1351 Midterm Review

Week 1:
Role of Research in Nursing/History of Knowledge Development + Ways of Knowing
What is Research?
● Research → systematic inquiry about phenomena, knowledge development
● Phenomena → occurrences, circumstances or facts that are perceptible by the senses

Significance of Research to Practice

● Expands the body of scientific knowledge
● Forms the foundation for evidence-informed decision making (EIDM)
● Enables practice to change
● Maintains the profession’s relevance

Nursing Role in Research

1. Consumer of research
2. Investigator
3. Change agent

Knowledge of Nursing
● Shared by members of the discipline
● Judged to be pertinent to the discipline
● Considered to be a valid and accurate understanding of features that constitute the
discipline

Fundamental Patterns of Knowing

● Personal → process of self knowing and understanding that who you are as a person
○ Important to nursing because it assists in building therapeutic relationships and
assists in minimizing biases that interfere with caring for patients
● Ethical → their own moral understanding
○ Important in nursing it focuses on reflection, discussion and debate
● Aesthetic → understanding situations, individual differences & establishing
connections
○ Importance in nursing because it requires an understanding of deep meanings of a
situation
● Empiric → knowledge grounded in theory, science
○ Important in nursing because it requires knowledge about abstracted generalities
● Emancipatory
Emancipatory Knowledge Development
● Critical lens to challenge and address social and political contexts to create change
● Praxias → practice, as distinguished from a theory
○ Integrated expression of emancipatory knowing
○ Critical reflection and action used to achieve emancipatory knowledge
● Important in nursing because it identifies barriers that prevent health and well-being for
all people, determines what is wrong and what sustains injustices and assists in correcting
injustices and discriminations

All ways of nursing allow us to understand ourselves and nursing practice at a much deeper level
and appreciate nursing as both an art and a science.

History of Nursing
● Nurses played a role in caring for the ill since beginning of recorded history
● Influenced by healing traditions within society

Nightingale’s Legacy (19th Century)

● “Founder of Modern Nursing”
● Highlighted need for education and personal characteristics
● Believed nursing was distinct from medicine
● Persistent of nursing ideals by nursing leaders

Knowledge Development
● Need for nursing leadership
● Expand the role and scope of nurses
● Encourages critical thinking

Week 2:
Evidence-Informed Practice + Research Ethics
Terms
● Evidence Based Practice → research around finding information
● Evidence Informed Practice → using knowledge and that research and when to apply
it
● Evidence Informed Decision Making → continuous interactive process of best
available evidence to provide care (how policy/ procedure changes during practice)
● Evidence → information acquired through research and scientific process
● Dissemination → communication of research findings (sharing/ distributing)
● Research utilization → “how I change”
● Evidence informed practice → “how WE change”
Research Study vs. EIP
● Research study → question tested with design
○ Consumer of research → informed of evidence
○ Research investigated → doing the research
● EIP → ask a question but then test what’s available around it (using studies already
done)

Hierarchy of Evidence
● Level I - systematic reviews
● Level II - well designed RCT (randomized controlled trials)
● Level III - controlled trial without randomization (quasi experimental study)
● Level IV - single non-experimental study (case-control/ correlational/ cohort studies)
● Level V - systematic review of descriptive studies and qualitative studies
● Level VI - single descriptive or qualitative study
● Level VII - opinion of authorities and/ or reports of expert committees

Strength of Evidence
● Quality → extent to which study design minimizes bias
● Quantity → number of studies that have evaluated the research question
● Consistency → degree to which studies have similar and different designs yet the same
research question and similar finding

Sources of Research
● Primary Sources
○ Studies → meaning the authors carried out a study
○ Design → qualitative, quantitative or mixed methods
● Secondary Sources
○ Material written by individuals other than the person who conducted the study

Ethics → discipline dealing with the principles of moral values and moral conduct

Nuremberg Code, focuses on human rights, consent must be voluntary and revoked at any time.

