that by means of computation the formula of the greatest happiness of the
greatest number can be establish. What gives maximum possible pleasure to the maximum
possible numbers of persons should prevail. A piece of legislation should secure the greatest
happiness of the greatest number, a legislator must consider, among other thing, such matters
that how intense is the happiness, as how long it lasts and how many people are affected
Implications of principle of utility:
Hedonistic doctrine:
His principle of utility is essentially a hedonistic doctrine which means that every man tries to
avoid pain and get pleasure.
Quantitative hedonism:
It considers only the quantity of happiness obtained. There is no such thing as quality.
Universalistic doctrine:
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In doing so Bentham made his utilitarianism universal. Bentham felt that the
happiness of one individual was not separable from the happiness of others.
End justifies the motive:

What matters is the result in the achievement of the greatest happiness of the
greatest number.
Consequences are primary and secondary:

The pain undergone by the man who has been robbed is primary because he feels sad at the
loss of his money. It is secondary to all other holders of money. They feel alarmed at the fear
of their money also being robbed.
It is objective, fair and clear:

The doctrine of utility, says Bentham is objective, fair and clear. Everyone knows as to what
happiness or pain is. On the other hand the theory of justice is abstract. Goodness is always
goodness and cannot be understood.
Criticism:
Wrong analysis of Nature:
The nature of man is a complex phenomenon. It is not confined merely to seek pleasure and
avoid pain and advocated by Bentham.
Wrong calculus;
It is not possible to measure pleasure or pain.
Materialistic theory:
It believes in seeking pleasure while leaving no room for morality. Morality is to be
considered good only if it produce the greatest happiness of the greatest number. It is better
that pleasure should not be pursued if contentment in life is to be attained.
Pleasure is not universal:

Pleasure differs from man to man. What is pleasure for one may not be for another.
Pleasure is both qualitative and quantitative:

.
Ignores the influence of Habits:
All men are not selfish:

Man is essentially a compact of evil and good. It is another matter that one out of two may be
predominant. But there is not always the absence of the second.
Society under-estimated:
Bentham has underestimated society as he has laid importance only on the individual
pleasure.
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Impracticable theory:
Theory of Punishment
Bentham held that punishment should be preventive and corrective rather than coercive and
retaliatory. It should be calculated to prevent the spread of evil and to secure the extension of good.
Punishment must not be inflicted where it was ineffective, groundless, needless or unprofitable. It
should be obviously justifiable and proportionate to the offence committed but it must be sufficient to
secure its ends. It ought to be able to prevent the offender from repeating the offence. It should be
individualized, qualitatively and quantitatively, to suit the individual offender. The basic principles of
punishment are:
1. Equable
2. Exemplary
3. Frugal of Pain
4. Remissible
5. Compensatory
6. Reformatory
7. Popular
8. Certain and not severe
According to Bentham, the only valid test of the adequacy of a punishment was its ability to secure
public welfare. He believed that the English criminal law was inhuman. He was in favor of the
reform of the criminal and the prisons and suggested the building of his moral Panopticon, a wheel-
shaped building for the housing and proper observation of the criminals. He had a great faith in
education as he wanted to bring about adult franchise, a responsible executive, universal education
and a representative parliament.
KARL MARX
It is said that Hegel's dialectical theory was standing on its head but Marx has
reserved it
Every idea according to Hegel, is incomplete with inherent contradiction. The incompleteness or
inherent contradictions is every idea led naturally to its opposite, which may be called anti-thesis.
From the struggle between the two, i.e. ‘thesis’ and ‘anti-thesis’ there emerged the truth embraced
by both which may be called “synthesis”. This ‘synthesis’ becomes a new thesis and again there
came an ‘anti-thesis’ and again emerged a ‘synthesis, and the process repeated itself in an unending
chain. Karl Marx opined that history unfolded according to a dialectical plan. Here he fully agrees
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with Hegel. But he was of the view that ideas were not the controlling factors. Ideas do not control
the reality. These are the outcome of material conditions
To both, Hegal and Marx, motion of history is made possible by the conflict and clash of
opposites. But Marx differed from Hegal radically. For Hegal universl substance is spirit
while for marx it is matter.
Marx, no doubt, borrowed from Hegal the dialectical method, he turned it upside down. He in
fact reversed it. Hegal held the views that conflict lies in the world of ideas and the material
forces are only reflections thereof. Marx on the contrary, asserted that there is a conflict of
material forces, and ideas are only the products of material environments in which men lived.
In this way Marx behaved that it was the material conditions which provided momentum to
social history in contrast to Hegal who believed that ideas provide the moving forces his
history marx said; “I found Heglian dialectics standing on its head, I put it down on its feet”.
Instead, of the metaphysical abstraction of Hegal, Marx stressed materialist interpretation in

order to make possible a scientific study of history. Marx’s “Materialitic interpretation of
history”(the termed used by Marx instead of dialectical materialism) emphasis that social
development is caused and determined by economics forces. Marx has given a good account
to explain how economic forces determine the course of history and how every stage in
history itself provides conditions which lead to its disaster
Marx’s historical materialism is the application of dialectical materialism to

explain historical events , processes and developments in society
Dialectical materialism is in fact a kind of preliminary pattern to prepare the mind for
historical materialism. Historical materialism or materialistic conception of history, in this
way, in the direct application of the principle of dialectical materialism to the development of
society. The word ‘historical materialism” used by Marx actually the phenomena of history
are determined by economic conditions
‘Materialistic conception of history ‘characterized as ‘economic determinism’

The theory of ‘Materialistic conception’ of history’ states that economic activities are the real
basis of political cultural, religious and legal institutions. This view of Marx has been
characterized by critics as ‘Economic Determinism’ since it advocates that all forms of law
are determined by the economic factor.
Economic determinism leads to the formation of various stages in history:

Aristotle (primitive communist) stage ancient, feudal, and capitalist stage.
Means or forms of production cause economic changes which effect social change;
The class owing the means of production always dominates.

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State; a tool in the hands of dominating class:
“state changes with the change of condition of production:

The cultural of society is super-structures. Reared on the basis of its economic life. With the
change of conditions of production, the collapse of the old order and the arrival of new is
inevitable. This will result after the conflict between the old and the new.
The theory of “Surplus Value” It means that value of a commodity is created by the amount of
labor spent on it. Marx held that all value belonged to the labor. By surplus value, Marx means that
the worker produced more them he received in the wages. It was labor which created all value but it
got only fraction of what it produced. This leads to depression, unemployment
and poverty. This would lead to the precipitation of class struggle between the capitalists and
workers.
Emergence of classless society:

In the clash of the capitalists and proletariat, a synthesis will emerge in the shape of classless
society. This state of classless society will, however, be preceded by a traditional period
known as “Socialism’. In the state of socialism, there will be the dictatorship of the
proletariat in order to socialize natural resources and to weed out the remnants of capitalism.
The people will receive good according to work done by them. Socialism will grow into
communism under the loving care of dictatorship of proletariat. It will be a classless society.
The necessity of class will punish and with it the state
Criticism:
Inadequate explanation of historical movement:
As it ignores the part played by non-economic factors. It never takes into account the part
played by human passions, sentiments, emotions, religion, etc.
Incapable of universal application:

Balkan nationalism and Indian separation has little to do with economic factor.
Illogical theory:
The theory holds that only the economically strong class will wield power. Brahmans in India
never were economically strong.
Various interpretation of History:

In addition to economic interpretation, there is an ethical, political, linguistic, religions and
aesthetic interpretation of history.
Ignores role of man and ideas:

Had there been no Gandhi, Quadi, Mas, Lenix and their ideas, the history of whole world
would have been quite different.
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Marx's theory of Class Struggle/Socialist Revolution
In every system, according to the society tends to split up into two hostile camps with
conflicting interests. The motion of history is made possible due to these contending
oppositions. It has always been there except the stage of primitive communism.
In ancient stage: conflict between the salves and master

In feudal era: conflict between feudal lords an serfs.
In capitalist era: conflict between bourgeoisie and
Proletariat class.
Class struggle of today based on economic forces.
Class struggle leads to social revolution: Challenges the super-structure. Changes modes of
relations as well.
History of mankind: history of class struggle: Four eras of historical development.
Role of state in class struggle: State is a tool of “haves’ to exploit have nots”
Class struggle in the modern age: Capitalists vs. proletariat.
Results of modern class struggle: Emergence of classless society and disappearance of “state’
Criticism:
Teaches hatred among various classes in society;
Theory: a myth: Solidarity among working class impossible for the purpose of over throwing
regimes.
Ignores influence of other factors:

,
“classes are not fixed and rigidly maintained blocks, there is constant movement from class to
class.”
Political Philosophy of Karl Marx /Marx on State

“The executive of the modern state is but a committee for managing the common affairs of the
bourgeoisie as a whole.” (Karl Marx)
State is thought of as parliament or some representative institution. Karl Marx concluded that the
development of the state had nothing to do with any form of representative institutions. But he
was of the view that state is a machine through which the ruling class imposes its will on the
majority. According to the Communist theory, the state is nothing but a tool of the dominant class
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in society. Economic is the domineering factor which becomes the base of all structures of the
society
According to Karl Marx, there was no state in primitive society and as soon as human society was
formed it bifurcated into two classes. It became very essential for the privileged class to have an
armed force for the purpose to maintain the privileges of the privileged class and secondly to
protect the interests of the privileged class. Karl Marx was of the opinion that class struggle is
perpetual and constant between man and man and consequently man always fought for his own
existence. It ends only if the final and ultimate victory of the labor is achieved
State after proletariat Revolution:

“Between capitalism and communism lies the period of the revolutionary transformation of
one into the other”
“socialism’ into “communism’ under the proletariat revolution and state will disappear in the
consequent classless society.
Withering away of state:

in the classless society.
Criticism:
Against the classical theory of state: the main reason for the existence of the state is the
promotion of the good of the community. On the contrary, Karl Marx’s state is a machine by which
one class exploits and suppresses the other
Disputes can be peacefully settled in a state;
No guarantee against future: The conception of Karl Marx that victory of proletariats over the
capitalists would result in the disappearance of class distinction is absolutely incorrect and untrue
for glaring reasons that he had created class distinction i.e. bourgeoisie and proletariat, two great
hostile camps and two prominent classes constantly indulging in class struggle and warfare which
culminated into oppression and chaos.
Ignores influence of other factors He says that the ruling class is the representative of an
economic class and the ruling class is always interested in pursuing its own interests. This is
incorrect view of Karl Marx. The example of medieval kings and emperors stand against the theory
of Karl Marx as they were not the representative of an economic class and consciously pursuing the
interests of their own class
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AL-MAWARDI
The Imamate is established to replace prophecy in the defence of faith and the
administration of the world". Elaborate this statement of Al-Mawardi with
reference to his Theory of Jmarnate.
“Al-Marwardi brought constitutional theory of Islam in line with political

reality of his time.” Discuss this with reference to his views on ‘Khlafat’ and
Wizarate’
The Muslim jurists are of the opinion that the institution of the Caliphate is not necessitated by a
clear injunction in the Quran but by the consensus of opinion, it is obvious that the matter is left to
the discretion and judgment of the Muslim community. The Quran is very clear and definite about
all fundamental problems for instance, about the articles of faith, the forms of religious worship,
laws of matrimony and inheritance, distribution of booty of war, prohibition of interest, rights and
obligations of husband and wife etc., but omits all details about the form and constitution of the
Caliphate; and this is deliberate, because the wisdom of God knows better that the social and
political constitutions of men are ever changing and evolving with the march of time.
Abul Hasan Ali bin Muhammad bin Habib-al-Mawardi is the first writer on political theory in the
history of Islam. Except Ibn-e-Khaldoon, all the jurists, thrologists and political philosophers who
have followed him, down to our own days, have hardly made any improvement upon his thoughts
Abbasid Caliphs had been deprived of all political authority by the Buwaihid Emirs. Al
Marwardi(995-1058) wrote his famous book al Ahkam Sultania to defend Khilafat.
According to Mawardi, the institution of Caliphate is based on following principles.
Sovereignty belongs to Allah

Authority is vested in Khalifa as the successor of Holy Prophet (PBUH)
The duty of Imam a Khalifa is to impose in Shariah. Mawardi defines the institution
of Khilafat as the institution “replacing prophecy in the defense of the Faith and the
administration of the world”
Election of the Caliph:

Imam will be elected if he has following qualities:
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Upholds justice under all conditions.

