Lecture 3: The

Schrödinger equation v

Friday, January 13, 2023

 Summary from lecture 2:

• Blackbody radiation: Classical Physics fails at predicting EM

spectrum from heated body

Classical prediction:
⇢(T ) = 1
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Quantum prediction: Wien’s law

⇢(T ) = T 4
<latexit sha1_base64="VcdOpwGHOqBhpAml9UMUTNPP/KE=">AAAB+nicbVBNS8NAEJ34WetXqkcvi0Wol5JIUS9C0YvHCv2CJpbNdtsu3WzC7kYpsT/FiwdFvPpLvPlv3LY5aOuDgcd7M8zMC2LOlHacb2tldW19YzO3ld/e2d3btwsHTRUlktAGiXgk2wFWlDNBG5ppTtuxpDgMOG0Fo5up33qgUrFI1PU4pn6IB4L1GcHaSF274MlhVKqfXnkB1RjV7ytdu+iUnRnQMnEzUoQMta795fUikoRUaMKxUh3XibWfYqkZ4XSS9xJFY0xGeEA7hgocUuWns9Mn6MQoPdSPpCmh0Uz9PZHiUKlxGJjOEOuhWvSm4n9eJ9H9Sz9lIk40FWS+qJ9wpCM0zQH1mKRE87EhmEhmbkVkiCUm2qSVNyG4iy8vk+ZZ2T0vu3eVYvU6iyMHR3AMJXDhAqpwCzVoAIFHeIZXeLOerBfr3fqYt65Y2cwh/IH1+QOFw5Lg</latexit>

3
<latexit sha1_base64="/ML58QeeXJ1AAWJis+TwKEgdOHY=">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</latexit>

max T = 2.898 ⇥ 10 Km

• Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle: A fundamental limit to how accurately we can measure certain
properties of a particle simultaneously
~
<latexit sha1_base64="KhQ//r77SaHrCRtO8F4U2Tu7q20=">AAACOnicbZDLSgNBEEV7fMb4irp00xgEV2EmiLoMPsBlAiYRMiH0dGqSJj0Pu2vEMOS73PgV7ly4caGIWz/ATjKCRgsaDrduUV3Xi6XQaNtP1tz8wuLScm4lv7q2vrFZ2Npu6ChRHOo8kpG69pgGKUKoo0AJ17ECFngSmt7gbNxv3oLSIgqvcBhDO2C9UPiCMzRSp1Bzz0Eio3c0g7hjsAc3rq8YT92+x9QoLY+o6+Yzx8W3FSdGOuPsFIp2yZ4U/QtOBkWSVbVTeHS7EU8CCJFLpnXLsWNsp0yh4BJGeTfREDM+YD1oGQxZALqdTk4f0X2jdKkfKfNCpBP150TKAq2HgWecAcO+nu2Nxf96rQT9k3YqwjhBCPl0kZ9IihEd50i7QgFHOTTAuBLmr5T3mUkCTdp5E4Ize/JfaJRLzlHJrh0WK6dZHDmyS/bIAXHIMamQS1IldcLJPXkmr+TNerBerHfrY2qds7KZHfKrrM8vn2asxA==</latexit>

x px <latexit sha1_base64="05JVWUxSnHvrrLC63cxWAM3W1M4=">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</latexit>