Basic Ethical Principles

● Respect for persons (freedom)
● Non-maleficence / Beneficence (state of doing / producing good / minimize effects)
● Justice (fair treatment)
Protection to Human Rights
● Self determination
● Privacy and dignity
● Anonymity and confidentiality
● Fair treatment
● Protection from discomfort and harm

Informed Consent
● It is:
○ Legal principle that requires a researcher to inform individuals about the potential
benefits and risks of a study before the individuals can participate voluntarily
● It is not:
○ A piece of paper or moment in time permission

Research Ethics Boards (REBS)

● Panel that assesses that ethical standards are met:
○ At least five expert members of various backgrounds
○ One non-scientific member and one member from outside the institution
○ Members have mandatory training
○ Responsible for protecting subjects from undue risk and loss of personal rights
and dignity

REB Approval Criteria

● Risks minimized
● Risks balanced by benefits
● Subject selection equitable
● Procedures for obtaining informed consent

Scientific Fraud and Misconduct

● Fraudulent studies
○ Don’t falsify
○ Don’t lie
● Misconduct and unauthorized studies
● Nurses are obligated to report if they witness

Week 2:
Theoretical Framework
Paradigm
● Worldview - sets the ground / framework
 ● Set of beliefs and practices that guide the knowledge development process

Ladder of Abstraction (Abstract → Concrete)

● Worldview → philosophical background
● Framework → provides more structure
● Theories → all concepts combines
● Concepts → help to develop theories
● Variables → pieces of data

Research Paradigms
● Post - Positivist (theories to explain, predict and control certain outcomes)
● Critical Theory (understanding power imbalances)
● Constructivist (dependent on perception and understanding)

Philosophical Terms
● Ontology → the science or study of “being”
● Epistemology → addresses the issue of “truth”

Ontology & Paradigms

● Post - Positivist
○ A material world exists
○ The sense provides us with an imperfect understanding of the external world
○ Quantitative and objective
● Critical Theory
○ Reality is shaped by numerous social, political, economical and cultural forces
○ Imperfectly shaped stories become accepted reality
○ Mix of qualitative and quantitative
● Constructivist
○ Reality is constructed by individual perception
○ No absolute truth and validity
○ Truth is subjective and based on perception
○ Qualitative and subjective

Epistemology & Paradigms

● Post - Positivist
○ Objectivity is the ultimate goal
○ Encourages replication of findings
○ Proves / Disproves theories to explain, predict and control certain outcomes
○ Quantitative / Objective
 ● Critical Theory
○ Historical perspective and understanding of power imbalances
○ Perceptions influence knowledge generation
○ Mix of qualitative and quantitative
○ Knowing you biases and perceptions, and others
● Constructivist
○ Objectivity is not a goal
○ Emphasis on the meaning ascribed to human experience
○ Understand how humans experience the world
○ Qualitative / Subjective; not measurable

Approaches to Science
● Inductive Reasoning → start with specific and move to a general picture
● Deductive Reasoning → start with a general picture and move to specific

Research
● Qualitative Research
○ Lived experience
○ Used to explore personal meaning and context of an experience, culture, human
patterns and processes
● Quantitative Research
○ Numerical / Actual data
○ Test relationships, assess differences and try to explain cause-and-effect
interactions among the variables being studied

Week 3:
Critical Appraisal Strategies: Reading Research
Critical Appraisal Skills
● Critique of Literature
○ What is occurring?
○ Does it make sense?
○ Positive or negative ?
● Organized, systematic approach to evaluating research
● Established critical appraisal skills for determining strength, quality and consistency of
evidence

Types of Research Reports (sharing of knowledge after research)

● Professional conferences (oral reports, posters)
● Journal articles (peer review - shows all the good things)
● Technical reports
 ● Tailored dissemination strategies (distributing data)
○ Depending on topic (specific topic requires specific dissemination)
○ Tailoring it to your population

Journal Articles
● Research Studies (primary studies)
● Reviews (compiles information)
○ Systemic → intervention based, details, outcome/ methodology, (most
specific/reliable)
○ Literature → background knowledge, broad (a book, not as reliable)
○ Integrated → theories, guidelines and qualitative
● Conceptual / theory articles
● Summary articles

Main content of a research article

● IMRaD im rad
○ A → abstract (summary)
○ I → introduction (the why, the purpose, the background)
○ M → method section (how you did it)
○ R → results section (the findings)
○ D → discussion section (tie it all together at the end)