Has knowledge of religion.
Possesses all physical senses.
Integrity of physical organs.
Wisdom
Bravery: capable of waging Jihad.
Quaryshite descent.
Mode of election:
He may be elected by electoral college
May be nominated by the ruling Imam, who may nominate his son, father or relative
qualified for the office.
Duties of the Imam:

Uphold the “Islam” and Shariah’
Dispense justice according to ‘sharia”
Maintain law and order.
Must enforce criminal code of Quran
Defend the frontiers of the state.
Establish supremacy of Islam and under Ertake Jihad against those who oppose Islam.
Collect Zakat and Khiraj
Pay allowances from to the employees.
Must appoint honest and sincere men in administration.
Imam should keep himself informed of the affairs of the state.
Duties of people:
They must obey him
Help him in the defense and security of the state.
Deposition of Imam:
If there is a change in his moral status i.e.:
When Imam disregards the injunctions of the Shariah.
If he renounces or disturb the established principles of Islam.
If he suffers 3 bodily effects:
Loss of physical sense and of mental faculty.
Loss of body organs which render him incapable of performing his normal duties.
Loss of ability to supervise and direct the affairs of the start. When imam becomes a
prisons in the hands of an enemy.
Criticism But with all the good points that can be said about Al-Mawardi, he had one short-coming,
he was not a political thinker, and hence could not evolve a philosophic conception of the state. He
does not discuss the scope, jurisdiction, responsibilities and obligations of the state, gives no
conception of sovereignty and seems to be completely ignorant of the idea of the constitution.
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Al-Mawardi seems to have no conception of democracy. His theory of election dealing only with the
appointment of the Caliph is wholly undemocratic. Moreover, he is very particular about the rights
and prerogatives of the Caliph but pays little attention to the rights and obligations of the people.
Wazarat: Al-Mawardi says, “the appointment of a Wazir does not mean that the Imam or Caliph
should give up all connections with the administration of the state, but the real significance of his
appointment consists of the fact that in the province of politics it is better to have a coadjutor
rather than one sole person at the helm of affairs.” And when the Prophet Moses (A.S) could make
his brother Haroon (A.S) his Wazir in order that his hands should be strengthened, then surely in the
administration of the state it is allowable for the Imam to have a Wazir beside him. Al-Mawardi says
that Wazarat is of two kinds:
The Wazarat of Delegation: The Wazir of Delegation is the person in whom the Imam has the fullest
confidence and to whom the powers of administration of the realm are delegated. The difference
between the Wazir and the Imam himself is that the Wazir of Delegation is not empowered to
appoint anyone as his successor and the Imam, the highest authority; can dismiss the officers
appointed by him
The Wazarat of Execution: The Wazir of Execution is similar to the Secretary to the Government in
modern times. Al-Mawardi says that the main function of the Wazir is to get the decrees of the
Imam executed and he should be the main official channel of information for him. Mawardi opines
that, seven qualities are required for a person aspiring to this office and these are honesty,
confidence, absence of greed, good relationship with the people, intelligence and the wisdom of
grasping the truth of things, absence of luxury and amorousness, and lastly, diplomacy and
experience. Al-Mawardi said, “It is not necessary that the holder of the office should be a follower
of Islam and a non-Muslim dhimmi can also be appointed a Wazir of Execution."
For the efficient functioning of the administration, the government should be divided into various
departments dealing with the business of government such as revenue, army and other high offices
of State. The State administration as a whole was called Diwan. Al-Mawardi enumerated four chief
offices of Government are under: 1. The Army Board 2. The Board of Provincial Boundaries 3. The
Treasury 4. The Board of Appointment and Dismissal of Officers
Along with the verses of the Quran he argues from the order of the Prophet (P.B.U.H) as related in
the Traditions when he wishes to prove that the Caliph has the right to appoint his own successor,
he argues from the battle of Mutah and says, “The Prophet (P.B.U.H) appointed his manumitted
slave, Hazrat Zaid bin Harithah, to take his place at the head of the Muslim army and at the same
time ordered that is case of his death he should be replaced by Hazrat Jafar bin Ali Talib, after him
Hazrat Abdullah bin Rawahah and in case he is also killed, the mantle of command should fall on
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the shoulders of whomever the soldiers might choose.” Mawardi was of the view that “it was
possible for the Prophet (P.B.U.H) to make these nominations; it should be possible in case of
khilafat as well.”
FARABI
Discuss in detail the concept of "Raisul Awwal"/Ideal Head Of State
Every Islamic state is ruled by the ruler, or as later European Political scientists would call him the
Sovereign. Plato after developing the matter of the government of his ideal city in his Republic had
made the omnipotent and omniscient philosopher sovereign who should have no other interest but
that of the affairs of state. Al-Farabi starts from the nature of the workers of leadership and impresses
his readers that what is wanted for the office is the power of making proper deductions
According to Al-Farabi, his Rais should be such superior man, who, by his very nature and
upbringing, does not submit before any power or instructions of others. He must have the
potentialities to convey his sense to others for complete submission. Rosenthal was of the view, “He
is the Imam, the first ruler over the ideal city-state, over the ideal nation and over the whole inhabited
earth. The philosopher-prophet, in the opinion of Al-Farabi, is alone qualified to help man, a citizen
to reach his true human destiny, where his moral and intellectual perfection permit him to perceive
God, under the guidance of the divinely revealed Shariat. Those ruled by the first ruler are the
excellent, best and happy citizens.”
Al-Farabi contemplatively points out the virtuous qualities of his ideal Head of State, who should be
competent to control the actions of all in the State and must be in possession of latest intellect as well
as the gained intellect. All such refined and high qualities including his political and literal caliber
make him an Ideal Sovereign for the overall interest of the society and the nation. He enumerated
tweleve attributes of an ideal Sovereign:
1. He must possess persuasion and imagination to attain perfection as well as a philosopher skilled in
the speculative science.
2. He must be physically sound with meticulous understanding.
3. He must have visualization of all that is said
. 4. He must have a retentive and sharp memory.
5. He should discuss the matters with least possible arguments and must have authority to get the
work done.
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6. He must have power to convey to others exactly according to his wish and he has profound love of
learning and knowledge.
7. He must have perfect capacity for a comprehensive knowledge and prescription of the theoretical
and practical sciences and art, as well as for the virtues leading to good deeds.
8. He must shun off playfulness and control over anger and passions.
9. Al-Farabi’s ideal Rais must have love of truth, persuasion of justice and hatred of hypocrisy,
knavery and duplicity.
10. He must vie for utmost happiness to his subjects and he should do away with all forces of tyranny
and oppressions.
11. He must have power to distribute justice without any effort, fearless in doing things as he thinks
best to be done.
12. He must serve the people of his state from all internal and external dangers. He must be in
possession of considerable wealth, so that he should not prone to greed and lust
Al-Farabi fully realizes that these fine qualities cannot be found in one single human being, so he
says that one without just five or six of these qualities would make a fairly good leader. If however,
even five or six of them are not found in a person, he would have one who has been brought up
under a leader with these qualities, and would thus seen to prefer some kind of hereditary
leadership, with the important condition that the heir should follow the footsteps of his worthy
predecessor. In case even such a person is not available, it is preferable to have a council of two or
even five members possessing an aggregate of these qualities provided at least one of them is a
Hakim, i-e one who is able to know the wants of the people and visualize the needs of the state as a
whole. This Hakim is to Farabi a desideratum of every kind of government, and if such a one is not
procurable then the State is bound to be shattered to atoms
Farabi was much inspired by Plato in his setting of the Ideal City, or the Model
State.” Discuss
Ideal State of Al-Farabi
A perfect or a virtuous city was compared by Al-Farabi to a perfect and healthy body whose organs
differed in their natural functions. The heart is the master organ and is in the first rank, while the
lower organs or in the second rank functions according to the aim of perfecting the first rank; and
the lower organs being served by much lower organs perform their functions for the perfection of
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the second rank. It is similar to a city where a human master is being served by his subordinates,
and the former in turn is being served by the lowest category of subordinates who are not being
served by anybody
It goes without saying that there are similarities and differences between the ideal state/society of Plato
and al- Farabi. One very common similarity is that both the ideal state/city are ruled by the philosopher-
kings whose ultimate happiness lies in the search for true knowledge and wisdom. Another commonality
between the two is found in the system of education and training for the philosopher-
kings/rulers/imams/princes. AlFarabi suggested to adopt the system of education and training
prescribed by Plato in the Republic.
Therefore, like the philosopher-king of Plato‘s Republic, the philosopherimam/prince would receive
education in mathematics, dialectic and practical art of politics in different stages of their lives as
mentioned earlier. The philosopherkings/imams/princes of both Plato and al- Farabi‘s ideal state/city
would also be placed in different subordinate positions of the state/city at the age of fifty. However,
unlike Plato, al- Farabi distinguished between education by proof (method appropriate to the
speculative virtues to be inherent in the king) and education by persuasion, which is conducive for
acquiring the other virtues and arts.cxx
Although there are many similarities, the first ruler of al- Farabi‘s ideal society seems to be distinct from
the philosopher-king of Plato‘s Republic. The first ruler of Farabi‘s ideal society is the Supreme ruler who
has prophetic qualification by virtue of the fact that he received revelation from God so that his soul is
united with the Active Intellect, God. That is why, the first ruler does not need anybody to teach him
anything because he has knowledge in all kinds of sciences. The first ruler/imam/philosopher is the
prophetic ruler over the ideal city-state, over the ideal nation, and over the earth.cxxi
Plato in the Republic has rejected the rhetoric and good oratory qualification of the philosopher-king.
He ruled out the need for poets in his ideal state because he believes that poets are the rivals of a
philosopher-king. He believes that poets are far away from the truth because their dramatic poetry is
full of emotion rather than any notion of logic or reality. Al- Farabi neither rejected the importance of
orators nor the poets in his ideal society/city. He insisted on ―good persuasion‖ and ―imagination‖. He
mentioned that a ruler should devise methods of political oratory with which to arouse the resolution to
such acts in nations and cities.
Plato views women, children, slaves and servants as the common properties of the state. His opinion
regarding the invalids both in case of physically sick or mentally sick people was also very severe in the
ideal state. He leaves no place in the ideal Republic for those who are unable to work because of any
physical or mental illness. Al- Farabi in his virtuous city never considers women or children as the
common properties of the state nor he thinks about the existence of any slave in his ideal city.
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Al- Farabi‘s four different types of ―ignorant cities‖, such as the vile cities, timocratic cities, despotic
cities and democratic cities are similar to Plato‘s oligarchic states, timocratic states, despotic states and
democratic states, respectively. However, alFarabi also explained different types of cities such as,
indispensable cities, base cities, immoral cities, weeds in virtuous cities are significantly distinct from
Plato‘s any kind of degenerate form of ideal state
Theory of Social Contract

The first book opens with the Hobbesian description of the law of Nature as one of perpetual struggle of
each organism against all the rest; 'every living thing in the last analysis sees in all other living things a
means to its own ends' is the principle of the law of Nature, rather the law of the jungle as enunciated
by Hobbes. In order to explain the emergence of human society from this law of the jungle al-Farabi
considers two views: one more or less like Rousseau's theory of social contract and the other resembling
Nietzsche's principle of 'will to power'. He opposes the Nietzschean view with an appeal to his fellow-
men to build a society not upon envy, power and strife, but on reason, devotion and love.
With such a society alone there is hope of creating the ideal city of which al-FarAbi gives an elaborate
account. Describing the various aspects with regard to the governance of the ideal city he compares it,
like Herbert Spencer, with a 'hierarchical organism analogous to human body. The sovereign who
corresponds to the heart is served by functionaries who in their turn are served by others of lower
ranks'." In this ideal city the object of association is the happiness of its citizens and the sovereign is to
be perfect morally and intellectually.
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IMAM GHAZALI
Critically appreciate Al-Ghazali theory of Khalafat