h
2 ~= = 1.05 ⇥ 10 34
Js
~ 2⇡
E t
2
 How do quantum particles move?
• We want to be able to describe the behavior and the motion of quantum particles
• For classical particles, we have classical equations of motion:
dp
<latexit sha1_base64="N4/G4KVxq2t905F9DzQ5m4QdsNc=">AAACHXicbZDLSsNAFIYn9VbrLerSTbAIrkoiRd0IRUFcVrAXaEOZTCft0JkkzJyIJeRF3Pgqblwo4sKN+DZO0wi19cDAz/efw5nzexFnCmz72ygsLa+srhXXSxubW9s75u5eU4WxJLRBQh7KtocV5SygDWDAaTuSFAuP05Y3upr4rXsqFQuDOxhH1BV4EDCfEQwa9cxqF+gDeH5ynV6Iri8xSTIiRdJPf70oTWcopD2zbFfsrKxF4eSijPKq98zPbj8ksaABEI6V6jh2BG6CJTDCaVrqxopGmIzwgHa0DLCgyk2y61LrSJO+5YdSvwCsjM5OJFgoNRae7hQYhmrem8D/vE4M/rmbsCCKgQZkusiPuQWhNYnK6jNJCfCxFphIpv9qkSHWEYEOtKRDcOZPXhTNk4pzWrFvq+XaZR5HER2gQ3SMHHSGaugG1VEDEfSIntErejOejBfj3fiYthaMfGYf/Snj6wfmUaTu</latexit>

F=m
dt
 How do quantum particles move?
• We want to be able to describe the behavior and the motion of quantum particles
• For classical particles, we have classical equations of motion:
dp
<latexit sha1_base64="N4/G4KVxq2t905F9DzQ5m4QdsNc=">AAACHXicbZDLSsNAFIYn9VbrLerSTbAIrkoiRd0IRUFcVrAXaEOZTCft0JkkzJyIJeRF3Pgqblwo4sKN+DZO0wi19cDAz/efw5nzexFnCmz72ygsLa+srhXXSxubW9s75u5eU4WxJLRBQh7KtocV5SygDWDAaTuSFAuP05Y3upr4rXsqFQuDOxhH1BV4EDCfEQwa9cxqF+gDeH5ynV6Iri8xSTIiRdJPf70oTWcopD2zbFfsrKxF4eSijPKq98zPbj8ksaABEI6V6jh2BG6CJTDCaVrqxopGmIzwgHa0DLCgyk2y61LrSJO+5YdSvwCsjM5OJFgoNRae7hQYhmrem8D/vE4M/rmbsCCKgQZkusiPuQWhNYnK6jNJCfCxFphIpv9qkSHWEYEOtKRDcOZPXhTNk4pzWrFvq+XaZR5HER2gQ3SMHHSGaugG1VEDEfSIntErejOejBfj3fiYthaMfGYf/Snj6wfmUaTu</latexit>

F=m
dt

• But: Quantum particles are wave packets

• We need a wave equation to describe them

A wave equation for a particle: Derivation of the time-
independent Schrödinger equation
Solutions to the Schrödinger equation: Eigenstates
✓ ◆
~2
<latexit sha1_base64="sEXOkXC8NVf+i2NC5eqIP0Xap8c=">AAACN3icbVBNa9tAEF05beq6beKkx16WmoJNXSOZ0PQSCC2BnkIC9QdYthmtV/bi1Ursjkoc4X+VS/9Gb82lh5aQa/5B1rYOrt0HA2/fm2FnXpBIYdB1fzmFnSdPd58Vn5devHy1t18+OGybONWMt1gsY90NwHApFG+hQMm7ieYQBZJ3gumXhd/5zrURsfqGs4T3IxgrEQoGaKVh+dyXPMTqB+qHGljmTwLQg+Y8a0ZzX0EgYdCk79vVq/qsfl3ztRhPsOYnRtBcOjmj689hueI23CXoNvFyUiE5Lobln/4oZmnEFTIJxvQ8N8F+BhoFk3xe8lPDE2BTGPOepQoibvrZ8u45fWeVEQ1jbUshXarrExlExsyiwHZGgBOz6S3E/3m9FMNP/UyoJEWu2OqjMJUUY7oIkY6E5gzlzBJgWthdKZuADRBt1CUbgrd58jZpNxvex4Z3eVQ5/ZzHUSRvyFtSJR45JqfkK7kgLcLIDbklf8hf54fz27lz7letBSefeU3+gfPwCJ5mqeU=</latexit>

r2 + V (x, y, z) (x, y, z) = E (x, y, z)

