QR DESIGNS

Presented by
MA. ELMA LIM-MIRANDILLA
February 2012

Visuals by
Erlinda C. Palaganas, RN, PhD
May 2010
 STUDY DESIGN
DIMENSIONS

Reference

Newell, Robert and Burnard, Philip. Research for

Evidence-Based Practice in Healthcare. 2nd ed., 2011
SAMPLING FRAME/
PLAN FOR QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
• Kind of plan for qualitative research -
formal? structured?
• Process of selecting a sample in a qualitative
study
• Are they subjects? Or participants? Why?
• Are samples based on probability? Is it a random
selection method?
CHARACTERISTICS OF NON-
PROBABILITY SAMPLING
Three primary types:
1. Convenience Sampling – accidental
sample; using the most conveniently
available people as study participants;
usually volunteers; is not the best method
for sampling but is easy and efficient
Snowball/network/chain sampling is a
variant of convenience sampling – early
participants are asked to identify others
who meet the eligibility criteria for the
study
CHARACTERISTICS OF NON-PROBABILITY
SAMPLING

2. Quota Sampling – one in which the

researcher identifies population strata
(subpopulations), and determines how
many participants are needed from each
stratum.
3. Purposive/Judgmental Sampling – based
on belief that researchers can hand pick
sample members (e.g. picking sample of
specific experts).
SAMPLING QUESTIONS
• Who would be an information-rich data
source for my study?
• Whom should I talk to, or what should I
observe first, so as to maximize my
understanding or the
situation/phenomenon?
• Where is a good place to looks for
potential information-rich participants?
EVALUATING QUALITATIVE
SAMPLES
What criteria or rules apply in determining
the sample size in qualitative research?
• Adequacy: sufficiency and quality of data
the sample yields; attained saturation;
result is rich information data to answer
research question
• Appropriateness: concerns the methods
used to select the sample; participants in
sample are best ones to supply information
for the study
VALIDITY & RELIABILITY

“Do the data reflect the truth?”

Trustworthiness of data:
• Credibility
• Dependability
• Confirmability
• Transferability
CREDIBILITY
▪ Confidence in the truth of the data &
interpretations of them
▪ Achieved by:
▪ Prolonged engagement & persistent
observation
▪ Triangulation
▪ Peer debriefing
▪ Member checking
▪ Searching for disconfirming evidence
▪ Researcher credibility
 DEPENDABILITY

▪ The stability of data over time and over

conditions (similar to reliability)
▪ Assessed by:
▪ Step-wise replication (research team
divides into two groups and conducts
independent inquiries to compare data)
▪ Inquiry audit (scrutiny of data by
external reviewer)
CONFIRMABILITY
▪ objectivity or neutrality of the data
▪ Assessed by:
▪ Inquiry audit – researchers establish an
audit trail
▪ Audit trail - combination of field notes,
collected data, instrument development
& testing, reports, etc.
▪ Establish trustworthiness by showing
audit trail
 TRANSFERABILITY
▪ “generalizability” of data, or the
extent to which the findings can be
transferred to other settings or groups
QUALITATIVE VALIDITY CRITERIA
PRIMARY CRITERIA:
❑ Credibility

❑ Authenticity

❑ Criticality

❑ Integrity
QUALITATIVE VALIDITY CRITERIA
SECONDARY CRITERIA:
❑ Explicitness

❑ Vividness

❑ Thoroughness

❑ Congruence

❑ Sensitivity
 QR STUDY DESIGNS

References
Creswell, John. Research Design: Qualitative, Quantiative
and Mixed Methods Approaches. 3rd ed., 2009
Newell, Robert and Burnard, Philip. Research for
Evidence-Based Practice in Healthcare. 2nd ed., 2011
HISTORICAL RESEARCH
▪ all knowledge has a historical dimension;
historiography

▪ “the past is present in every person and in

the cultural and institutional world that
surrounds them” (Tholfsen, 1977, p. 248)
HISTORICAL RESEARCH
▪ explanatory background that establishes the
phenomenon under study

▪ a knowledge of various social, political and

economic factors that affect events, ideas,
people, interests in the subject; and
creativity in approach
 ETHNOGRAPHY
▪ A means of studying groups of individuals
lifeways or patterns including health beliefs
and practices of a culture

▪ Focus on revealing aspects of social patterns

or observed conduct (lived realities)

▪ Interpretive - a search for meaning within

social norms, culturally-patterned behaviour
REASONS FOR USING ETHNOGRAPHY

▪ Develop theories that are grounded in

life experiences, beliefs and practices

▪ Understand complex societies and sub-

groups

▪ Understand human behavior

VARIETIES OF ETHNOGRAPHY
• Traditional vs. contemporary ethnography
• Cognitive and language-based ethnographic
approaches
• Critical ethnography
• Other types (e.g., autoethnography,
institutional ethnography, interpretive
ethnography)
Example of Ethnographic Study
⦿ Asylums by Erving Goffman
◼ Participant-observation
◼ Mental hospital