Components of a Typical Research Report

● Title
● Abstract
○ Short comprehensive synopsis / summary at the beginning
● Introduction
○ Includes background information on the topic
● Purpose
○ Purpose/ aim/ objective - transitions paper
● Question or hypothesis
○ What the readers are expecting to see (guide the method)
● Theoretical / conceptual framework (some have them not all) ; Maslow's hierarchy of
needs
● Literature review
○ Authors present the current knowledge on the topic
○ What you found that was available
● Methods
○ Research design, HOW did they carry out the study?
 ○ Quantitative → “if we do ….., then ……. will happen” & NUMBERS
○ Qualitative → NO NUMBERS & lived experiences, perception, attitudes
○ Sampling = population of interest from which the sample was drawn
○ Procedures / data collection = validity & reliability
- Validity: represents true findings and valid, is a credible and dependable
study
- External Validity:concerns the generalizability of the results of a study to
an additional to population
Threats:sample size, Hothern effect; know they are being stidued,
measurement effect:pre and post study
- Internal Validity: degree to which the experimental treatment not in a
controlled setting, independent variable affects dependent, specific to that
study, if the independent variable affected the dependent variable,
instrumentality

Results
○ Data analysis - how researchers came to findings (quan = tests used, qual =
thematic analysis)
○ Findings (quan = tables and statistics, qual = text and direct quotes)
● Discussion
○ Findings are compared to literature on topic
○ Recommendations (going forward), implications (changes) and limitations

Likert Scale → strongly disagree, disagree, neutral, agree, strongly agree

Critical Thinking
● Thinking about thinking
● Rational examination of ideas, assumptions, principals, issues and beliefs
● Consciously thinking about your own thoughts and what you say, write, read or do and
what other people say, write and do

Critical Reading
● Integrating what you and reading into your thoughts and process
● An active process of identifying key concepts, ideas and features of text to interpret and
assess the text accurately
● Process:
○ Preliminary understanding → skim, highlight, review unfamiliar terms
○ Comprehensive understanding → understanding main points and terms
○ Analysis understanding → understand parts and critique soundness
○ Synthesis understanding → put together and make sense
 ● May have to read 3-4 times
● Determine whether it is qualitative or quantitative
● Assess for validity

Assessing Strength
● Quality → extent to which study design minimizes bias
● Quantity → number of studies that have evaluated the research question
● Consistency → degree to which studies have similar and different designs yet the
same research question and similar finding

Week 3:
Introduction to Quantitative
Quantitative Research
● Seeks explanation / causation
● Conclusive finding
● Data can be manipulated numerically
● Goal is prediction, generalizability, causality

Variables
● Variable = an attribute or property that varies and can be measured (age, height, pain)
● Independent variable (x) = influence dependent variable, manipulated by researcher
● Dependent variable (y) = consequence variable / outcome
● Researchers try to figure out why and how changes in one variable lead to changes in
another variable (Is X related to Y? What is the effect of X on Y?)

Testability
● Research questions not always explicitly stated
● Research questions need to be testable/ measurable by quantitative methods
● Explicit testability
○ Measureable
○ Relationship proposed between X and Y
○ Is X related to Y?
○ What is the effect of X on Y?

Theoretical Frameworks in Quantitative Research

● A way to understand the research being studied
● Cause and effect explanation
● Conceptual / concrete
● Can help guide the researcher on questions to be asked (variables) and development of a
study hypothesis
Data Collection Methods
● Surveys
○ Interviews or questionnaires
○ Closed ended questions (one of a fixed number of alternative responses)
○ Answers combined to obtain overall score

Research Question
● Investigator / Researcher → will start with the research question and hypothesis
which will lead to the development to a research study
● Consumer of Research → a clinical question leads you to the study

Characteristics of a Hypothesis
● Relationship statement
○ Dependent / Independent variable
○ Gives direction, nature of relationship
● Testable
○ Must be measurable
○ Hypothesis is either supported or not supported
● Wording
○ Should state the variables, population and predicted outcome
● Theory Based
○ Should flow from the research question, literature review to theoretical
framework

Types of Hypotheses
1. Research (Scientific) Hypothesis
● Statement about the expected relationship of the variables
● Indicates what the outcome is supposed to be
● Directional or non-directional
2. Statiscal (Null) Hypothesis (what you start with; research question)
● Predicts no relationship, there is no difference
● Rejection of hypothesis is acceptance of research hypothesis