2m
<latexit sha1_base64="PFHaty1VD+/RUVDfMnJoHv/yhJ0=">AAAB7nicbVBNS8NAEJ3Ur1q/qh69LBbBU0lEqseilx4r2A9oQ9lsN+3SzSbsToQS+iO8eFDEq7/Hm//GbZuDtj4YeLw3w8y8IJHCoOt+O4WNza3tneJuaW//4PCofHzSNnGqGW+xWMa6G1DDpVC8hQIl7yaa0yiQvBNM7ud+54lrI2L1iNOE+xEdKREKRtFKnf6YYtaYDcoVt+ouQNaJl5MK5GgOyl/9YczSiCtkkhrT89wE/YxqFEzyWamfGp5QNqEj3rNU0YgbP1ucOyMXVhmSMNa2FJKF+nsio5Ex0yiwnRHFsVn15uJ/Xi/F8NbPhEpS5IotF4WpJBiT+e9kKDRnKKeWUKaFvZWwMdWUoU2oZEPwVl9eJ+2rqlerug/XlfpdHkcRzuAcLsGDG6hDA5rQAgYTeIZXeHMS58V5dz6WrQUnnzmFP3A+fwBo8o+e</latexit>

Ĥ Hamiltonian operator
Solutions to the Schrödinger equation: Eigenstates
✓ ◆
~2
<latexit sha1_base64="sEXOkXC8NVf+i2NC5eqIP0Xap8c=">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</latexit>

r2 + V (x, y, z) (x, y, z) = E (x, y, z)

2m
<latexit sha1_base64="PFHaty1VD+/RUVDfMnJoHv/yhJ0=">AAAB7nicbVBNS8NAEJ3Ur1q/qh69LBbBU0lEqseilx4r2A9oQ9lsN+3SzSbsToQS+iO8eFDEq7/Hm//GbZuDtj4YeLw3w8y8IJHCoOt+O4WNza3tneJuaW//4PCofHzSNnGqGW+xWMa6G1DDpVC8hQIl7yaa0yiQvBNM7ud+54lrI2L1iNOE+xEdKREKRtFKnf6YYtaYDcoVt+ouQNaJl5MK5GgOyl/9YczSiCtkkhrT89wE/YxqFEzyWamfGp5QNqEj3rNU0YgbP1ucOyMXVhmSMNa2FJKF+nsio5Ex0yiwnRHFsVn15uJ/Xi/F8NbPhEpS5IotF4WpJBiT+e9kKDRnKKeWUKaFvZWwMdWUoU2oZEPwVl9eJ+2rqlerug/XlfpdHkcRzuAcLsGDG6hDA5rQAgYTeIZXeHMS58V5dz6WrQUnnzmFP3A+fwBo8o+e</latexit>

Ĥ Hamiltonian operator

Time-independent Schrödinger equation in compact form: <latexit sha1_base64="ojKTdrcPewnm7329xvWzAhQ+/aM=">AAAB+3icbVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vWJduBovgqiQi6kYoitBlBfuAJpTJdNoOnUzCzI1YQn7FjQtF3Poj7vwbJ20WWj1wL4dz7mXunCAWXIPjfFmlldW19Y3yZmVre2d3z96vdnSUKMraNBKR6gVEM8ElawMHwXqxYiQMBOsG05vc7z4wpXkk72EWMz8kY8lHnBIw0sCuehMCaTPzYs2vbvOOB3bNqTtz4L/ELUgNFWgN7E9vGNEkZBKoIFr3XScGPyUKOBUsq3iJZjGhUzJmfUMlCZn20/ntGT42yhCPImVKAp6rPzdSEmo9CwMzGRKY6GUvF//z+gmMLv2UyzgBJunioVEiMEQ4DwIPuWIUxMwQQhU3t2I6IYpQMHFVTAju8pf/ks5p3T2vO3dntcZ1EUcZHaIjdIJcdIEaqIlaqI0oekRP6AW9Wpn1bL1Z74vRklXsHKBfsD6+AacqlC8=</latexit>