Abbasid caliphate had lost all political influence in Ghazali’sk time. Saljuk Sultans were the
real rulers of Eastern regions of Islamic world. Recognizing their supremacy at Ghazali
declared Sultanate as the protector or defender of the Caliphate, an institution which he
considered essential for the unity of the Islamic world.
His method:
Al-Ghazali(1058-1111)A.D Sought inspiration from both Islamic and non-islamic sources.
His theory:
According to Ghazali’, “Khilafat is a divine state which is required not be reason but by the
Shariat or divine law.” The Imam should divot himself to religious and spiritual functions, for
he is the “shadow of Allah’ on earth. He should be therefore, modest simple and just, for he is
a ‘fountain of justce”
“Imam is Khalifa Tullah” Khulafai Rashideen never claimed to be khalifa tullah. They
claimed to be Khalifa-tu-Rasul
Ghazali said: “Din is the foundation and Sultan is the guardian
Duties of Khalifa:
Should have ability to wage jihad.
Should discharge the duties of administration.
Should have knowledge for and should consult ulema.
Must be pious
Must do justice.
Study the Shariah
Practice religious virtues, humility, charity.
Should have check on administration.
Avoid pride
Enlist the quantities of Al-Ghazali’s Amir and detail account of his daily
routine
Al-Ghazali relates how a learned man once told the great Caliph, Harun-ar-Rashid, to beware that
he was sitting where Hazrat Abu Bakr (R.A.) once sat and be truthful, where Hazrat Umar (R.A.)
once sat and differentiate between right and wrong, where Hazrat Usman (R.A.) once sat and be
modest and bountiful, where Hazrat Ali (R.A.) once sat and be knowing and just. He puts forward
the case of the Apostle of Islam, who himself fed his cattle, tied his camel, swept his house, milked
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his goat, mended his shoes, patches his clothes, took meals with his servants, ground his own corn
in time of need and did his own marketing.
1. The Amir, after morning prayers, should go out riding in order to have investigation in
person about wrongs done to his subject.
He should then sit in court and permit all and sundry to have a direct access so that he might have
first-hand information about any complaints
The ruler should make a point of taking advice from simple men of knowledge, intelligence and
experience.
The ruler must extend interviews to foreign ambassadors and envoys. He should be well-versed in
diplomacy and politics.
Al-Ghazali strictly warns the Amir against too much indulgence in drink, chess or hunting and says
that the best mode of simple life be practiced.
The Amir and good kings should used to divide their time in four parts, setting apart one for prayers,
another for state affairs, justice and counsel of the learned about the affairs of the state, the third for
food and rest, and the last for recreation and hunting
7. He is very particular that the Amir should not pay head to the advice offered by his women
favorites, and quotes the instance of Umar who actually divorced his favorite wife when he was
elated to his exalted office for fear of being influenced by her in state affairs.
8. Al-Ghazali warns that the ruler must not show them any favoritism, but instead must appoint
nepotism or people on merits.
Rosenthal said, “Al-Ghazali proceeds to enumerate the virtues by which the Imam must be
distinguished in order to lead men entrusted to his care to the goal which the Sharia has set for
men. Although we meet with the qualifications stipulated by Al-Mawardi they are partly modified
to meet the general political situation and the particular case of Al-Mustazhir. Ability to wage
jihad is conditioned by the possession of power and courage. It has always been considered one
of the foremost duties of the Caliph. But Al-Ghazali faced with a young Caliph and a powerful
Seljuq master, explains away its absence in Al-Mustazhir by pointing to the Shawka, the force and
power of the Seljuqs which guarantees the najda required of the Caliph. He wants to think of
them not as independent rulers but as the loyal servants of the Caliph.”
Al-Ghazali persistently lays stress that the ruler should be simple in his habits. He says that the Amir
should have a limited source of income which does not provide him possible opportunity to indulge
in luxury and debauchery. He says that Amir must spend his life according to the income at his
disposal, and should not abundantly and lavishly spend so that the economy of the country may not
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be disturbed. Al-Ghazali quotes the Apostle that God would be kind and compassionate to rulers
who are themselves meek and kind to their people
“In spite of those lofty ideals, Al-Ghazali seems to have rightly realized that time had changed
since the early days of Islam, and besides honest work there was something else, a certain
amount of prestige which is wanted to exert a psychological influence on the people and keep
law and order in the hand, and he would desist from doing anything which might result in the
disintegration of the state through the lack of these factors.” (Sherwani)
IBN-KHULDUN
Khuldun’s stage in the development of the state/Society
Stage 1. During the first stage, solidarity is still largely based on a community of sentiments, and the
ruler owes his position to his noble ancestry and the respect of his fellow tribesmen. His role is
dependent on their number, power and assistance. He is still their chief rather than their master
and king. He has to accommodate their sentiments and desires and to share his power with them.
The same is true of religion. The ruler who is establishing a state with the aid of a religious passage
cannot act as a master and a king, since religion means the obedience of all to God and the religious
Law
Stage 2. The second stage in the development of the period of consolidating the ruler’s power is to
create absolute kingship. Natural solidarity and religion are checked so far as they mean the sharing
of power, and are used at the discretion of the absolute ruler. Solidarity is replaced by a paid army,
and an organized administrative bureaucracy, that carry out his wishes. Natural solidarity becomes
increasingly superfluous. The people generally acquire the habit obeying their new ruler. The
impersonal organization of the army and bureaucracy take care of the protection of the state and
the development of the various institutions of a civilized culture.
Stage 3. As the ruler’s lust and aggrandizement for attaining absolute power is satisfied with the
full concentration of authority in his hands, he begins to use his authority for the satisfaction of his
other desire in other words; he starts to collect the fruits of authority. Thus a third stage of luxury
and leisure follows. The ruler concentrates on the organization of the finances of the state and goes
on increasing his income. He spends lavishly on public works and one beautifying the cities in
imitation of famous civilized states. He enriches his followers who start living a luxurious life.
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Economic progress and prosperity usher a new era of development, which satisfy the increasing
desires of the ruler. The crafts, the fine arts and the sciences are greatly patronized to be flourishing
for the satisfaction of the new ruling class. The state has finally reached the stage where it is able to
satisfy man’s craving for luxuries and his pride in possessing them. This is a period of rest and self-
indulgence in which men enjoy the comforts and pleasures of the world.
The first three stages are powerful, independent and creative, they are able to consolidate their
authority and satisfy the subjects becoming the slaves of these desires.
Stage 4. Having reached its zenith, the next stage is a period of contentment in which the ruler and
the ruled are satisfied and complacent. They imitate their predecessors in enjoying the pleasures of
life, how their predecessors struggled to achieve them. They think that their luxurious life and the
various advantages of civilization have always been existed and will continue to exist for ever.
Luxury, comfort and the gratification of their desires become a habit with them. The length of this
period depends upon the power and extent of the achievements of the founder of the state.
Stage 5. During fifth stage, the state is already starting to decline and disintegrate. The fifth and
last stage of waste and prodigality is setting in. the state has reached old age and is deemed to be
slow or nearing death. The very process of establishing it had destroyed the vital forces of solidarity
and religion that were responsible for its existence. The ruler had destroyed the communal pride
and loyalty of their kinsmen, who humiliated and impoverished have lost the drive to conquer..
They increase taxes and these in turn discover economic activity and lead to a decline in the income
of the state which makes it impossible for the ruler to support his new followers
Further, the habits of comforts and luxury generate physical weakness and moral vices. The elite and
the aristocrats forget the courageous manners of primitive life. They are powerless before an outside
invasion by a strong civilized state or by united primitive people. Excessive taxes and fear of
invasion weakens the hopes of ruled. Despondency becomes so common and it reigns the day and
consequently it freezes all economic activities. The entire population physically weakens and living
in large crowded cities become subject to disease and plague. With the decrease of economic activity
and the depopulation of cities, the state begins to disintegrate; starting form the outlying regions,
princes, generals and the discontented kinsmen of the ruler become independent.
In the capital of the state, the mercenary troops and civil bureaucracy begin intriguing to wrest the
actual power from the ruler, leaving him but the insignia and the name. Finally an external invasion
puts an end to the life of the state, or it may continue to decline until it withers away like a wick
dying out in the lamp of which oil is gone or goes under the subjugation of foreign power.
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Ibn-e-khaldun perhaps was the first philosopher to realize the relevant importance
of economics to politics. Discuss
Ibn-e-Khaldoon has rightly been claimed as the forerunner of a great many Western scholars such
as Machiavelli, Boding, Gibbon, Montesquieu, and many other notable thinkers. There is hardly any
other thinker with whom he might not be compared. Long before Adam Smith, Ibn-e-Khaldoon
foresaw the interconnection of political and economic institutions. The Muslim genius made an
enquiry into the various aspects of economic activities and recorded their political significance in
respect of their good and bad effects on the state.
. Stefan Colosio said, “The great Muslim historian was able to discover in the Middle Ages the
principles of social justice and political economy before Considerant, Marx and Baconine. He
was an original economist who understood the principles of political economy and applied it
skillfully and intelligently, long before it was known to Western research. He thus talks about
state’s work in economic field, and its bad effects about political forces and social classes, the
methods and kinds of property, the social task of labor, and its division into free and paid
labor, and about law of supply and demand.”
Role of capital and labor in Economy: Ibn-e-Khaldoon defines the term sustenance and
profit as, “The part of the income that is obtained by a person through his own effort and
strength is called profit. When a particular person enjoys its fruits by spending it upon his
interest and need, it is called sustenance. Thus it is the part of the profit that is utilized. If the
profit results from something other than a craft, the value of the resulting profit and acquired
(capital) must also include the value of the labor by which it was obtained; without labor it
would not have been acquired. A portion of the value whether large or small, comes from the
labor.”
Ibn-e-Khaldoon praises Islamic economic system which prescribes Zakat, Kharaj and Jizya. To
establish the superiority of Islamic economic system, he quotes the saying of Holy Prophet
(P.B.U.H.): “The only thing you possess of your property is what you ate, and have thus
destroyed; or what you gave as charity, and have thus spent.” Ibn-e-Khaldoon severely
condemns the engagement of rulers in the commercial activity because it creates hurdles in the
development of a free competition in economic field, which is most essential for the circulation of
wealth in the society as a whole. If the rulers indulge in trade activities, they would be I an
advantageous position in the selling and purchasing of the commodities, by virtue of their political
control on the commercial activities. Thus injustice would be brought about in the society which is
disastrous for the dynasty.
Taxation Policy: Among the economic problems his discussion first elaborately starts with
taxation. As a practical politician he had full knowledge of the ways and means to collect the
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Government revenues. He was of the view that taxation must be equitable and just. When justice and
equity are lacking in taxation policy of a Government, it is inviting its own ruin. He said, “In the
beginning of dynasty taxation yields large revenue from assessments. At the end of the dynasty,
taxation yields small revenue from large assessments.” A balanced budget is essential for sound
economy and is the key to stability of the political order.
A rural economy based on agriculture, with a simple standard of living and light taxes, provides an
incentive to work hard, with prosperity as the prize. But as soon as autocrats assume power and urban
life, with a much higher standard of living, makes greater demands, heavier taxes are levied upon
farmers, craftsmen and merchants. Production and profits decline, since the incentive has been taken
away from all those engaged in the economic life of the state.
Salaries and Allowances: The deductions in services and allowances decrease expenditures of
those affected which ultimately affects the incomes of so many others from whom they used to buy
things. This involves a decrease in a business activity and monetary transactions and thus leads to
diminishing tax revenues of the state. He disapproves such procedures by a state. Ibn-e-Khaldoon
extensively deals with the injustice to the people and is of the view that it brings about the ruin of
civilization, because attacks on people’s property remove the incentive to acquire or gain property.
The great injustice which he mentions is buying the people’s property at cheaper rates and selling it
at higher rates. It is most destructive to civilization. This involves taking the capital of the people and
this making them unable to do the cultural enterprise. When capital is decreased, profits are
diminished, people’s incentive slackens and thereby the business dwindles. Ultimately this proves to
be a death blow to the state
Standard of Living: The prosperity and business activity in different cities differ in accordance
with the difference in the size of their population. As labor is the fundamental source of profit or
income, larger the labor, the higher the profit. The extra labor works for luxuries and luxury goods
and crafts etc. Production thrives income and expenditure of the inhabitants multiply and more and
more population pours into the city. All the strata of the society in the large city is affected. As profit
is the value realized from labor, larger the labor the more will be the value realized from it, which
leads to prosperity. In less populated cities or remote towns, villages and hamlets, people are equally
poor because their labor does not pay for their necessities and does not yield them a surplus which
they can accumulate as profit. Even beggars and poor differ in large and small cities
. Income and expenditure balance each other in every city. If both are large, the inhabitants are
prosperous and the city grows. Ibn-e-Khaldoon concludes that the favorable conditions and much
prosperity in civilization are the result of its large size. As is the case in cities, so it is with the
countries. He gave the examples of the populated countries such as Egypt, Syria, India, and China as
being more prosperous as compared to the less populated regions which were less prosperous.
It should be noted that Ibn-e-Khaldoon’s thesis is that higher population brings much labor and
much value is realized from it, which causes profit and prosperity. Apparently it may sound strange
today, that more populated countries are poor and less populated ones are advanced. But as far as
cities in a given country are concerned, his construction is as valid as it was in his time.
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Technological changes were not occurring in his time, he does not explicitly elucidate the role of
productivity of labor.
Ibn-e-Khaldoon was of the view that the wages of the teachers and religious officials are lower,
because demand for their services is not high. His remarkable exposition of labor, value, profit,
population and their correlation with prosperity and civilization has stood the test of time. He gives
the definition of profit as the value realized from human labor. He said, “With the decrease of
population sustenance of a country disappears, springs stop flowing because they require labor,
they flow only if dug out and water drawn. He compares this process with the udders of cattle.”
Livelihood: His derivation of livelihood is interesting, he said, “It should be known that
livelihood means the desire for sustenance and the efforts to obtain it. Livelihood is information
from Ashe life. The idea is that Ashe life obtained only through the things (that go into making
a living) and that they are considered with some exaggeration, the place of life.”
Among productive activities he included medical services, education and musical etc. whereas
Adam Smith excluded services from his definition of real national product. But Ibn-e-Khaldoon
excludes activities such as based on fraud, exploitation or ignorance i-e, astrology, alchemy, search
for buried treasure and the various public servants who receive their shares from public receipts
vitiated by injustice, oppression and fiscal pressure. While dealing with comparative wages, he has
very intelligently analyzed the reasons for the low wages of dealing with religious matters, teachers,
mufti, prayer leaders, preacher, muezzin etc. as profit is value realized from labor, the value of labor
profits differs according to the needs or particular kind of labor. He said, “Now the common people
have no compelling need for the things that the religious officials have to offer.” So their share is in
accordance with the general need and demand of the population for them. It is meager as compared
with others. Besides he deals with various other and economic problems such as high and low prices,
crafts, agriculture, prices of food stuff and hoarding etc. in all these matters, Ibn-e-Khaldoon showed
the depth of great thinker and political economist.
Discuss in detail Ibne Khaldun’s concept of Àsbiyah
aṣabīya refers to social solidarity with an emphasis on unity, group consciousness and sense of
shared purpose, and social cohesion,[1] originally in a context of "tribalism" and "clanism". It was a
familiar term in the pre-Islamic era, but became popularized in Ibn Khaldun's Muqaddimah where it
is described as the fundamental bond of human society and the basic motive force of history.
Àsabiyya is neither necessarily nomadic nor based on blood relations; rather, it resembles
philosophy of classical republicanism. In the modern period, the term is generally analogous
to solidarity. However, it is often negatively associated because it can sometimes suggest loyalty to
one's group regardless of circumstances, or partisanship.[2]
Ibn Khaldun uses the term Asabiyyah to describe the bond of cohesion among humans in a group
forming community. The bond, Asabiyyah, exists at any level of civilization, from nomadic society
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to states and empires. Asabiyyah is most strong in the nomadic phase, and decreases as civilization
advances. As this Asabiyyah declines, another more compelling Asabiyyah may take its place; thus,
civilizations rise and fall, and history describes these cycles of Asabiyyah as they play out.
Ibn Khaldun argues that each dynasty (or civilization) has within itself the seeds of its own downfall.
He explains that ruling houses tend to emerge on the peripheries of great empires and use the much
stronger àsabiyya present in those areas to their advantage, in order to bring about a change in
leadership. This implies that the new rulers are at first considered "barbarians" by comparison to the
old ones. As they establish themselves at the center of their empire, they become increasingly lax,
less coordinated, disciplined and watchful, and more concerned with maintaining their new power
and lifestyle at the centre of the empire—i.e, their internal cohesion and ties to the original peripheral
group, the àsabiyya, dissolves into factionalism and individualism, diminishing their capacity as a
political unit. Thus, conditions are created wherein a new dynasty can emerge at the periphery of
their control, grow strong, and effect a change in leadership, beginning the cycle anew.
Examples
Nomadic invaders have on many occasions ended up adopting the religion and culture of the
civilizations they conquered, which was true for various Circassians, Berber, some of
the Crusades and Mongol invaders that invaded the medieval Islamic world and ended up
adopting Islamic religion and culture.
According to Khaldun, the Asabiyyah cycle was also true for every other pre-modern civilization,
whether in China whosedynastic cycles resemble the Asabiyyah cycles described by Ibn Khaldun,
in Europe where waves of barbarian invaders adopted Christianity and Greco-Roman culture, or
in India or Persia where nomadic invaders assimilated into those
ALLAM IQBAL
Dr.Iqbal's concept of Ego (Khudi)
Throughout history, prophets, poets and philosophers have appeared to remind human beings of their
true nature --- a nature that consists of a temporal as well as a heavenly element. They have attempted
to rekindle in the human beings the Divine Spark which is an integral part of their makeup. Speaking of
this Divine Spark, the Qur’an notes that when Allah (SWT) created the first human being, He breathed
His own spirit into this new creation (Al-Hijr 15:29 & Al-Sajdah 32:9). Consequently, human nature is not
‘‘human,’’ it is a ‘‘humanness’’ that has an element of the Divine in it. But after having been created ‘‘in
the best conformation’’ (Al-Teen 95:4), the human being was reduced ‘‘to the lowest of the low’’ (Al-
Teen 95:5). The question now arises as to whether the human individual can again rise to the original
noble heights at which he/she was created.
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Iqbal argues that khudi is the root of all existence, an entity which may appear to be perishable but
which can attain immortality. The human ego or ‘‘I’’ has the potential of achieving permanence as an
element in the constitution of the universe provided that it adopts a certain mode of life. The ego can
evolve, progress, and succeed as well as degenerate, atrophy, and fail.
The human ego has the ability to grow by absorbing the elements of the universe, of which it appears to
be an insignificant part, as well as the ability to incorporate the attributes of Allah (SWT). Iqbal argues
that the human ego has a central place in the universe, while it is, at the same time, intimately linked
with the Ultimate Ego, or God Himself the ego has to pass through three stages which Iqbal describes in
Asrar-e-Khudi. These three stages can be seen as the different spiritual phases through which the ego
has to pass in its journey of spiritual ascension:
• Ita‘at, or obedience to the Divine Law;
• Dabt-e-Nafs, or self-control, which is the highest form of self-consciousness or egohood;
• Niyabat-e-Ilahi, or the vicegerency of God
Even though these three stages in the spiritual progression of the human ego superficially resemble
Nietzsche’s three stages of the metamorphosis of the spirit, they are not the same. The fact that
Nietzsche does not even accept the reality of the human ego is itself the most pressing evidence that the
three stages in the development of the Iqbalian khudi are not identical with the three stages in the
development of the Nietzschean spirit. Iqbal goes on to note that the existence of the ‘‘I’’ cannot be
rejected just because it cannot be proven on intellectual grounds because the human ego is not a purely
intellectual entity --- its existence is also rooted in inner experiences.
Since attaining permanence depends upon perfecting the self and bringing it in accord with the Divine
Will, Iqbal appropriately exhorts that one should ‘‘know’’ his or her inner self. ‘‘Know thyself’’ is an
exhortation that has been made numerous times before by many others; the problem is not in the
exhortation itself but in its approach. According to Iqbal, all distinctly philosophical problems have
ultimate solution in the self, but, unfortunately, it is this very self which is still ignored. The reason
underlying the ignorance of the self is the fact that the self is thought of as being a material entity. But
the human being is not only a material being, he/she also possesses a non-material component
In other words, there is an element in the composition of the human being that manifests itself and
experiences reality quite differently from the bodily element of the human composition --- this non-
corporeal element is the human soul. Together, the body and soul exist as a unit. Thus, the Iqbalian
‘‘self’’ is an entity in which the body and the soul have to work together. Both have to grow together
and have to work harmoniously if the personality of an individual is to be strengthened. The body and
the soul are indispensable for the needs of each other
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When the human being forgets this Spark of Divinity within, he/she falls prey to the false sense of
personal liberty --- a liberty which, in reality, is the worst form of slavery. Having lost sight of the Divine
Spark within, the human being inevitably loses sight of all higher moral and ethical principles and, as a
consequence, his/her life becomes totally subservient to the animal instincts of bodily flesh. As a result
of neglecting the awareness and realization of the Divinity within, the Divine Spark fades away and
eventually it is extinguished altogether.
The Iqbalian khudi, cannot fulfill its true potential if the individual avails him/herself only of the
resources of science and philosophy. For Iqbal it is only religion that can provide us with the intimate
and holistic knowledge of Reality --- the type of knowledge that is an essential prerequisite for the
realization of our humanity.
Khudi requires the coupling of will to power and belief, eventually realizing itself in the form of yaqeen
or a deep inner conviction. In fact, it is undaunted conviction that serves as the pivotal point for the
‘‘self’’ to act and react to the sensual temptations of life. However, this conviction will not actualize itself
unless the individual understands that his/her life has a purpose, and that this purpose has an individual
as well as a collective dimension The evolution and ascension of the ego is not merely a detached,
personal, and individual event --- this spiritual development has a collective dimension too that cannot
be ignored.
Iqbal notes that a great deal of sacrifice and benevolence is required on the part of a person in order to
bring the individual, self-preserving ego in harmony with the collective ego. Consequently, the guiding
principle in life cannot be one of conflict between the ‘‘self’’ and other ‘‘selves’’ if the dynamic process
of thedevelopment of khudi is to take place This constant interaction between the individual ego and
the environment provides the ideal opportunity for self-evaluation. But one should not lose sight of the
fact that the initial emphasis is on the individual ego. Only that individual ego which has attained a
degree of self-realization and self-understanding will be able to genuinely understand and constructively
engage with other individual egos.
This is another way of saying that only that ego which has learned self-respect, self love, and self-
affirmation will be able to extend respect and love to other selves, and also affirm their dignity and
autonomy In the context of Iqbal’s philosophy, then, the progress of the individual human being
depends on his/her relationship to the self, to the family, to the society, and ultimately to God. The
gradual realization of this intricate and delicate web of relations will lead the individual to realize his/her
fullest potential and significance.Ultimately, with the rise of ego-hood on Iqbalian terms, the individual
can become the architect of human destiny
Why should I ask the sages regarding my origin?
It is my ultimate destiny that I am reallyconcerned about.
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Elevate your khudi to such heights that before every decree
God Himself asks you: ‘‘Tell me, what is your wish?’’
The Principle of Movement in the Structure of Islam/ Iqbal’s views on Ijtehad