Critiquing Hypotheses
● Evaluate for:
○ Clarity of statement
○ Implications for testability
○ Congruence with theory
○ Appropriateness for research design used
Purpose of Research Design
● Purpose of research design is to provide a plan for answering the research question
● Design becomes vehicle for answering questions
● Aids in the solution of research problems and to maintain control
● Control : measures used to ensure study conditions the same to avoid bias on dependent
variable (outcome)
● Considerations affect the accomplishment of the study
○ Objectivity → literature review
○ Accuracy → all aspects of the study systematically and logically flow from
research problem
○ Feasibility → capability
○ Control

Control ; someone/thing is controlling the research

● Research attempts to use a design to maximize the degree of control over tested variables
● Control involves holding specific sampling criteria
● An efficient design can maximize results, decrease errors and control pre existing
conditions that may affect the outcome
● Accomplished by ruling out extraneous variables that compete with the independent
variable (“confounding Variables”)

Meaning of Controlling Extraneous Variables

● An extraneous variable is a variable that interferes with operations of the phenomena
being studied (homogeneous sample, consistency, manipulation, randomization)
Internal and External Validity
● Two important criteria for evaluating credibility and dependability of the results of study
● Internal validity
○ Degree to which the experimental treatment, not an uncontrolled condition,
resulted in the observed effects
○ Asks if it’s the independent variable that caused or resulted in the change in the
dependent variable
● Threats to internal validity
○ History - another event happening at the same time
○ Maturation - development, biological or psychological process that operate within
an individual as function of time (they are external to events of the study)
○ Testing - taking the same test repeatedly
○ Instrumentation - changes in techniques
○ Mortality / Attrition - drop out
○ Selection - pre treatment differences between groups
 ● External validity
○ Concerns the generalizability of an investigations findings to additional
populations or conditions
○ To achieve, variation should lead to the same results
● Threats to external validity
○ Selection effects - sample size
○ Reactive effects - Hawthorne effect
○ Measurement effects - pre / post tests

Research Design Critiquing Criteria

● Study design appropriate
● Control measures match design
● Design reflects feasibility
● Design flows from research questions, framework, literature review and hypothesis
● Control of threats to internal validity
● Control of threats to external validity
● Design linked to levels of evidence hierarchy

Week 4:
Experimental Designs (RCT and Quasi-Experimental)
Sampling
● A process of selecting a portion or subset of the designated population to represent the
entire population
● Based on inclusion and exclusion criteria
● Representative sample is one whose key characteristics closely approximate those of the
population

Sampling Strategies
● Nonprobability (non-random)
○ Conceive, quota, purposive sampling, match, network/snowball effect sampling
● Probability (randomization)
○ Simple random, stratified random, multistage (cluster), systematic

Randomized Control Trial (RCT)

● Experimental design commonly called RCT
● “Gold Standard”
● Provides level 2 evidence

Inferring Causality
1. The causal variable and effect variable must be associated with each other
 2. The cause must precede the effect
3. The relationship must not be explained by another variable

Experimental Study Properties

● Randomization
○ “True” experimental design
○ Random assignment (equal chance) to either experimental or control group
○ Allows for elimination of systemic bias
○ Table of random numbers or computer generated number sequences
● Control
○ Introduction of one or more constants
○ Manipulating the casual or independent variable, randomization, comparison
groups (usual treatment)
● Manipulation
○ Independent variable

Extraneous Variable
● Recall extraneous variables: alternative events that could be explaining the findings
causing threat to ________ validity
● Types of extraneous variable
○ Antecedent → before the study
○ Intervening → condition that occurs during the study but not apart of it

Experimental Design
● True or classic
● Solomon Four Group Design
● After only

Advantages and Disadvantages

● Advantages
○ Most appropriate for testing cause and effect relationships
○ Provides highest level of evidence for single studies
● Disadvantages
○ Not all research questions are amenable to experimental manipulation or
randomization (difficult logistics in field settings)
○ Subject mortality

General Critiquing Criteria

● What design is used? Experimental or quasi-experimental?
 ● Is the problem one of a cause-and-effect relationship?
● Is the method used appropriate for the problem?
● Is the design suited to the study setting?
● What experimental design is used? Is it appropriate?
● How are randomization, control and manipulation applied?
● Are there reasons to believe that alternative explanations exist for the findings?
● Are all threats to validity, including mortality, addressed in the report

Design Features
● Testing interventions, evaluating outcomes, testing cause and effect
● No randomization
● Control may not be possible because of nature of independent variable or participants
● Manipulation of independent variable

Experimental design
● Nonequivalent control design group
● After only nonequivalent control design group
● One group pretest posttest design
● Times series design

Advantages and Disadvantages

● Advantages
○ Practical and more feasible, especially in clinical settings
○ Some generalizability
● Disadvantages
○ Difficult to make clear cause and effect statements
○ No randomization → increased threats to internal validity

Quasi-Experimental Critiquing Criteria

● What quasi-experimental (controlled group that is not randomized ) design is used? Is it
appropriate?
● What are the most common threats to the validity of the findings?
● What are the plausible alternative explanations for the findings? Are they addressed?
● Does the author address threats to validity acceptably?
● Are limitations addressed?