Ĥ =E
In general there are multiple solutions:
<latexit sha1_base64="IPRxTmIzr/oJb9zPatvXYdBcetQ=">AAACAXicbZDLSsNAFIZP6q3WW9SN4GawCK5KIqJuhKIIXVawF2hCmEyn7dDJJMxMhBLqxldx40IRt76FO9/GaZuFtv4w8PGfczhz/jDhTGnH+bYKS8srq2vF9dLG5tb2jr2711RxKgltkJjHsh1iRTkTtKGZ5rSdSIqjkNNWOLyZ1FsPVCoWi3s9Sqgf4b5gPUawNlZgH3gDrLPa2EsUC8TVbSBmhAK77FScqdAiuDmUIVc9sL+8bkzSiApNOFaq4zqJ9jMsNSOcjkteqmiCyRD3acegwBFVfja9YIyOjdNFvViaJzSaur8nMhwpNYpC0xlhPVDztYn5X62T6t6lnzGRpJoKMlvUSznSMZrEgbpMUqL5yAAmkpm/IjLAEhNtQiuZENz5kxeheVpxzyvO3Vm5ep3HUYRDOIITcOECqlCDOjSAwCM8wyu8WU/Wi/VufcxaC1Y+sw9/ZH3+AFs/ltI=</latexit>

Ĥ n = En n
Solutions to the Schrödinger equation: Eigenstates
✓ ◆
~2
<latexit sha1_base64="sEXOkXC8NVf+i2NC5eqIP0Xap8c=">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</latexit>

r2 + V (x, y, z) (x, y, z) = E (x, y, z)

2m
<latexit sha1_base64="PFHaty1VD+/RUVDfMnJoHv/yhJ0=">AAAB7nicbVBNS8NAEJ3Ur1q/qh69LBbBU0lEqseilx4r2A9oQ9lsN+3SzSbsToQS+iO8eFDEq7/Hm//GbZuDtj4YeLw3w8y8IJHCoOt+O4WNza3tneJuaW//4PCofHzSNnGqGW+xWMa6G1DDpVC8hQIl7yaa0yiQvBNM7ud+54lrI2L1iNOE+xEdKREKRtFKnf6YYtaYDcoVt+ouQNaJl5MK5GgOyl/9YczSiCtkkhrT89wE/YxqFEzyWamfGp5QNqEj3rNU0YgbP1ucOyMXVhmSMNa2FJKF+nsio5Ex0yiwnRHFsVn15uJ/Xi/F8NbPhEpS5IotF4WpJBiT+e9kKDRnKKeWUKaFvZWwMdWUoU2oZEPwVl9eJ+2rqlerug/XlfpdHkcRzuAcLsGDG6hDA5rQAgYTeIZXeHMS58V5dz6WrQUnnzmFP3A+fwBo8o+e</latexit>

Ĥ Hamiltonian operator

Time-independent Schrödinger equation in compact form: <latexit sha1_base64="ojKTdrcPewnm7329xvWzAhQ+/aM=">AAAB+3icbVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vWJduBovgqiQi6kYoitBlBfuAJpTJdNoOnUzCzI1YQn7FjQtF3Poj7vwbJ20WWj1wL4dz7mXunCAWXIPjfFmlldW19Y3yZmVre2d3z96vdnSUKMraNBKR6gVEM8ElawMHwXqxYiQMBOsG05vc7z4wpXkk72EWMz8kY8lHnBIw0sCuehMCaTPzYs2vbvOOB3bNqTtz4L/ELUgNFWgN7E9vGNEkZBKoIFr3XScGPyUKOBUsq3iJZjGhUzJmfUMlCZn20/ntGT42yhCPImVKAp6rPzdSEmo9CwMzGRKY6GUvF//z+gmMLv2UyzgBJunioVEiMEQ4DwIPuWIUxMwQQhU3t2I6IYpQMHFVTAju8pf/ks5p3T2vO3dntcZ1EUcZHaIjdIJcdIEaqIlaqI0oekRP6AW9Wpn1bL1Z74vRklXsHKBfsD6+AacqlC8=</latexit>