6th lecture Seems to be the most important lecture in the book. In fact the idea behind the whole book
revolves around it. It is in this lecture where the author urges the need for innovation in Islamic thought.
The principle of movement in the structure of Islam according to the author is ijtihad, which means to
form an independent judgment on a legal question. The set of legal principles received from Qur’an has
great capacity of expansion and development.
Ever since the establishment of schools, the law of Islam was “reduced to a state of immobility” 10 by
the rejection of ijtihad which had a number of reasons. Firstly there was fear that rationalism would
destroy the foundation of Muslim society. He attributes this attitude of conservative Ulema to preserve
the social polity of Islam against the Rationalists or Mutazilah that resulted in the crystallization of
Shariah. Iqbal laments that ascetic Sufism absorbed brilliant minds and they gravitated toward
spiritualism leaving the state and legislation in the hands of mediocre Ulema who believed in blindly
following the recognized schools
Secondly the need of organization(after the fall of Baghdad) felt by the early scholars lead to the
exclusions of innovation in the shari‘ah and took away the power of the individual. “Thus a false
reverence for past history and its artificial resurrection constitute no remedy for a people’s decay”
It is argued by the author that Qur’an is not a legal code; but its purpose is to awaken in man the higher
consciousness of his relation with God and his creations. Similarly, the sunnah was meant for the people
at that time and place, and therefore, according to the author, is specific to that people. The world of
Islam according to Iqbal should proceed to the work of reconstruction before them
The word literally means to exert. In the terminology of Islamic law it means to exert with a view to form
an independent judgement on a legal question. The idea, I believe, has its origin in a well-known verse of
the Qur’an - ‘And to those who exert We show Our path’.
We find it more definitely adumbrated in a tradition of the Holy Prophet. When Mu‘adh was appointed
ruler of Yemen, the Prophet is reported to have asked him as to how he would decide matters coming
up before him. ‘I will judge matters according to the Book of God,’ said Mu‘adh. ‘But if the Book of God
contains nothing to guide you?’ ‘Then I will act on the precedents of the Prophet of God.’ ‘But if the
precedents fail?’ ‘Then I will exert to form my own judgement.’
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Write note on : Iqbal concept of Millat (2011)
Compare the concept of Millat and Territorial Nationalism by Iqbal.(2014)
‫لیے کے پاسبانی کی حرم مسلم ھوں ایک‬
‫کاشغر کرتابخاکِ لے سے حل سا کے نیل‬

May the Muslims unite in watching over the Shrine,
From the banks of the Nile to the deserts of Kashghar
Allama Iqbal said, “For the present every Muslim nation must sink into her own deeper self, temporarily
focus her vision on herself alone, until all are strong and powerful to form a living family of republics. A
true and living unity, according to the nationalist thinkers, is not so easy as to be achieved by a merely
symbolical over lordship. It is truly manifested in a multiplicity of free independent units whose racial
rivalries are adjusted and harmonized by the unifying bond of a common spiritual aspiration. It seems to
me that God is slowly bringing home to us the truth that Islam is neither nationalism nor imperialism but
a League of Nations which recognizes artificial boundaries and racial distinctions for facility of reference
only and not for restricting the social horizon of its members.”
Allama Iqbal was of opinion that the rehabilitation of Muslim history could take place provided
in Pakistan, future homeland of Indian Muslims; historical task will be approached, for
development of national culture with an eye on ultimate goal of universal history. In Islam the
idea of territorial frontiers has no ultimate juridical significance, because fundamentally the earth
belongs to the God and is the inheritance of the righteous ones. The discords and the conflicts
which are presently infesting the world peace and are threatening to mount up to a point where
another global war may breakout with consequences too terrible to contemplate, are ultimately
traceable to the rigid adherence to the concept of absolute national sovereignty.
The Islamic millat’s constituents are inseperable, and above sectarian attachments. The idea of
nationalism founded on common ties of religion, race, colour, language, geography, history, customs,
traditions and above all unique economic and political interests and a will to uphold it, are alien to Islam.
Islam has no room for such compartmentalisations which could explode and wreck the entire humanely
created edifice. Islam therefore, is neither "Nationalism nor Imperialism but a League of Nations which
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recognizes artificial boundaries and racial distinctions for facility of reference only, and not for restricting
the social horizons of its members"
He says that our allegiance with China, India, Rome, Syria, Afghanistan and Turkey is insignificant and it
must be noted that all Muslims are like birds in a garden9. It is with this yardstick that Allah has drawn a
divider amongst the ummat of the lovers of the Prophet of Islam and those who are in the other camp 10.
Allah is not only Creator and an object of worship, but also the law-giver. In Islam nobody is considered
immune from the injunctions laid down in Qur’ān11. Qur’ān-based-polity therefore, has no room for an
absolute ruler, over and above the limits prescribed by Allah12. In the nutshell, Islamic millat is required
to possess a real collective ego to live, move and have its being as a single individual
Contemporary nationalism, in fact, is not different from love for place and family of the ancient
tribal societies. This, however, leads to parochial and racial discrimination and is opposed to the
idea of the usual kinship or relationship of humanity at large. Iqbal's main source of this
inspiration is the Qur'an which very explicitly exhorts people to be above race, colour, language
and tribal affiliation. Territorial nationalism is the root of social and political evil. It has put
nations against each other and has led to much suffering for humanity at large
‫جدا ہو دیں سیاست سے تورہ جاتی ہے چنگیزی‬

[If religion is separated from politics, there remains nothing but barbarity.]
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State System
The nature and emergence of modern nation-state system
French king Louis XIV(1638-1715) says, “I’m the state” (Burgess)

“particular portion of mankind viewed as an organized unit” (blentschilli)
“a people organized for law within an definite territory” (Woodrow Wilson)
Modern definition:
“state is a community of people occupying a definite territory organized under a government,
which is supreme over all persons and associations within its territory and independent of all
foreign control or power”
Elements of state;
Population +Territory physical basis
Government +Sovereignty political bases.
Historical evolution of state;

State has evolved through the following stages:
Stateless society of the primitive times.
The tribal kingdoms
The oriental empires
Greek-city states.
The roman empire
Feudal states
Nation-state:
Nation state:
A nation state is a state based on the bonds of nationality, such as common religion language,
customs common aspirations etc. and is strengthened by national boundaries it led to the
growth of international law which recognized the sovereignty and equality of all nation states.
Since its advent in the 15th century Europe (age of Renaissance), the nation-state has assumed
several distinct forms. These are:
Absolute monarchy:
National democracies:
Colonial empire:
Fascist dictatorship:
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Communist states:
Theories of the origin of the state:

Knowledge of the ancient history and society did not exist in the past. When historical
knowledge fails, man resort to speculations. So, the philosophers of old ages speculated about
the causes and conditions in which the state originated. They expounded various speculative
theories: these are:
Theory of divine origin
Theory of force
Theory of social contract
Patriarchal theory
Matriarchal theory
Evolutionary theory or sociological theory:
Concept of the state

By “concept’ we mean they way we understand or know a thing. There are three different
concepts of state i.e. Traditional, modern, Islamic,
Traditional concept of the state:

Ethical concept of ancient Greeks and Religious concept of st. Augustine
Modern concept of state;

Secularism; It means state is separate from religion.
Nationalism: Modern state is a national state
Legalism:Modern state is based upon law.
Nature of the state

There are three kinds of views about the nature of the state/ monist-Dualistk and pluralist
theories of the nature of the state.
Monist theory:
The monist view of the state is that it is single, unified whole, while the Individuals who
compose it have no separate and independent existence of their own, but are part and parcel
of the state in which they live. They exist merely as “atomic units in the whole mass. “
Pluralist theory:
Its view of the state is just opposite of the monistic view. It regards state as a composite body
in which the individuals have distinct and independent existence of their own. The extreme
pluralist view rejects the state altogether and regards the society as a mere aggregation of
individuals. This view’s found in such theories like individualism etc.
Dualist theory:
In between the two extremes of monistic and pluralist theories is the third view of the dualist
theory. It is a compromise between the two. It regards both the state and the individual as
distinct but interdependent. Neither individual is completely merged into the state nor he is
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entirely isolated from or independent of it. This view is held by several theorists e.g. Lock’s
theory of social contract, English utilitarianism.
Islamic concept of state andUmmah.
Nature of the Islamic polity:

Islam is a complete code of life nothing in human life and behavior is outside or beyond
islam. Islam doesn’t believe in separation of religious from political life. The life I this world
is meant for preparing for the eternal life of the next world, which is everlasting.
Sovereignty of Allah:
To Holy Quran Says:
“to him belongs the dominions of the Heavens and of the earth. It is he who gives life and
death, and he has full knowledge of all things’.
Khilafat:
The Holy Quran proclaims the vicegerency of man. It says “And when the Lord said unto the
angels: “Lo! I am about to place a vicegerent in the Earth”
Government by consultation:
It was also the practice of the Holy prophet (PBUH) who consulted his companions in all
matters of state. The institution of Shura was developed by Khulafa-i-Rashideen afterwards.
This system is the foundation of Democratic government is Islam.
Obedience of the Aulul-Amar or the Ruler:

The Quranic injunction call up on the Muslims to obey the supreme commander among them.
Equality of mankind:
In Islamic polity, there is no distinction or discrimination of man and man on the ground of
race, color, language, profession or country.
Order good and punish wrong:

Islam enjoins the state to maintain morality. It asks the ruler to order good and punish wrong.
Payment of Zakat:
Muslims are asked to pay it as dutifully as they perform five time prayers.
Justice:
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Theories of Khilafat and System of Administration/Mode of election/Duties and Res

Caliph remained the political and religion leader of the Muslim Ummah. But when the
Abbasia Caliphate began to decline from about 940 A.D, the Caliphate theory was challenged
by rival Caliphs. This critical situation made several Muslim political thinkers to expound
various theories of Caliphate. Among them al-Mawarli, Ghazahk and Ibn-i-Khuldoon are
important.
Mawardi
Ghazali
Khaldoon
Iqbal
Political Concept (Western and Islamic):
Sovereignty
Sovereignty is the most essential element of state hood-explain wrt the differences in the nature of
western and Islamic concepts of sovereignty.
Sovereignty
It is the most important characteristic of the state which distinguishes it from other
associations. There can be no state without sovereignty. It is derived from a Latin and
“superanous” which means supreme. It was for the first time used in 16th century though the
idea goes back to ancient times.
ITS growth:
Plato and Aristotle Recognized the presence of the supreme power in the state. Today this
state sometimes attribute to the state, sometimes to a particular person like monarch or a
dictator while at others it is attributed to a parliament. There are still others who say that
sovereignty belongs to a group of people are sovereign because they are the one who make or
break government. He explains it in “General will”
Two aspects:
Internal sovereignty:
Internally state has supreme authority over all individuals and associations.
External sovereignty:
State is independent of any compulsion or interference on the part of other stats.
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Definitions
Aristotle: “supreme power in the state”

Bodin: “supreme power over citizens and subjects unrestricted by law’
Blackstone: “supreme irresistible absolute authority in the state”
Burgess: “absolute ad unlimited power over the individuals and all their associations
A comprehensive definition is:
“sovereignty is the supreme power or authority of an individual or a group of individuals
which is unquestionably obeyed by the bulk of the people in the state, as laid down by its
constitution and law’
From these definitions we can infer;
I. It is supreme and unlimited power

II. Supreme power to make laws and enforce them
III. Authority cannot be disobeyed in the state.
IV. No limitation can be imposed on the supreme will of the sovereign.
Types of sovereignty:
i. Titular and actual:
Titular means the ruler who has the legal authority to use governmental powers but
practically becomes inefficient while some other institutions enjoy the absolute power. Eq
in Britain, there is difference between the King and crown. Later is the center of the
whole of state power while thee powers are not exercised by the king.
Actual sovereign is that person or body of persons which practically exercise the supreme
authority. Eq; British parliament.
ii. Legal and political:

Legal sovereign is the organ who authority is constitutionally recognized. Such organs
enjoy supreme law-making authority.
Political sovereignty signifies the privilege of electorate to choose representatives which
make government. They can affect political decision making.
iii. Defacto and Dejure

De Facto is the sovereignty of a sovereign who is illegal (who comes into power through
military coup or extra constitutional measures.
De facto sovereignty usually transform into De Jure (by law) with the passage of time
when new government gets itself recognized under a new constitutional set up. It can be
carried through elections. Eg: Napoleon in France
iv. Popular sovereignty:

This concept was explained by Rousseau. He says popular sovereignty implies the
supremacy of the society a whole expressed through it general will. It includes electorates
and non voters as well.
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Attributes of Sovereignty
i. Permanence;
Remains intact as long as the state exists. State is permanent entity while government is
temporary organization. Change in government or system doesn’t affect the sovereignty
of the state.
ii. Exhaustiveness:
“there cannot be two kings in a kingdom. (Persian )
One sovereign excludes another. If two people ride a horse, it is only oe who will hold the
reins.
iii. Absoluteness;
Supreme externally and internally. Supreme over all individuals and association.
iv. Indivisibility:
Cannot be divided “to divide sovereignty is to destroy it”
v. Universality;
Sovereign over all individuals and association. Diplomatic immunities are only one
exception.
vi. Inalienability;
Cannot be taken away from its holder without destroying it.
vii. Imprescriptibility:
It cannot be transferred and shared
.
Note: above are only the attributes of state sovereignty. There is a lot of confusion
and misunderstanding regarding sovereignty in the west. They have still not been able to
decide or locate where sovereignty actually lies? Under these condition if the above
mentioned attributes are attached to the sovereignty of a person government political
party or a parliament the entire concept would be render meaningless and there would be
an adding misunderstanding about the concept.
Limitations of sovereignty:
i. Moral limitations:
What is legally possible may be morally impossible.
ii. Natural limitations:
Sovereign cannot do what is naturally impossible. He cannot order the sun to rise at 6
o’clock always.
iii. Human limitations:
A ruler can make a law forbidding the people to hold a particular opinion because it is
dangerous. But he is unable to enforce it.
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Islamic concept of sovereignty
Islamic concept is radically different from western concept of sovereignty. It is derived from
Islamic concept of Tauheed
Elements of Islamic concept:

a- Allah is sovereign
b- Ma is Allah’s Khalifa on earth
c- Khalifa or legislature has limited authority while Allah’ authority is original
a) Sovereignty of Allah:
Supreme power belongs to Allah alone
Quran says:
i- “to Allah belongs the sovereignty of heavens and the earth”
ii- “he is Allah, the one and the only one, the eternal, absolute, he begetter not, nor is he
begotten, and there is none like into him:
iii- “it is he who gives life and death”
iv- “he has power over all things”
Thus is Islamic state:

i. Allah’s sovereignty is forever
ii. It extends to every sphere of human life
iii. It extends to every being and non-living in the universe
iv. He exercise the sovereignty in the life there after.
v. He doesn’t share or transfer his authority.
vi. He is accountable to none, everyone else is answerable to him.
vii. Allah’s sovereignty is comprehensive because.
a) He create things
b) He looks after them.
viii. He has not been given sovereignty by anyone.
Features of Allah’s sovereignty:

i. Absolute
ii. Universal and all-comprehensive
iii. Eternal
iv. Indivisible
v. Original
It is not derived from any being or authority superior to him. He alone is the wonderful
originator and creator of all
.
c) Man’ Vicegerent or Khalifa or Allah
Features:
i. man will act as Allah’s vicegerent on Earth.
ii. His powers are delegated and limited.
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iii. He will use this delegated authority to carry out the commands of his master i.e. Allah
iv. This sovereignty is temporary
v. This limited sovereignty is sometimes shared.
vi. This sovereignty is transferable when one is dead or is unable to exercise this
authority of limited sovereignty .
d) Extend of man’s sovereignty:’

i. Law making powers are limited because there already exists the law of sharriah.
ii. The Khalifa is accountable to Allah
iii. The limited and delegated sovereignty is taken as a sacred trust
iv. Exercise within the limits prescribed by Allah in Quran.
v. Law making is not department on public opinion.
vi. If khalifa violates basic principles of Islamic system people are not bound to accept
his authority.
Law
The system of rules which a particular country or community recognizes as regulating the
actions of its members and which it may enforce by the imposition of penalties
Sources of law:
i. Customs and traditions
ii. Religion
iii. Scientific commentaries
iv. Judicial decision
v. Equity
vi. Legislation
Islamic law and sources

The legal of islam is a beautiful combination of dynamism and flexibility on one end and
immutable laws on the other. So the laws of Shariah can be explained in two parts.
i- Quran
ii- Sunnah immutable or primary sources
iii- Ijtihad
iv- Ijma Flexible or secondary sources
v- Qias
Liberty
Define and discuss Liberty and its safeguards. Enlist the causes of decline in modern times
The term liberty is derived from the Latin word “Liber” which means free or unrestrained.
In its absolute sense, liberty means “the faculty of willing or the power of doing what has
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been willed without influence from anyother source”. Or we can briefly say
“liberty is absence of restrains”
Herbert Spencer and individualist Thinkers of 19th century define liberty as;
“everyone is free to do whatever he wills, provided he infringes not the equal freedom of any
other man”
Aspects of Liberty:
a) Negative aspect:
Limitations have to be imposed to experience liberty in real sense. This is negative aspect
of liberty. Without certain restrictions there will be anarchy and chaos in the society.
b) Positive aspect:
Liberty can only exist when conditions are maintained which help man to rise to full
stature of his personality. These conditions are: absence of restraint.
Types of liberty:
i) Natural liberty;
Found in Locke, Hobbes, Rousseau, it is absolute and unlimited power of doing what is
desired.
ii) National liberty;
When a nation is internally independent and is subject to not outside control national
liberty is the foundation of political, civil and economic liberty.
Safeguards of liberty;
i. Proper legal system.
ii. Independent judiciary
iii. Democracy
iv. Fundamental rights
v. Local self government.
vi. Rule of law
vii. Economic equality
viii. Enlightened citizens
ix. Separation of powers.
causes of decline
Growth of modern science and industry: Cyber crimes law surveillance etc
Decline in the social position and value of the individual

If in the past his social role and position were determined by his family, his birth, caste, etc, they are now
determined by his nation, national State, political party, trade union, class, etc
Growth of mass-propaganda
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Radio broadcasting, cinema, mass-circulation news papers and magazines, television, and space
satellites and such other inventions have placed powerful means in the hands of the Government to
control human mind and
International tension : Terrorism etc

.
Growth of centralisation
Asِcriticismِimpairsِnationalِunityِandِsowsِdistrust’,ِtheِvoiceِofِoppositionِtoِgovernmentِisِ
suppressed. In such an atmosphere liberty finds it extremely difficult to flourish.
Equality
Popular meanings:
“all men are equal and all should be entitled to the same treatment and have an equal amount
of wealth”
Criticism;
But such an equality doesn’t exist anywhere. Men are not equal in mental or bodily powers.
Men and women differ from each other in their capacities wants, needs, habits, ideas ,
ambitions, and interests etc. thus, absolute equality is impossible. Nevertheless “inequality”
has ever been the breeding ground of all revolution
Actual meaning:
i. Absence of social privileges. All persons should be allowed to enjoy equal rights in
the state.
ii. Equal opportunities to development
iii. Equality before the laws.
Kinds of equality:
i. civil or legal equality:
same kind of law for all classes
ii. political equality:
same political rights
iii. economic equalities:
same opportunities
iv. social equality:
no distinction in the social status of people due to difference in race, color , rank, class,
caste or sex
v. natural equality:
nature has made all men equal. But there is not natural equality in actuality.
Liberty and equality:
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Two schools
i. “equality destroys individual liberty”
ii. Most people agree that “liberty would be hollow without some measure of equality
and equality would be meaningless without liberty.” This is the correct relation
between the two.
Basic Rights and Duties
Critically examine the most important theories of Rights as explained by different writers. (Minimum
three).
Human nature has two aspects, personal and social. When the claim or power of a person
to do or have something is recognized by others, it becomes a right.
The recognition of a right may be given by the conscience of men, by the social opinion
of a people or by the state. Each agency of recognition gives us a different kinds of life.
Human conscience recognize moral right, social opinion, social rights and recognition by
the state gives us legal rights.
Thus, we may define right as

“a claim or power of an individual or a group of individuals for freedom or opportunity
for action considered as fundamental for their well-being and allowed and recognized by
the society on the state”
Utility of Rights:
They are necessary for the development of individual, the society and the state.
Theories of rights;
i. Theory of Natural rights;
The French declaration of rights and American Declaration of independence said
“Men are endowed by their creator with certain inalienable rights, among these are life,
liberty and the pursuit of happiness.”
The English Utilitarian’s declared that natural rights are nonsense, and natural law is a
mere fiction.
ii. Modern theory of Natural rights:
The state must create conditions for moral development. These necessary conditions for
moral development of human personality are the Natural rights.
iii. Legal theory of rights;

The state doesn’t recognize but actually creates rights. As the state is the creator and
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enforcer of rights the individual has no rights against the state.’
iv. Social welfare theory of rights;

Rights are socially useful because they promote the greatest good for the greatest number.
(Bentham and Mill)
Classification of rights;
Rights are broadly divided into moral and legal rights. The legal rights are further divided
into civil and political. However they are intertwined
Moral rights/Civil Rights

.i. Right to life
ii. Right to liberty and free movement
iii. Right to property
iv. Freedom of religion and conscience
v. Right of education
vi. Right to work
vii. Freedom of expression
viii. Freedom of association
ix. Right to contract
x. Right to family life
xi. Equality before law.
legal rights / political rights

1) Right to vote
2) Right of election to legislative
3) Right to public office.
Legal rights: privilege enjoyed by a citizen against other citizens association or
government, recognized by the state and upheld by its authority and laws.
Difference b/w fundamental and natural rights:

Fundamental rights are created by the state and guaranteed by its constitution. Natural
rights are believed to have existed before the state came into being.
Rights and duties are based on the principal of reciprocity? Explain. (2006)
Right and duties are facets of the same coin. (2011)
Relation between rights and duties:
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Rights and duties are so much interdependent that they might be regarded two sides of
one and the same kind. Rights implies. Where there is right, there a duty as well. My right
is your duty and your right is my duty.. if other people do not accept their duty my right at
once will vanish altogether. A society in which one man claims rights but has no duties is
a society of masters and slaves. Every citizen has a right to education. But when he has
acquired education or training, he must be ready to contribute his share to the social good
“kinds of duties”
Moral and legal duties.
“duties of citizens towards the states;
i. Obedience of law
ii. Allegiance to the state
iii. Payment of taxes
iv. Duty to vote
“Duties of the state”

Economic, educational, cultural and social in nature.
Rights and Duties always go together:
Rights and duties are closely related and cannot be separated from one another..
Right of One is the Duty of Others:Rights can be enjoyed only in the world of duties. For
every right there is corresponding duty.
. Rights of a Citizen also implies Duties for him:Rights are not the monopoly of a single
individual. Everybody gets these equally. This means that “others also have the same rights
which I have, and it is my duty to see that others also enjoy their rights.”
Rights are to be used for Social Good:Rights originate in society. Therefore, while enjoying
rights, we must always try to promote social interest. It is the duty of every one of us to use our
rights for promoting the welfare of the society as a whole.
Duty towards the State: Since state protects and enforces rights, it also becomes the duty of all
citizens to be loyal to the state. It is their duty to obey the laws of the state and to pay taxes.
Political Participation
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Public Opinion
What are the agencies available for the formation of and expression of public opinion? Also discuss the
methods of influencing public opinion. Can public opinion be regarded as the 5th essential element of
a modern democratic state?
Nature
The expressed idea or attitude of an individual on an issue confronting the group of which
he or she is a member is called an opinion. Expression is necessary. Public opinion is the
sum of individual opinions on a certain issue or in other words “the transformation of
individual attitudes into a collectively that can exert influence”
In their everyday life people think feel and act differently and diversely. But when
required to think and act in common under the influence of a leader or an event they may
create a unity or uniformity of belief, opinion and behavior. This is the public opinion>
Definition:
The collection of individual opinions on an issue of public interest which can exert
influence on individual group and government behavior or policy, formed under the
influence of a leader party or group.
In short public opinion needs four things
i. Individual opinions
ii. Public issue
iii. Communication media
iv. Leadership
Public opinion or majority opinion;

Generally speaking, public opinion is majority opinion. Majority opinion is public
opinion only when it aims at the common good and satisfies the general interests and
well-being of the whole nation and embodies the willing consent of the majority.
Unanimity is thus not necessary for public opinion. What is essential is the common good
or national welfare at which it must aim
Characteristics of public opinion:

i. Living issues of politics;
Public opinion is always about living issues of politics in a country
ii. Widely—held opinions:
iii. Intensity of opinions:
Which of the differing opinions emerge to become the public opinion? Depends on their
intensity.
iv. Non identifiable group:
“people held the same opinion even though they do not know each other.
v. Continuity and change in public opinion:
“public opinion may change from time to time or may remain the same
How is public opinion formed:

According to Lord Bryce three classes make public opinion.
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i. Public Leaders and thinkers:

ii. Propagator and moulders of public opinion:
iii. Masses of people:
Importance of public opinion in modern state:

In the modern state is general and in the democratic state in particular, all power spring
from the people. How are the people to exercise its power? Is the question.
It is possible in two ways i.e. by voting and by expressing public opinion. Public opinion,
between the two elections internal keeps the party in power in check, guides the
government in making policy and restrains the government by becoming oppressive.
Public opinion is the pulse of the people and a wise government must always keep it
fingers on the pulse. Good and sound public opinion will support a government when it is
on the right path and restrains and criticize it when it is in the wrong. It makes ideal
democracy a reality.
Dangers of public Opinion:

If public opinion is prejudiced and misguided it becomes threat to the strength stability
and unity of the democratic state. Then the watch dog of democracy becomes the maddog
of tyranny. Dictators indoctrinate the public minds to manufacture public opinion in
their own favor. When pubic opinion is made and influenced by prejudice and vested
interests, it ceases to be public.\
Conditions of sound public opinion:

i. Education:
ii. Free press
iii. Free discussion
iv. Social Harmony
Without barriers of caste, creed, color or class divide,
v. Economic security
A starving man has no opinion of his own.
Hindrances in the way of sound public opinion:

I. Illiteracy
II. Economic inequality
III. Religious and sectarian differences
IV. Dishonest press
V. Unwillingness of minorities to acquiesce in the majority rule/
VI. Selfish leaders
Making of public opinion in a democracy and dictatorship:

Formation of public opinion depends upon the political structure of a state.
In a democracy the process of opinion formation is very complex. The general public is
usually uninterested. Political leaders of the parties are divided due to their own vested
interests. All the political parties and their leaders go to the people and offer them
solution s of the political issues inorder to win their votes in the times of elections. Very
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few of these political leaders are originators of these opinion. They really begin with the
views, theories, philosophies and writings of the intellectual classes. While other leaders
and parties adopt opposite theories. They thus become opinion leaders. After the election
public opinion is usually dispersed till the time of the next election.
Agencies influencing public opinion:

i. Family and other primary groups:
Immediates relationships such as friends, neighbors and occupation groups.
ii. Education institutions:
School colleges, universities are the oldest means of forming public opinion.
iii. Radio, TV, Cinema
iv. The press
v. Public speeches or platforms:
Spoken words have greater influence than the printed words.
vi. Political parties:
Election campaigns
vii. Legislature:
Their proceedings are reported in the daily press.
viii. Govt. and public opinion:
The dictator controls public opinion the democratic govt. guides it.
Measurement of public opinion/ opinion polls:

Democratic govts. Measure public opinion in advance to apprehend the election results.
Commercial firms also study and measure public opinin to judge consumer preferences.
Philosophy of opinion polls:
“we can measure public opinion by counting the individual holding different opinions’
Methods of measurement:
Three methods
i. Accidental sampling:
It was first used by newspapers, magazines, radio broadcast. It was also employed by
market researchers. Ballots are printed ii newspapers and magazines which could be
clipped and returned to the poll researchers. Yet another method was to collect the
opinions of the crowds in roads, bus stands and stations at certain hours of the day.
Another way is postal polls. Ballots are sent to certain selected persons whose addresses
have been found from telephone directories and electoral registers.
ii. Quota sampling:
It means a fix number of people. For instance, the interviewers selected every tenth house
in a street of the area to be surveyed.
iii. Random sampling:
This method may be compared to a big box in which the ballot papers of the whole
electorate are put and thoroughly shaken, and then, say, 2000 are taken out of them at
random to assess public opinion.
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Discuss organization & functions of pressure groups. Point out indicators of its
effectiveness also
A group of individuals organized for promoting their special economic or some other
interests by influencing govt. or public officers. The means used by pressure groups to
apply pressure or influence on the govt. legislators, administrator , pol. Parties are
agitation, persuasion, public opinion mongering or even bribery.
Kinds:
i. Interest groups:
Organized by to promote interest by concerning itself with government policy,. When an
interest group uses pressure, it becomes pressure group.
ii. Lobby:
A pressure group which works in a legislature to influence the legislators to make laws in
the interest of the groups. Eg. Jewish Bobby in the congress.
iii. Cause group:
A pressure group which seeks to promote some cause not of direct benefit to its members
but of general benefit of all eg.
How do pressure groups work?

The pressure groups put pressure to further their cause on;
I. Legislature
II. Pol. Parties.
III. Executive
IV. Public at election time
V. Public at other times.
Organization and working:

it various according to the interests, purpose and sphere of operation. Some consist of few
members another of many. Some are well organized while other are loosely
The pressure may take a friendly talk, a reasoned discussion or threats of party action the pressure
groups use the news papers Radio, TV,. They pass resolutions in meetings and send letters and
telegrams to public officials
functions of the pressure groups:

i. Provide information of a specialized and technical nature to the government.
ii. Act as intermediaries b/w govt. and the people.
iii. Act as check on pol. Extremism.
iv. Minorities and communities can influence govt. through their pressures
Forms of pressures:
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i. Refusal of co-operation with govt.;

Eg. Business groups may refuse to cooperate with govt.
ii. Strikes:
By labors and professional associations
iii. Electioneering:
“pressure groups participate in elections supporting candidates favorable to their
interests
iv. National publicity campaigns
v. Formation of political parties
vi. Writing letters and telegrams to officials
Effectiveness of the pressure groups:

i. Size
ii. Unity
iii. Leadership
iv. Strength of the party system
Success very much dependent on the weakness of party system.
Propaganda
Propaganda is a technique of influencing public opinion. Public opinion influences the policy
of the modern state.
Definition:
“the spreading of ideas which we want people to believe whether such ideas are true or not”
Propaganda and education:
The aim of the educator is to convey facts and opinions of all sides and enables the learners to
think and make up their own mind on an issue.
On the other hand, the propagandist’s aim is to teach the audience not how to think but what
to think.
Forms of propaganda:
Propaganda is carried in numerous ways; such as;
- Spoken word
- Printed words
- Slogans
- Symbols
- Personal contacts
- Mass action
It means are also numerous as:

- Person to person conversation
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- Meeting
- Parties
- Press
- Radio, Cinema, TV
- Educational institutions
The propaganda may be an individual a group of individuals, an agency or an institution.
How is propaganda undertaken?

A successful propaganda campaign has its strategy or goods and its tactics and
techniques.
i. Strategy:
It is concerned with the over-all campaign and its objectives and goals.
ii. Tactics
It is the art of utilizing all available forces to the best maximum advantage within the
limits set by strategy.
iii. Techniques:
Like its forms and means, propaganda is conducted by various methods and techniques.
Principles of propaganda:
The techniques and methods of propaganda are based on these principles
i. Simplicity
ii. Repetitions
Political Parties
Discuss the importance of Political Parties in a Modern state and assess their role as
effective instrument of mobilizing Public Opinion.
Define political parties and their functions. In your view, which party system is
suitable for Pakistan's political system?
Give a brief account of historical evolution of Political Parties with reference to

theories on the origin of Parties
“a group of citizens, more or less organized who holds common views on questions of
public interest, act a political unit to attain the control of govt. in order to further the
policy which they possess.
Definition:
“an association organized in support of some principle or policy which by constitutional
means it endeavors to make the determination of government”
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Historical evolution:
Came into being in England when parliament began to challenge the king
Functions of political parties:

i- Formation of policy
ii- Formation of public opinion
iii- Selection of candidates
iv- Participation in elections
v- Formation of govt.
vi- Role as opposition.
Kinds of political parties:

I. Reactionary party:
It consists of such people who wish to revert to the old order. Eg. Nazi party in Germany
and Fascist party in Italy.
II. Conservative party:
It is like the reactionary one but with one difference. The reactionary party seeks to revive
old order which is long dead and gone, but the conservative party seeks to preserve status
quo.
III. Liberal/democrate party:
Which advocate social change, progress and freedom.
IV. Radical a revolutionary party:
Sand for radical change and outright progress in social and political life. Eg. Socialist,
communist, extremist parties
Reactionary or conservatives parties are now said to be the parties of the right. While the
radical or revolutionary parties are called parties of left. They are sometimes called
parties of extremists. A same party may consist of two wings the left and the right wing.
Basis of political parties:

On the bases of
i. Religion
ii. Economics
iii. Form of government
iv. Nationality
Three theories of party origin:

i. The theory of human nature:
ii. Theory of ideological motivation.
iii. Theory of economic and class conflict.
Each of these theories contain element of truth. One factor alone cannot produce them
The party system;

Three types of party systems exist in modern state.
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i. Two party system:

It consist of two major parties which are nearly equal in membership. Eg. The
conservative and Labor party in Britain. A few minority parties may also exist but they
have little or no influence. Sometimes a third party may rise which may gradually merge
one of the two earliest parties from the country’s politics
Merits:
i. It offers a clear-cut alternative to the voter:
Two party system is convenient to voters. They are asked to choose between the two
parties with their clear cut program.
ii. Formation of govt. is easy under the system:
iii. It secures a real representative government:
iv. It ensures stable and strong government:
The govt. formed by one party is stable in the multiple party system, the cabinet is usually
a coalition which is unstable.
v. It is easy to fix responsibilities for failure of government under two-party system.
vi. It makes long-term planning and policy possible
ii. Multi-party system:

There are several parties of various strength. Each has a definite policy. The system
usually grows up among the people divided by religious, social and other differences
Merits:
i. It allows greater freedom of opinion:
More natural to modern political system.
ii. It doesn’t divide the nation into two irreconcilable groups:
Whereas the two party system demands behind devotion
iii. It offers chances of several alternative governments:
Whereas two party system leads to Cabinet dictatorship.
Demerits:
It has more defects than merits govt. has no continuity of policy. Coalition govt. are
unstable and short- lived.
The recent experience of Pakistan, France and other countries has sown that multi party
system leads to national chaos, corruptions and unstable governments.
Political Institutions and Role of Government
Separation of powers
Origin and need:
Since the ancient days of Aristotle, political writes have recognized the three fold distribution
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of government functions or powers. They are;
Legislative: law making power

Executive: law enforcing power
Judicial: law adjudicating power
Each power is exercised by its own department or organ of government. However,

Montesquieu was the first thinker who expounded this three-fold division as a theory of
separation of powers in order to safeguard the liberty of the individual.
.
Explanation (in defence of liberty)
He proposed that the powers of government should be so separated that one power should be
a check on another and thus balance each other, for “power halts power’. He pleaded that the
departments of govt. should be so organized that each department should perform distinct
functions within the sphere of power assigned to it. If anyone of the departments or person
endeavors to make law or exercise power more than what the constitution provides it or he
should be checked by other. In this way tyranny would be avoided and liberty safeguarded.
Its appreciation;
Did Montesquieu mean an absolute separation or a partial one?
Montesquieu didn’t perhaps favor a rigid or total separation of powers. The nature of
judiciary is such that it must be separated from and independent of the other two departments.
Criticism:
Complete separation is impossible:
Govt. like human body, is an organic whole.
Leads to constitutional dead-locks and administrative inefficiency:
All departments are not equal:
Legislative is superior.
Destroys responsibility
Legislature:
Two types:
Unicameral:
Having only one and mostly elected chamber e.g. Pakistan federal legislation under 1956c.
:federal parliament of indonessia.
Bicameral:
Two chambers one on the basis of population and other on the basis of principle of equality.
e.g. “Pak national Assembly (population)
“Senate of Pakistan (equality basis)
Unicameralism prevents wastage; Of time, energy money.