⦿ Childbirth Experience Among the Aetas

of Pampanga by Alegre (2000)
PARTICIPATORY ACTION
RESEARCH

Three key elements

⦿ people
⦿ power and
⦿ praxis
PR is about people…

▪….female, male, adult, children,

farmers, fisherfolks,urban poor, etc…
▪ process of critical inquiry is
informed by and responds to the
experiences and needs of oppressed
people
PR is about power….
▪ Power is crucial to the construction
of reality, language, meanings and
rituals of truth (Foucault, 1973)
▪ PR promotes empowerment through
the development of common
knowledge and crucial awareness
which are suppressed by the
dominant knowledge system
PR is about praxis….
(Lather, 1986, Maguire, 1987)

▪ It recognizes the inseparability of theory

and practice and critical awareness of
personal-political characteristic
▪ PR is grounded in an explicit political
stance and clearly articulated value-
based principle of social justice
▪ It challenges practices that separate the
researcher from the “researched” and
promotes the forging of a partnership
between the two (Freire, 1970; 1974)
▪ brings isolated people together around
common problems and experiences
▪ valorizes muted voices, devalued
experiences as the foundation for
understanding and critical reflection
▪ arrives at negotiated knowledge and
solutions to problems
▪ provides context to claims
⦿ provide the catalyst for bringing forth
leadership potential in the community.

⦿ Allow the community to get directly involved

as it is recognized by the researcher to have
the critical voice in determining the
direction and goals of change
EXAMPLES OF PAR STUDIES
⦿ Filipino
Mothering Across Social Classes:
Women as Mothers and Paid Workers by Cora
Añonuevo (2008)
◼ Feminist research/ case study

⦿A Participatory Evaluation of the Women in

Development NGO Project by Guerrero & Miralao
(1999)

⦿ Participatory Group Activities to Understanding

Psycho-social Strategies for Coping with Conflict
by Wiik (1997)
PHENOMENOLOGY
• Both a philosophy and a method
• The central focus is the lived experience of
the world of everyday life (often the taken
for granted aspects of life)

• Provides rich descriptions of experience as it

is lived; deeper understandings increase our
sensitivity and make the thoughtful provision
of care possible
PHENOMENOLOGY
• The researcher brackets or sets aside his/her
own experiences in order to understand
those of the participants in the study
• Engage in phenomenological reflection (e.g.,
uncovering thematic aspects in life-world
descriptions)
• Engage in phenomenological writing and
rewriting
 EXAMPLE OF PHENOMENOLOGIC
STUDY
❑ The Lived Body in Dementia (Phinney &
Chesla, 2003)
▪ Being slow – taken for granted activities
become halting and tentative
▪ Being lost – being unable to find one’s way in
an unfamiliar world
– Lost in the world of space
– Lost in the world of equipment
– Lost in the world of activity
❑ Being blank – being in an empty world within
meaningful habits and practices fall by the
wayside
EXAMPLES OF PHENOMENOLOGY
Lindqvist, O., Widmark, A. & Rasmussen, B.H.
(2004). Meanings of the phenomenon of fatigue as
narrated by 4 patients with cancer in palliative
care. Cancer Nursing, 27, 237-243.

Padilla, R. (2003). Cara: A phenomenology of

disability. American Journal of Occupational
Therapy, 57(4): 413-423.

Smith, S.J. (1989). Operating on a child’s heart: A

pedagogical view of hospitalization. Phenomenology
+ Pedagogy, 7, 145-162.
GROUNDED THEORY
• Primary purpose is to explore social
processes to generate explanatory
theories of human behavior
• Data collection, sampling and analysis
all occur simultaneously as the study
progresses and sampling and further
data collection are based on emerging
theory
GROUNDED THEORY
• Characteristics
• Constant comparison of data with
emerging categories
• Theoretical sampling of different
groups to maximize the similarities
and differences of information
CONCEPTS RELEVANT TO GT
Bricolage:
“qualitative researchers put together a
complex array of data, derived from a variety
of sources and using a variety of methods.”
(Polit & Beck, 2004)

Bricoleur:
“a person who is adept at performing a large
number of diverse tasks, ranging from
interviewing to observing, to interpreting
personal and historical documents, to
intensive reflection, and introspection”
(Denzin & Lincoln, 1994)
EXAMPLE OF GROUNDED THEORY
STUDY
⦿ TheSubjective Experience of
Forgetfulness Among Elders by Cronwell
(1994)
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
FINDINGS
⦿Rich contextualized descriptions of
complex phenomena
⦿New perspectives on things about
which much is already known
⦿In-depth information that may be
difficult to convey with quantitative
methods
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH FINDINGS
⦿Initialexplorations to develop
theories, generate hypotheses
⦿Offer explanations for unexpected
findings generated by quantitative
studies
USING QR IN CLINICAL
PRACTICE
•Explaining the findings of quantitative
studies
•Learning more about the health care
problems from the standpoint of the
patient/families
•Monitoring treatment impact (e.g., quality
of life)
USING QR TO SOLVE PROBLEMS IN
HEALTH CARE DELIVERY
•Understanding organizational behavior
•Evaluating organizational processes
•Tracking the impact of organizational
change
•Elaborating leader’s roles and
functions
BUZZ SESSION…
Perceptions about Qualitative Research???