Ĥ =E
In general there are multiple solutions:
<latexit sha1_base64="IPRxTmIzr/oJb9zPatvXYdBcetQ=">AAACAXicbZDLSsNAFIZP6q3WW9SN4GawCK5KIqJuhKIIXVawF2hCmEyn7dDJJMxMhBLqxldx40IRt76FO9/GaZuFtv4w8PGfczhz/jDhTGnH+bYKS8srq2vF9dLG5tb2jr2711RxKgltkJjHsh1iRTkTtKGZ5rSdSIqjkNNWOLyZ1FsPVCoWi3s9Sqgf4b5gPUawNlZgH3gDrLPa2EsUC8TVbSBmhAK77FScqdAiuDmUIVc9sL+8bkzSiApNOFaq4zqJ9jMsNSOcjkteqmiCyRD3acegwBFVfja9YIyOjdNFvViaJzSaur8nMhwpNYpC0xlhPVDztYn5X62T6t6lnzGRpJoKMlvUSznSMZrEgbpMUqL5yAAmkpm/IjLAEhNtQiuZENz5kxeheVpxzyvO3Vm5ep3HUYRDOIITcOECqlCDOjSAwCM8wyu8WU/Wi/VufcxaC1Y+sw9/ZH3+AFs/ltI=</latexit>

Solutions to the TISE are eigenfunctions

Ĥ n = En n (stationary states) of the Hamiltonian
operator with eigenvalues En
 What is the wavefunction?

• In general a complex function (cannot directly correspond to a physical observable)

⇤
| |2 =
<latexit sha1_base64="jMLDoChVuGuiK2AYh70XjagV8xg=">AAAB/HicbVDLSgMxFL3js9bXaJdugkUQF2WmiLoRim5cVrAPaKclk2ba0MyDJCMM0/orblwo4tYPceffmGlnoa0Hkns4515yc9yIM6ks69tYWV1b39gsbBW3d3b39s2Dw6YMY0Fog4Q8FG0XS8pZQBuKKU7bkaDYdzltuePbzG89UiFZGDyoJKKOj4cB8xjBSkt9szTpRpJNetXrrPbOsrtvlq2KNQNaJnZOypCj3je/uoOQxD4NFOFYyo5tRcpJsVCMcDotdmNJI0zGeEg7mgbYp9JJZ8tP0YlWBsgLhT6BQjP190SKfSkT39WdPlYjuehl4n9eJ1belZOyIIoVDcj8IS/mSIUoSwINmKBE8UQTTATTuyIywgITpfMq6hDsxS8vk2a1Yl9UrPvzcu0mj6MAR3AMp2DDJdTgDurQAAIJPMMrvBlPxovxbnzMW1eMfKYEf2B8/gCLl5Sz</latexit>

• But is a probability density!

 What is the wavefunction?

• In general a complex function (cannot directly correspond to a physical observable)

⇤
| |2 =
<latexit sha1_base64="jMLDoChVuGuiK2AYh70XjagV8xg=">AAAB/HicbVDLSgMxFL3js9bXaJdugkUQF2WmiLoRim5cVrAPaKclk2ba0MyDJCMM0/orblwo4tYPceffmGlnoa0Hkns4515yc9yIM6ks69tYWV1b39gsbBW3d3b39s2Dw6YMY0Fog4Q8FG0XS8pZQBuKKU7bkaDYdzltuePbzG89UiFZGDyoJKKOj4cB8xjBSkt9szTpRpJNetXrrPbOsrtvlq2KNQNaJnZOypCj3je/uoOQxD4NFOFYyo5tRcpJsVCMcDotdmNJI0zGeEg7mgbYp9JJZ8tP0YlWBsgLhT6BQjP190SKfSkT39WdPlYjuehl4n9eJ1belZOyIIoVDcj8IS/mSIUoSwINmKBE8UQTTATTuyIywgITpfMq6hDsxS8vk2a1Yl9UrPvzcu0mj6MAR3AMp2DDJdTgDurQAAIJPMMrvBlPxovxbnzMW1eMfKYEf2B8/gCLl5Sz</latexit>

• But is a probability density!