An ideal second chamber is impossible:
Democracy shouldn’t speak in two voices. Bicameralism is a cart with a horse on both
sides.
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Defects of 2nd chamber:

It is reactionary
It is conservative
Promotes minority interests at the expense of national interests.
Delays even passing of good laws.
Prevents hasty legislation:

Bill passed by one house has to go before the other.
Bicameralism provides proper representation of national interests and
minorities:
A check on legislative despotism:
Reduces pressure of work:
Secure the elections of able and experienced men (senators)
Necessary in federalism for the representation of units
Importance of executive:
The essence of government in an executive. The legislature and judiciary are merely the
instruments of constiutionalizing it.
It Essential Attributes:
Executive must have qualities of leadership.
It should have energy, unity of will, promptitude in action, finality of decisions and
secrecy.
It consists of one or few persons not of many as does the legislature.
Executive should have ample discretionary powers but no arbitrary powers.
Term of his/its office should be fairly long.
Functions and powers:

Internal and powers:
Ministry of interior
Military functions:
Defense ministry
Diplomatic functions:
Foreign ministry
Legislative functions:
In modern times, executive also participates in legislative function depending upon
the form of govt.
Financial functions:
Finance ministry budget preparation, annual report revenue and expenditurs.
Judicial powers;
Right of pardon
General proclamation of amnesty
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Settling free the prisoners.

Other functions:
Regulates trade, industry, agriculture, education, public health transport, etc.
Judiciary
Judiciary is the third organ of the government. There is no better test for the excellence of a
government than efficiency of its judicial system.
Organization:
Supreme level
High level
Intermediate/ appellate level.
Lower courts/ courts of first instance.
Functions:
Settlement of disputes.
Interpretation of laws.
Judicial review.
Preventive justice. (preventing the violation of rights)
Advisory opinion.
Non-judicial function (granting of licenses etc.)
Independence of judiciary:
It means that the judges should be independent of the other two organs
Necessity of independent judiciary:
For making an impartial trial of the accused
Try state officials for offences committed by them in the course of performing their
public duty.
To protect the constitution and law against the encroachment by govt. or individuals
Judicial Review
in federal states, the judiciary has the power to declare a legislative statutes as ultra vires and
unconstitutional and therefore null and void when its contrary to the provisions of the
constitution.
Federalism and judicial Review:

Courts have become the protectors and guardians of the constitution and powers of center and
federating units in a federal state. The doctrine of judicial review was originated by a US
judge Marshall in 1803.
The power of judicial review doesn’t mean that the judiciary is superior to legislature it acts
only as a protector of the constitution.
Arguments for.
Courts are guardian and protector or constitution and the powers distributed b/w
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centre and units.

Courts protect fundamental rights of citizens or the “Bill of rights’
It enables a rigid constitution to be modified and extended by judicial interpretations.
Arguments against;
It violates the principle of ‘separation of powers”
It enable judiciary to veto the laws of federal and components units.
Violates the principle of sovereignty of legislature.
Judges are by training and profession, a constitutive people. Hence. They refuse to
accept laws which embody new ideas and programs.
Judges are not sufficiency aware of public opinion.
Forms of Government
Despotic: becoming a thing of past.

Democratic: power with the people
Limited monarchy: eg.: England
Republic: eg. USA, France
Federal: powers distributed between center and federating units
Unitary: all-powerful center
Parliamentary: executive answerable to legislature.
Presidential: executive with less checks by legislature
Democracy
Originally democracy means “the rule of the people. As a form of Govt. it means “the rule of
many” and as a form of representative government, it means the “rule of majority’
Aristotle: disliked democracy and thus defined it as---“rule of the mob’

Dicey: defines it as---“a government in which everyone has a share”
Abraham Lincoln: defined it as---“Govt. of the people by the people and for the people”
Dimensions of modern democracy:

Modern democracy is a product of three historical developments i.e. english parliamentary
system, the great French revolution of 1789 with its slogan of “sovereignty of the people” and
of “liberty, equality and fraternity , and the industrial Revolution which began in England
first and the spread over Europe during 19th century.
In other words, modern indirect form of democracy came into being during the 19th century
and spread almost over the whole of world during the 20th century.
There are three dimension of modern democracy;

Full democracies: US, UK
Semi-Democracies: India, Yugoslavia
Preadu democracies: Ayubi dictatorship in Pakistan
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Kinds of democracy:
direct or pure democracy:
which can exist in a state with small area and population eg; Greek city state.
Indirect or representative democracy:
Choosing representative in assemblies
Aspects of democracy:
Political democracy:
Political rights.
Economic democracy:
“From each according to his capacity and to each according to his need.
Social democracy:
Exist truly in Islamic society:
Tests of Democracy:
What are the characteristics and conditions which make a state or government or state
democratic?
Doe the right of free expression of opinion and opposition exist?

Do the people have the right to change the government?
Is there equality before law?
Are the rights of individuals assured and protected?
Are there opportunities for the common man?
Are the people free from terror?
Conditions for the success of democracy:

Enlightened citizenship:
Character and ability:
Vigilance.
Tolerance and responsibilities
Education
Organization and leadership
Fundamental rights;
Democratic ideals:
Aims for which democracy stands.
Faith in the common man:
Individual is the end and state is means.
Right of the individual: liberty and equality
Form of govt. in which everyone has a share;
Peace;
Attacks on Democracy:
it is impracticable:
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rule of ignorance:
parody of Lincoln’s definition “government of the cattle, by the cattle for the cattle
based on false principles:
one mean one vote
no expert knowledge or skill is needed for the rulers.
Unitary and federal states

Modern states are too large to be administered by ruler a government dwelling at the capital.
They have to be divided and sub-divided into a number of administrative areas, which are
variously called provisions, states, countries, etc; and their sub-division, called districts,
Tehsil, Tabukas,k etc. each of these divisions and sub-division has its own body of
administrative officials and departments called, the provincial and local government officials
and department The relation, between provincial and central governments can be organized in two
different ways which give is two different kinds of states i.e.- unitary and Federal
Unitary state:
“A unitary state is one in which the supreme government authority is vested by the
constitution in a single central government which rules the whole century. Local governments
exercise only such governmental powers as are delegated to them b the central government.
In other words, the relations b/w the center and the local governments in a unitary state are
those of subordination and under central administrative control. Eg. England Italy, French
Iran, etc.
Merits:
Its strength and vigor can deal effectively with all question eg: policy defense
Uniformity of laws, policy, administration thought the country.
Simple in organization and saves money.
Demerits:
Large territorial state with diversity in social conditions cannot be efficiently
administered b a single center.
Inclined to disregard local needs and interests.
Concentration of powers tends to make the central government despotic.
Subordinate position local govt. effects its efficiency
Federal state/ federalism;

In all federations there is a manifest tendency to entrust the central governments with a wider and
wider sphere of authority.” Analyze the statement and discuss in detail.
What are the essential pre-requisites for successful Federal System?
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Merits of Federation.
A federal state is one in which the supreme powers in the state are distributed by the
constitution between a central government and government of the federating units, making
each government supreme within its own sphere of powers”
Federation is a dual government. The distribution of power is in such a way that the
government of the federating unit exercise supreme and original authority within its own.
Sphere of powers not derived or delegated authority from the central government as the local
government of the unitary state does. These powers are rather, the gift of the constitution. if
any charge into he made, it can be done only by amending the constitution , and with the
consent of the constituent unit or units.
Nature of the federation:

The most important characteristics of a federation is the formal distribution of sovereign
powers between the federal govt. at the center and the govts. Of the federating units. A federal
constitution attempts to reconcile the apparently irreconcilable claims of national
sovereignty and state sovereignty. It doesn’t divide the sovereignty s between the rests of
government because to divide sovereignty to destroy it.
It only distributes sovereign power between them. Sovereignty lies neither in the federal
government nor in the federating units but in the constitution amending power as prescribed
in the constitution,
Features:
Federation comprises two sets of governments federal and federating governments.
Matters of common interest or of national importance are entrusted to the central
governments.
Local matter are entrusted to the unit government.
The states which federate into a union lose their former sovereignty.
A federation is made, it doesn’t grow.
It has a written constitution. Neither the federal nor the unit government can amend
constitution with a view redistributing supreme powers.
Federation envisages a union rather than unity. It creates a dual government, not a
unitary one.
The constitution clearly prescribes the process of amendment. Sovereignty lies with
the body which has the power to amend the constitution..
Bicameral legislation:Equal representation irrespective of size and population.
Essential condition for federation;

Distances lead to difficulties of co-operation eg. Succession of east
Pakistan.
Desire for union:
Desire for local independence:
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Federating units seek union but not unity.

Common economic interests:
Community of cultural and other interests:
Eg : federation of Pakistan.
Equality among the component units.
Political ability and legislature
.
Merits of federalism:
Federation combines merits of unity with diversity:.
Experimentation is possible:
Various units make it possible to experiment in new ways and methods of law and
administration without affecting other units
Brings progress and strength to the small states:
Lessens the dangers of international wars:
Federation suits large that with great territory or a small state with great
diversity
Prevents despotic tendencies in a govt.
Means local self-govt. on a large scale
More suitable to modern society against unitary state:
World govt. can be created in a single state:
Demerits:
Source of weakness for the state
Prevents uniformity of law and policy for the whole state.
Distribution of powers cannot be perfect for all time.
Rigidity of constitution: an obstacle to progress
Obstacle to the conduct of vigorous foreign policy
Expensive
Exposed to the danger of secession
Future of federation:
Many writers are of the opinion that federal structure of the states is transitory and temporary
stage in the evolution of the unitary state. There is some truth is this. Structure of the federal
state, in modern times, is under three strong pressures for centralization. They are economic,
social, military.
Confederation
“a group or association of two or more sovereign states which have permanently given up
past or their liberty for some specific aims and objects, such as defense. A confederation is
stronger than an alliance between sovereign states, but weaker than a federal union”
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Parliament and presidential

Examine in detail the principal advantages and disadvantages of parliamentary over presidential form
of government.
Parliamentary form of Govt.

Nature:
System of government in which the legislative and the executive organs of the state are
closely related and interdependent in the performance of governmental functions, such as
determining the policy, making the law and passing the budget. Unlike the presidential
system, there is no separation of executive and legislative powers.
Organization:
king or president:
nominal executive who reigns but doesn’t rule.
Prime minister:
Cabinet works as the team, with the prime minster as its captain.
Cabinet:
The real executive headed by prime minister. Each minister hold a portfolio and is member of
the parliament. Cabinet is responsible to parliament.
Legislature/parliament:
Possess supreme power in law or constitution. If the cabinet looses the support of the
parliament, it passes a vote of no confidence against it.
Merits:
It secures harmony between the executive and the legislature:
All the members of the cabinet are the members of the parliament. The minister participate in
all the debates, discussions and decisions of the legislature, and are responsible to it.
“cabinet is a buckle that fastens the executive and legislature together “Baghot”
Ensures responsibility and checks autocracy:
It is impossible for an irresponsible ministry to hold office.
It has flexibility and elasticity in times of crisis:
“the people can choose a ruler for the eg: choice of Churchill during w.w.ii.
Governed by able men;
Cabinet system has the advantage of using the talents of able men again and again.
It has great education value:
Constant criticism and opposition to the ruling party requires not only discipline in party
ranks but also vigilance among them.
Demerits;
Causes frequent ministerial changes and leads to instability of government:
Cabinet hold office so long as it enjoy confidence of majority in the legislature. Coalition
ministers are unstable. It doesn’t suit newly indpednent state.
Too largely a system of party govt.
Modern government are necessarily party governments. But the cabinet govt. is too much of
it. Party interests are placed above national interests and the progress of the country is
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retarded.
Leads to cabinet dictatorship:
It is true where two-party system works. It has become practically impossible to remove
cabinet from office, as it rigidly controls the majority in parliament. This is the reason why
English cabinet enjoys a long tenure.
Governed by amateurs;
Prime minister doesn’t select his colleagues on the basis of their training or talent but on the
basis of party service and loyalty.
Cabinets are constantly growing in size:
Cabinet has double in size in Pak since 1947
Presidential Govt
Nature:
Govt. in which the executive and legislative departments are entrusted to distinctly separate
and different persons or body of persons, namely the president and the congress respectively,
without the one being responsible to the other for its function.
It’s chief characteristic is “separation of powers” the executive power are vested in president
and the legislative powers in congress. Each one of them is independent and supreme within
its own sphere, without any responsibility to the other. In this principle lies the unity as well
as the weakness of this system. There are, however, a few checks and balances on the
authority of one organ by that of the other
Organization:
The president:
The president is at once the head of the state and chief executive—the king and the prime
Minister. All the executive powers are vested in him by constitution. There are, however, a
few checks on his powers. He is not responsible for his acts and policies to the legislature.
Only when he actually commits a crime he can be impeached by it. He is elected by the
people by a fix number of years. He cannot be forced to resign or leave.
His ministers:
He picks them up from anywhere in the country whether they belong or do not belong to
belong to any political party. He can dismiss them any time without giving any reason. They
have no seat in the legislature.
The congress:
Vested with all legislature and money granting powers. Unlike the parliament it is not
supreme or sovereign organ of the state. It consists of two houses senate(more powerful) and
popular assembly (house of representatives(. The senate is given powers to check the
executive authority of the president. Similarly, president has also some powers to check the
legislative powers of the congress. he can veto a bill passed by it which can however, be
overridden by 2/3 votes of congress. Congress is also elected for a fixed period and cannot be
dissolved by the president.
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Merits:
Stable govt.:
Elected for a definite period of years.
Ensures continuity of policy:
President can pursue it vigorously without the constant fear of losing the majority in the
legislature.
Ensures certainty of policy:
The advantage of continuity of policy also ensures its certainty. There is no divided opinion,
no diversity of counsels .
It can avail of the services of the experts:
Ministers are chosen from anywhere on the basis of qualification not on the basic of party
interests.
Demerits:
Based on wrong principles:
“separation of power” and “checks and balances” contradictory to each other.
Encourages autocracy:
All powers concentrated in president.
It is rigid:
The American people call themselves sovereign but their system of government is such that
they have mortgaged their sovereignty to a single person, who may behave as an autocrat of a
dictator.
Leads to conflicts b/w executive and legislature:
It is especially so when the president belongs to one party and the legislature is filled with the
representatives of another party. Laws are made without consulting the executive about their
need or utility. Policy is adopted without the legislative approval.
It leaves too much to the president:
Since he is not bound to the opinion of him ministers.
Produces irresponsibility and rivalry among departments:
The departments are often jealous of one another
Dictatorship/Totalitarianism
Would you agree if it is stated that dictatorship is the only remedy for social, political and economic
instability in a developing country?
Dictatorship is defined is the rule of one man who exercise absolute power in the state.
Dictatorship is antithesis to democracy because:
It is a govt. by decree rather by law.
Dictator is not accountable before any parliament or representative body.
There is no limitation on the duration of dictator’s authority
Main features of Dictatorship:

It is a product of crisis:
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Because of constitutional, political, social, economic or religious reasons or due to in ability

of democracy to function propely.
Arbitrary exercise of power:
Aggressive and dynamic methods of decisions making:
This is one of reason why dictatorship are more successful than democracy some times.
Employment of despotic methods of political and social control:’
Political parties are banned newspapers are suppressed civil liberties and fundamental rights
are done away with.
Abolition of constitution or legal basis of political power:
Abolishes constitution and sometimes, he devises a new one of his own. Dictatorships often
come to power through bloodshed and can be got rid of by further bloodshed.
Defects of dictatorship:
Dictatorship regards the state as the end and the individual as the means.
Dictatorship is based on force and violence and not on discussion and agreement.
Dictatorship leads to apathy in public life.
Fascist dictatorship spreads war and aggression.
Dictatorship is not a permanent institution
Merits of dictatorship:
Makes government strong
Makes for efficient and prompt administration.
“strong and efficient in handling emergencies. It takes democracy a long to decide a question
and execute decision.
Rapid development:
Communist dictatorship in USSR has achieved in industry and science in 50 years
what took 200 years to democratic England and USSA to achieve.
Nazi dictatorship in Germany made the was able to fight all super powers.
Kamal Ataturk rehabilitated Turkey as strong and respected nation once again.
Still –dictatorship has more defects than democracy.
Political Ideologies
Discuss the principles of "Fascism" highlighting its historical background

Fascism is of Italian origin where it arose as a result of w.w.i and its effects on Italy.
Italy joined Anglo-French-American allies. At the end of war, in Paris peace
conference she was given no colony. It created a feeling of sharp resentment in Italy.
The after effects of war created social, economic, political crisis such as inflation,
corruption and strikes. Communism began to spread among Italian workers. Italian
parliamentary system becomes corrupt. Under these circumstances Mussolini and his
fascist party captured political power in Italy. Mussolini organized “armed bands” to
smash the heads of striking workers. Finally Mussolini captured power in Rome in
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Oct. 1922. Mussolini was limited by the king for the office of the prime minister. Two
years later in January 1925 he destroyed constitutional parliamentary system and
established the Fascist state in Italy. In 1929l all the powers were passed in the hands
of Mussolini.The term “Fascism” means “band or group” an aggressive nationalism and
imperialism are the real meanings of fascism.
Principle of Fascism:
what is Fascism:
“my program is action, not talk”
“fascism is based on reality not theory”
Such statements show that fascism did not have any principles. But it had a programe
of action.
Philosophy of action and violence:

Fascism is first and foremost theory of force, action and violence. “Direct action”
became a philosophy of unlimited force and violence at home and unlimited war
abroad. Hence, according the Mussolini “Fascism is the government for the people,
over the heads of the people, and if necessary, against the people”
Fascism of Aggressive, nationalistic and militaristic.
Fascism repudiates democracy, liberty, equality and majority rule:
Government of the elite and of the elite:

Govt. by an aristocracy
The masses incapable of knowing their will and opinion.
The test of superiority of the leaders lie in their ability to sue force and violence to
secure obedience.
Fascist theory of state;
Their conception of state is authoritarian, totalitarian and nationalistic. They have repudiated
democracy, individualism, liberalism and popular sovereignty
W.W.I was the turning point in the history of the world. It produced communism in Russia
Fascism in Italy and Nazism in Germany
Nazi Doctrines
No well-defined doctrines like fascism.
Nazi Glorification of the state and nation:
Nazism glorifies the state and regards it as a supreme entity. It identifies “state” and the
“nation” like in Fascism.
Nazi state is totalitarian:
“the individual is nothing, state is everything” Hitler
Individual means, state end.
The fuehrer principle:

Between the Duce and the people were corporations. But between the Fuehrer (leader) and
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the Germans was nothing except a chain of lesser fuehrer all of them responsible to fuehrer
alone. the fuehrer was infallible.
The people were taught to believe that some are born to rule and others to obey. Hitler was
worshiped as God. The Nazi ideal.
“one leader, one state, one nation:”
Hitler was preached in Schools, in churches on the stages in cinema radio and press.’
Nationalism and Racialism:
Nazis were intensely nationalistic. But they equated the nation with race. There were superior
and inferior races according to the racial theory of Nazism. The “white” races were superior
and the “colored” races were inferior. Among the white races, the Germans were above all.
“our task’ cried Hitler” is to organize on a large scale the whole world so that
each country can produce what it can best produce, while the white race, the Nordic race
(German) undertakes the organization of this gigantic plan—the lower race is destined for
tasks different from those of higher races. The latter must have in its hands the control and
the control must remain with us
Communism
In political and social sciences, communism (from Latin communis – common, universal) is a social,
political, and economic ideology and movement whose ultimate goal is the establishment of
the communist society, which is a socioeconomic order structured upon the common ownership of
the means of production and the absence of social classes, money, and the state.
Communism vs Marxism
Is there any difference between communism and Marxism? Well, the two ‘“ communism and Marxism ‘“
are the same with not much difference between the two. Communism is really based on Marxism and
the two cannot be separated. However, one can see that Marxism is the theory and Communism is the
practical implementation of Marxism.
Communism is the realisation of a Stateless society where all are equal. On the other hand Marxism is
the framework by which such a state is developed. While Marxism is a political ideology based on Karl
Marx’s ideas, communism can be called as a political system, which is based on Marxist ideology.
Socialism
The theory of socialism, while similar in many ways to communism, is less extreme and more flexible.
For example, although government control of the means of production is one possible solution,
socialism also allows for workers' cooperative groups to control a factory or farm together.
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Rather than crushing capitalism and overthrowing the bourgeoisie, socialist theory allows for the more
gradual reform of capitalism through legal and political processes, such as the election of socialists to
national office. Also unlike communism, in which the proceeds are divided based on need, under
socialism the proceeds are divided based on each individual's contribution to society
Socialism and communism are alike in that both are systems of production for use based on public
ownership of the means of production and centralized planning. Socialism grows directly out of
capitalism; it is the first form of the new society. Communism is a further development or "higher stage"
of socialism.
From each according to his ability, to each according to his deeds (socialism).
From each according to his ability, to each according to his needs (communism).
Liberalism
Is a political philosophy or worldview founded on ideas of liberty and equality. The former
principle is stressed in classical liberalism while the latter is more evident in social liberalism
Classical liberalism is a political philosophy and ideology belonging to liberalism in which

primary emphasis is placed on securing the freedom of the individual by limiting the power of
the government.
Social liberalism is a political ideology that seeks to find a balance between individual liberty
and social justice.
Local Self Government
Advantages of Local governments:

“Spirit of liberties”. Is evident in local governments which is described as “grass
roots’ democracy
A training ground in the art of government.
Cultivates sense of a civic duties and responsibilities, a spirit of common
administration, and common interests.
Essential for success of democracy.
Love of the laws among masses of which they themselves are the authors.
End of red-Tapism
Lighters the burden of central govt.
Creates a spirit of self-help and self-dependence
Realization of true citizenship
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Defects of local govt.

Narrows the outlook of the people and breeds local patriotism.
Devolution deprives local bodies of central direction and advice.
Corruption and Bad governance in underdeveloped countries
Relation between central and local govt.:

How far is control by the central government desirable? This is one of the most baffling
problem of local administration. There is not uniform practice in this respect. In France local
government is highly centralized. But in Britain centralizing tendency during recent years has
assumed alarming proportions. The position in the US is rather appreciable and there is
complete local autonomy
Experience has shown that the central government should exercise some control over local
bodies. But such a control should be exercised with a view to the efficient discharge of local
duties and responsibilities. Undue interference and direction is bound to destroy local
initiative and local responsibility. Excessive central control may also encourage favoritism in
the local services.
Point out the problems and prospects of local –self Government in Pakistan.
Why this system is unable to work consistently and successfully in Pakistan?
Political parties don’t believe in decentralization/local democracy:
Constitutional and legal recognition for local democracy:
Economic constraints and lack of infrastructure:
Bureaucratic Hurdles:
Un-elected intuitions are more powerful than representative parliament like Ac DC
Development funds to MNAs/MPAs and senators undermine the role of LG
Our political elite see elected local bodies as their rivals
How local self government strengthens democracy.
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Local democratic institutions are essential for strengthening national democracy. In many contexts,
national political parties have used local democracy to provide strong foundations for national
democracy by strengthening their grass-roots ties and deepening the pool of political leadership.
Prominent examples include the Workers Party in Brazil and the Justice Party in Turkey. Mr Erdogan’s
strong grass-roots ties, a consequence of local governments, provided the most effective shield against
military adventurism.
Prerequisites for the success of democratic Political System
(a) The introduction of direct democratic devices like referendum, initiative and recall.
(b) There should be universal education.
(c) The electorate should be alert and vigilant.
(d) An elaborate system of local self-government institutions should be established.
(e) The citizens should possess a high degree of civic sense.
(f)A keen sense of toleration is essential for healthy discussion.
(g)Freedom of speech, association and press should be allowed.
(h)A written constitution also safeguards the spirit of democracy.
(i) Gross inequalities of wealth should be removed
Political culture
Political culture is a set of attitudes and practices held by a people that shapes their political behavior.
It includes moral judgments, political myths, beliefs, and ideas about what makes for a good society. A
political culture is a reflection of a government, but it also incorporates elements of history and tradition
that may predate the current regime. Political cultures matter because they shape a population’s
political perceptions and actions. Governments can help shape political culture and public opinion
through education, public events, and commemoration of the past. Political cultures vary greatly from
state to state and sometimes even within a state. Generally speaking, however, political culture remains
more or less the same over time.
Different typologies of political culture have been proposed. According to political scientist William S.
Stewart, all political behavior can be explained as participating in one or more of eight political
cultures: anarchism, oligarchy, Tory corporatism,fascism, classical liberalism, radical liberalism, democratic
socialism, and Leninist socialism. Societies that exemplify each of these cultures have existed historically
87 | P a g e

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Political Science Paper1 By Muhammad Usman Khan PSP

Discuss in detail Ibne Khaldun’s concept of `Asbiyah .......................................................................... 43

Political Concept (Western and Islamic): ......................................................... 53

Basic assumptions of rule of philosophy

Device for the supply of philosopher-rulers:

Lacks legal enforcement

Based purely on ethical and moral considerations.

Impracticable in modern state:

Opposed to the development of personality:

Water-tight compartmentalization impossible: Disbelief in capacity of masses:

Aristotle was great but not grateful student of Plato” Comment

Aristotle’s criticism of the Republic:

Training of guardian classes will sow disunity.

Rejection of platonic concept of origin of state in the Division of Labor:

denial of private property opposed its human nature;

Neglect of lower class:

Aristotle’s criticism of idea:

Sincerity of Plato about supremacy of law is doubtful:

Difference in form and method of Plato and Aristotle:

The fundamental characterized of state. According to Aristotle, is that it is an association of

“State aims at the highest good”

Firstly, it stands the apex of social evolution

Functions of the state:

Man has real meaning only in a state:

Machiavelli enunciated the philosophy of Art of government for effective

Subject matter of both essentially same--- the theory of preservation of state

To maintain strong national army:

To be expert in the art of war:

To be popular among people:

To abstain from property and women of subjects:

To avoid free spending:

To be an expansionist: “every government must either extend its authority or perish”

To observe utmost secrecy:

To create public spirit:

Equality makes man individualistic, elf-seeking. Fearful, competitive and

Establishment of leviathan as Modern state:

“Hobbes starts as an individualist but ends as an absolute” Discuss

- individualism and absolutism in Hobbes

Hobbessian absolutism and individual are complementary:

Leviathan: the first democratic attack on democracy.

Hobbes, as we know, never allowed the associations or institutions of indivdiuls to be formed

Lockean state of nature has two characteristic.

Locke was the father of Modern Liberal Democracy-comment

Characteristics of the General Will:

Concept of General will not clear:

Wrong to hold that General will cannot be represented.

Inapplicable to big states.

Examine Montesquieu's theory of separation of powers. Why he has been

3. Perfect separate power in the functions of the government is impossible.

Relation between Forms of Government and religion & Size of State:

Montesquieu as the Aristotle of 18th Century

Bantam’s theory of Punishment

Bentham’s `Utility’/ Utilitarianism/pleasure pain

A government which fails to enact laws securing the greatest

He has enumerated 14 simple pleasures of

There are, according to him twelve 12 simple pains of

Implications of principle of utility:

End justifies the motive:

Consequences are primary and secondary:

It is objective, fair and clear:

Pleasure is not universal:

Pleasure is both qualitative and quantitative:

All men are not selfish:

Instead, of the metaphysical abstraction of Hegal, Marx stressed materialist interpretation in