Evaluation Research
● Use of scientific research methods and procedures to evaluate a program, treatment,
practice or policy
 ● Not a different design, researchers may use experimental or quasi-experimental (even non
experimental) designs to evaluate a program
● Purposes
○ Are objectives being fulfilled and how well?
○ Determine reasons for successes and failures
○ Direct courses of experiment with techniques for its effectiveness
○ Base further research
○ Redefine the means to be used for attaining objectives and redefine sub-goals
● Types
○ Formative and summative

Week 5:
Non Experimental Designs
Non-Experimental Designs
● Used in studies to (use other studies)
○ Construct a picture of a phenomenon at one point or over a period of time
○ Explore people, places, events or situations as they naturally occur
○ Test relationships and / or differences among variables
● Independent variables have occurred naturally (cannot directly control them with
manipulation as in experimental designs
● Concepts of control need to be considered
● Important to develop knowledge base on phenomenon of interest
● Useful in forecasting or making predictions
● Important designs when randomization, control and manipulation are not appropriate or
possible
● Useful in testing theoretical models of how variables work together in a group in a
particular situation
● Difficulty explaining cause-and-effect relationships
● No control/ no randomization/ no manipulation

Quantitative Continuum
● Non-experimental → Quasi-experimental → Experimental

Non-experimental research designs types

● Survey studies (broadest category of non-experimental)
○ Descriptive
○ Exploratory
○ Comparative
● Relationship or difference studies
○ Correlational
 ○ Developmental (prospective/ future or retrospective/ past)

Non-Experimental Survey Studies

● Broadest form or non-experimental design
● Further classified into descriptive, exploratory, comparative
● Variables - opinions, attitudes or facts
● Data collected through questionnaires or an interviews
● Purpose
○ Descriptive → to observe, describe and document aspects of a situation as it
occurs naturally
○ Descriptive correlational → describe relationships among variables (rather than
support inferences of causality)

Survey (Descriptive) Research

● Survey (descriptive) research involves acquiring information about one or more groups of
people by asking them questions and tabulating their answers
● Information may be about:
○ Characteristics
○ Opinions
○ Attitudes
○ Previous experiences
● Ultimate goal is to learn about a large population by surveying a sample of that
population (generalizability)
● Simple design

● The researcher:
○ Poses a series of questions to willing participants
○ Summarizes their responses with percentages, frequency counts or statistical
indexes
○ Draws inferences about a particular population from the responses of the sample
○ Validity and reliability

Questionnaire Advantages or Disadvantages

● Advantages
○ Can be sent to large number of people
○ Save travel expenses and postage is cheaper than long-distance phone calls
○ Participants can respond to questions with assurance that their responses won’t
come back to them
○ Participants can be more truthful
● Disadvantages
 ○ Majority of people don’t return them (low response rate)
○ People who do not necessarily representative of the originally selected sample
(selection bias)
○ Participants responses will reflect their reading and writing skills and perhaps
their misinterpretation of one or more questions

Survey Advantages or Disadvantages

● Advantages
○ Large amounts of information obtained economically
○ Accuracy (if sample representative)
● Disadvantages
○ Information obtained is superficial
○ Requires expertise
○ Time consuming/ costly
○ Captures a fleeting moment in time
○ Relies on self - reported data
○ People’s descriptions of their attitudes and opinions are often constructed on the
spot
○ Participants sometimes misrepresent the facts in order to give a favorable
impression

Week 5:
Correlational Design
Correlational Studies
● Examine relationships between variables
● Do variables converge? As one changes does a related change occur in the other one?
● Quantifying the strength of relationships between the variables
● Descriptive versus predictive correlational studies