1D example:
Z
<latexit sha1_base64="dmwIAWRk+nzUo464GJuWWyUXTwU=">AAACFHicbVC7TsMwFHV4lvIqMLJEVEgFpCqpEDBWsDAWiT6kPiLHcVqrjhPZN6hVlI9g4VdYGECIlYGNv8FpO0DLkex7dM69su9xI84UWNa3sbS8srq2ntvIb25t7+wW9vYbKowloXUS8lC2XKwoZ4LWgQGnrUhSHLicNt3hTeY3H6hULBT3MI5oN8B9wXxGMGjJKZx1mAAnGTl22tN3Je1EivVOS6OTjGQF6AhkkHjpyCkUrbI1gblI7BkpohlqTuGr44UkDqgAwrFSbduKoJtgCYxwmuY7saIRJkPcp21NBQ6o6iaTpVLzWCue6YdSHwHmRP09keBAqXHg6s4Aw0DNe5n4n9eOwb/qJkxEMVBBpg/5MTchNLOETI9JSoCPNcFEMv1XkwywxAR0jnkdgj2/8iJpVMr2Rdm6Oy9Wr2dx5NAhOkIlZKNLVEW3qIbqiKBH9Ixe0ZvxZLwY78bHtHXJmM0coD8wPn8AVN+fAQ==</latexit>

x2
⇤
Probability of finding the particle between x1 and x2 = (x) (x)dx
x1

• Wavefunction tells us more than just the position probability! Knowing the wavefunction of
the object means we know everything there is to know about the object!
 Properties of the wavefunction

• For the modulus squared of the wavefunction to be a probability density, we need the
wavefunction to be normalized Z 1
<latexit sha1_base64="Db+ofOKBAkm2ufBHaUifYc/4mvo=">AAACHHicbVDLSgMxFM3UV62vqks3wSJUwTKjom6EohuXFewD+iKTZtrQTGZI7kjL0A9x46+4caGIGxeCf2Om7UJbL4RzOOdebu5xQ8E12Pa3lVpYXFpeSa9m1tY3Nrey2zsVHUSKsjINRKBqLtFMcMnKwEGwWqgY8V3Bqm7/JvGrD0xpHsh7GIas6ZOu5B6nBIzUzp42uIR2fGzAg+GoNUHcCDVvHeUHhwlJANgAlB93RoMrp53N2QV7XHieOFOSQ9MqtbOfjU5AI59JoIJoXXfsEJoxUcCpYKNMI9IsJLRPuqxuqCQ+0814fNwIHxilg71AmScBj9XfEzHxtR76run0CfT0rJeI/3n1CLzLZsxlGAGTdLLIiwSGACdJ4Q5XjIIYGkKo4uavmPaIIhRMnhkTgjN78jypnBSc84J9d5YrXk/jSKM9tI/yyEEXqIhuUQmVEUWP6Bm9ojfryXqx3q2PSWvKms7soj9lff0AOHiiDw==</latexit>

⇤
(x) (x)dx = 1
1
• Probability of finding the particle somewhere is 1!
 Properties of the wavefunction

• For the modulus squared of the wavefunction to be a probability density, we need the
wavefunction to be normalized Z 1 <latexit sha1_base64="Db+ofOKBAkm2ufBHaUifYc/4mvo=">AAACHHicbVDLSgMxFM3UV62vqks3wSJUwTKjom6EohuXFewD+iKTZtrQTGZI7kjL0A9x46+4caGIGxeCf2Om7UJbL4RzOOdebu5xQ8E12Pa3lVpYXFpeSa9m1tY3Nrey2zsVHUSKsjINRKBqLtFMcMnKwEGwWqgY8V3Bqm7/JvGrD0xpHsh7GIas6ZOu5B6nBIzUzp42uIR2fGzAg+GoNUHcCDVvHeUHhwlJANgAlB93RoMrp53N2QV7XHieOFOSQ9MqtbOfjU5AI59JoIJoXXfsEJoxUcCpYKNMI9IsJLRPuqxuqCQ+0814fNwIHxilg71AmScBj9XfEzHxtR76run0CfT0rJeI/3n1CLzLZsxlGAGTdLLIiwSGACdJ4Q5XjIIYGkKo4uavmPaIIhRMnhkTgjN78jypnBSc84J9d5YrXk/jSKM9tI/yyEEXqIhuUQmVEUWP6Bm9ojfryXqx3q2PSWvKms7soj9lff0AOHiiDw==</latexit>

⇤
(x) (x)dx = 1
1
• Probability of finding the particle somewhere is 1!

For eigenfunctions of the Hamiltonian (solutions to the Schrödinger

equation):
<latexit sha1_base64="KQ5NONKT7maI+GW/zrtwcwtWx5s=">AAACPHicbVC7SgNBFJ2Nrxhfq5Y2g0EQkbArojZC0MYyonlAJi6zk0kyZvbBzF0xLPkwGz/CzsrGQhFbayePQpMcGDiccy5z7/FjKTQ4zquVmZtfWFzKLudWVtfWN+zNrYqOEsV4mUUyUjWfai5FyMsgQPJarDgNfMmrfvdy4FcfuNIiCm+hF/NGQNuhaAlGwUiefUNECJjEWtwdeGJIPEEOMQH+CCpIm30CNDl3MCG5GdH76aiLPTvvFJwh8DRxxySPxih59gtpRiwJeAhMUq3rrhNDI6UKBJO8nyOJ5jFlXdrmdUNDGnDdSIfH9/GeUZq4FSnzzH5D9e9ESgOte4FvkgGFjp70BuIsr55A66yRijBOgIds9FErkRgiPGgSN4XiDGTPEMqUMLti1qGKMjB950wJ7uTJ06RyVHBPCs71cb54Ma4ji3bQLtpHLjpFRXSFSqiMGHpCb+gDfVrP1rv1ZX2PohlrPLON/sH6+QWZla2+</latexit>

Z
⇤
i i d⌧ = 0
Z
⇤
i j d⌧ = 1

Eigenfunctions of the Hamiltonian operator are orthonormal!

 Properties of the wavefunction

• For the modulus squared of the wavefunction to be a probability density, we need the
wavefunction to be normalized Z 1 <latexit sha1_base64="Db+ofOKBAkm2ufBHaUifYc/4mvo=">AAACHHicbVDLSgMxFM3UV62vqks3wSJUwTKjom6EohuXFewD+iKTZtrQTGZI7kjL0A9x46+4caGIGxeCf2Om7UJbL4RzOOdebu5xQ8E12Pa3lVpYXFpeSa9m1tY3Nrey2zsVHUSKsjINRKBqLtFMcMnKwEGwWqgY8V3Bqm7/JvGrD0xpHsh7GIas6ZOu5B6nBIzUzp42uIR2fGzAg+GoNUHcCDVvHeUHhwlJANgAlB93RoMrp53N2QV7XHieOFOSQ9MqtbOfjU5AI59JoIJoXXfsEJoxUcCpYKNMI9IsJLRPuqxuqCQ+0814fNwIHxilg71AmScBj9XfEzHxtR76run0CfT0rJeI/3n1CLzLZsxlGAGTdLLIiwSGACdJ4Q5XjIIYGkKo4uavmPaIIhRMnhkTgjN78jypnBSc84J9d5YrXk/jSKM9tI/yyEEXqIhuUQmVEUWP6Bm9ojfryXqx3q2PSWvKms7soj9lff0AOHiiDw==</latexit>

⇤
(x) (x)dx = 1
1
• Probability of finding the particle somewhere is 1!