Correlation Design
● Correlational Study → examines the extent to which differences in one characteristic
or variable are related to differences in one or more other characteristics or variable
● Correlation → when one variable increases, another variable either increases or
decreases in a somewhat predictable fashion
● Researchers gather two or more characteristics for a particular group of people or other
appropriate units of study
● These data are numbers that reflect specific measurements of the characteristics in
question

Caution with Interpreting Correlational Results

 ● When two variables are correlated, researchers sometimes conclude that one of the
variables muts in some way influence the other
● In some instances, such an influence may exist
● Ultimately, we can never infer a cause-and-effect relationship on the basis of correlation
alone
● Correlation doesn't equal causation

Advantages and Disadvantages

● Advantages
○ Flexibility in looking at complex relationships among variables
○ Efficient and effective for collecting large amounts of data
○ Practical application in clinical settings
○ Foundation for future experimental research
○ Framework for exploring relationships between variables that cannot be
manipulated
● Disadvantages
○ Inability to manipulate
○ No randomization (generalizability decreased and increased threats to internal
validity)
○ Inability to determine causal relationships

Critical Thinking Decision Path

● Little known about variables (survey/ descriptive study)
● Test relationships between variables (correlational)
● Compare differences/ relationships between variables (developmental)

Week 6:
Developmental Studies
Developmental Studies
● Changes that occur as a function of time
● Types
○ Cross sectional
○ Cohorts (longitudinal/ prospective/ future or retrospective/ past)

Cross-Sectional studies
● Examine data at one time
● Describing the status of phenomena or relationships among phenomena at a fixed point in
time
● Advantages
○ Less time consuming and costly than longitudinal studies (economical)
 ○ Results more readily available
○ Maturation does not act as a threat to internal validity
● Disadvantages
○ Unable to infer changes over time
○ Participants unable to serve as their own controls

Cohort Studies
● These are the best method for determining the incidence and natural history of a
condition
● The studies may be prospective or retrospective and sometimes two cohorts are compared
○ The use of cohorts is often mandatory as a randomized control trial may be
unethical
● The research on risk factors relies heavily on cohort studies

Prospective Cohort
● Collecting data from the same group at different times
● Explore differences and relationships
● How is it done??
○ A group of people is chosen who do not have the outcome of interest
○ Investigator then measures a variety of variables that might be relevant to the
development of the condition
○ Over a period of time the people in the sample observed to see whether they
develop the outcome of interest
○ Those people who do not develop the outcome of interest are used as internal
controls
○ Biggest study = Framingham’s heart study

Retrospective Cohort
● Dependent variable already been affected by independent variable
● Links current and past events
● Use when manipulation of independent variable (experimental design) can’t be used
● Use of retrospective data (already been recorded)

Advantages and Disadvantages of Cohort Studies

● Advantages
○ The study can demonstrate that these “causes” preceded the outcome, which avoid
the debate of which is cause and which is effect
○ A single study can examine various outcome variables
 ○ Retrospective studies less expensive as the data has already been collected
● Disadvantages
○ Loss to follow up potential bias
○ Retrospective studies subject to recall bias
○ Difficult to control for all other factors (confounding variables) that might differ
between 2 groups

Week 6:
Developing a Research Question and Finding the Literature
PICOT (quantitative)
● Population → people/ clients/ patients
● Intervention → what we are investigating
● Comparison → standard treatment vs alternative treatment
● Outcomes → benefits, harms, cost, exposure
● Time

SPIDER (qualitative)
● S - sample
● P - phenomenon of
● I - interest
● D - design
● E - evaluation
● R - research type

Different Types of Questions

● Intervention / therapy → questions addressing the treatment of an illness or disability
● Etiology → questions addressing the causes or origins of disease
● Diagnosis → questions addressing the process of identifying the nature/ cause of
disease
● Prognosis → questions addressing the prediction of the course of a disease
● Meaning → questions addressing how one experiences a phenomenon

Finding the Literature

● Step 1 → determine the topic and generate key words
● Step 2 → choose databases to search
● Step 3 → conduct your search
● Step 4 → refine search results
 ● Step 5 → select relevant sources
● Step 6 → critically read, summarize and synthesize
● Step 7 → present the findings

Sources of Evidence
● Primary = data-based, “first hand evidence”
● Secondary = review of literature, commentary

Types of Sources
● Journal articles
○ Peer reviewed
○ Judged using a set of criteria
● Books
● Credible websites (review textbook page 101)