For eigenfunctions of the Hamiltonian (solutions to the Schrödinger

equation):
Z
<latexit sha1_base64="SLVLi9kpUUWas8+U66e+2nA/OiA=">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</latexit>

⇤ Z Compact notation:
i j d⌧ = 0 <latexit sha1_base64="lwyQGOTXBFgJur8yoMQPlvKvWLA=">AAACHnicbZDJSgNBEIZ74h63qEcvjUEQkTAjbhdB9OIxgkmEdBx6eiqmtWehu0YMQ57Ei6/ixYMigid9GzvLwe2Hho+/quiqP0iVNOi6n05hbHxicmp6pjg7N7+wWFparpsk0wJqIlGJvgi4ASVjqKFEBRepBh4FChrBzUm/3rgFbWQSn2M3hVbEr2LZloKjtfzSLpMxUpYaebnpywH412yLMoQ71FEe9hjy7JCFoJD7ubzuUcaKfqnsVtyB6F/wRlAmI1X90jsLE5FFEKNQ3Jim56bYyrlGKRT0iiwzkHJxw6+gaTHmEZhWPjivR9etE9J2ou2zyw7c7xM5j4zpRoHtjDh2zO9a3/yv1sywfdDKZZxmCLEYftTOFMWE9rOiodQgUHUtcKGl3ZWKDtdcoE20H4L3++S/UN+ueHsV92ynfHQ8imOarJI1skE8sk+OyCmpkhoR5J48kmfy4jw4T86r8zZsLTijmRXyQ87HFwS+oms=</latexit>

⇤
Z i j d⌧ = ij
⇤
i i d⌧ = 1
Kronecker delta
Eigenfunctions of the Hamiltonian operator are orthonormal!
 Double-Slit revisitied: Which slit does the electron go
through? Where does the electron land?

Copenhagen (Standard) interpretation:

• Unless measured, electron goes through both
slits simultaneously
• Wavefunction determines likelihood for
electron to land on any specific point on the
screen
• The act of measurement on the screen
collapses the wavefunction, and we record a
specific position.
• Position recorded is fundamentally
random

• Outcome of measurement is non-

deterministic

Picture taken from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-slit_experiment#/media/File:Double-slit.svg

 Alternative interpretation: Many-Worlds

• Proposed by Hugh Everett

• The wavefunction never “collapses”
• Any possible outcome of a measurement
happens in some “timeline”
• We happen to find ourselves in one of those
timelines
• BUT: A lot of timelines give very similar
results. It is more likely that we find ourselves
in one of those worlds.

• Deterministic interpretation

Picture taken from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-slit_experiment#/media/File:Double-slit.svg

 Alternative interpretation: De Broglie-Bohm Pilot Wave
Theory

• Each electron follows a fixed, deterministic

trajectory
• Motion of electron is guided by a pilot wave,
the wavefunction
• Wave defines a set of possible trajectories
and the particle follows one of them.
• Apparent randomness in measurement arises
because we can never know exactly the initial
position and velocity of the particle à Cannot
figure out exactly which path will be chosen.

• Deterministic interpretation

Picture taken from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Broglie–Bohm_theory#/media/File:Doppelspalt.svg

Do we need deeper interpretations of QM? What do we
want from a scientific theory?
Do we need deeper interpretations of QM? What do we
want from a scientific theory?

• Copenhagen interpretation works!

• Copenhagen interpretation is often summarized as ”Shut Up and Calculate”
• Proponents argue: A scientific theory is a model of reality, it does not tell us what reality
is.
Do we need deeper interpretations of QM? What do we
want from a scientific theory?

• Copenhagen interpretation works!

• Copenhagen interpretation is often summarized as ”Shut Up and Calculate”
• Proponents argue: A scientific theory is a model of reality, it does not tell us what reality
is.
• We might be hesitant to give up determinism, but Nature has no obligation to align with
our expectations
Do we need deeper interpretations of QM? What do we
want from a scientific theory?

• Copenhagen interpretation works!

• Copenhagen interpretation is often summarized as ”Shut Up and Calculate”
• Proponents argue: A scientific theory is a model of reality, it does not tell us what reality
is.
• We might be hesitant to give up determinism, but Nature has no obligation to align with
our expectations

• No single testable prediction from other non-standard interpretations that would differ
from the Copenhagen interpretation have been made.
• Alternative interpretations are incomplete
THANK YOU v