Results in Physics 54 (2023) 107110

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Results in Physics
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rinp

Sensing performance of β-Ga2O3 metal–semiconductor-metal deep

ultraviolet photodetectors with refractory TiW electrodes at
high temperatures
Maolin Zhang a, b, Wanyu Ma a, b, Zeng Liu a, b, Lili Yang a, b, Shan Li a, b, Yufeng Guo a, b, *,
Weihua Tang a, b, *
a
College of Integrated Circuit Science and Engineering, Nanjing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Nanjing 210023, People’s Republic of China
b
National and Local Joint Engineering Laboratory for RF Integration and Micro-Assembly Technologies, Innovation Center for Gallium Oxide Semiconductor (IC-GAO),
Nanjing 210023, People’s Republic of China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Given the critical impact of high-temperature environments on the detection performance and stability of deep
Deep-ultraviolet ultraviolet (DUV) photonic devices, especially in urgent demands from fields including high-temperature in­
Photodetector dustries and flame detection, the research on high-temperature resistant DUV photodetectors (PDs) has become
β-Ga2O3
of utmost importance. Due to its intrinsic high-temperature resistance, β-Ga2O3 holds significant potential in the
TiW
field of DUV photodetection under elevated temperature environments. The conventional electrode material,
High temperature
titanium, typically exhibits poor high-temperature performance, while interfaces are susceptible to degradation
at elevated temperatures. In this study, we fabricated β-Ga2O3 metal–semiconductor-metal (MSM) PDs using the
refractory metal TiW as the electrode, and investigated their DUV detection performance across the temperature
range of 300 to 800 K. Favorable performance was achieved at room temperature, with a photo-to-dark current
ratio (PDCR) of 3.1 × 106, a responsivity (R) of 0.2 A/W, a detectivity (D*) of 8.3 × 1013 Jones, and an external
quantum efficiency (EQE) of 102.3 %. However, an increase in operating temperature led to a continuous rise in
dark current (Idark) and a decrease followed by an increase in photocurrent (Iphoto). In an 800 K operating
environment, the PDCR decreased to 4.4 × 102, R increased to 0.7 A/W, D* dropped to 2.0 × 1012 Jones, and
EQE improved to 343.7 %. Furthermore, the temperature-dependent rise and decay times were investigated, and
a detailed analysis of the relevant recombination and transport mechanisms under high-temperature conditions
was conducted. By achieving high-performance and stable operation of β-Ga2O3 PDs at 800 K, this study provides
prospects for the application of β-Ga2O3 PDs in harsh environments.

Introduction
Ultraviolet (UV) spectrum covers three bands: UV-A, UV-B, and UV-
C. Among them, UV-C holds significant applications in areas such as
national defense, space communication, flame sensing, owing to its
shorter wavelength and minimal atmospheric absorption [1–7]. Despite
attempts to utilize wide bandgap semiconductor materials including
AlGaN and ZnO for UV-C detection [8,9], persistent issues such as
persistent photoconductivity have limited their effectiveness. As such,
the search for more suitable materials remains a challenging task.
Among various options, monoclinic β-Ga2O3 with its bandgap of
approximately 4.9 eV, excellent stability, and high transparency, has
gained considerable attention [10–12]. Leveraging these attributes,
β-Ga2O3 is regarded as a material of significant potential for solar-blind
PDs. Thus, an in-depth exploration of the performance of β-Ga2O3 holds
the potential to contribute to substantial advancements in this field.
One challenge that deep ultraviolet (DUV) photodetectors (PDs) face
is their operational capability in high-temperature environments. Ap­
plications such as flame detection and deep space exploration often
involve high-temperature conditions, [13,14], introducing a new chal­
lenge for the high-temperature stability of β-Ga2O3 PDs. While there
have been numerous studies on the high-temperature performance of

* Corresponding authors at: College of Integrated Circuit Science and Engineering, Nanjing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Nanjing 210023, People’s
Republic of China..
E-mail addresses: yfguo@njupt.edu.cn (Y. Guo), whtang@njupt.edu.cn (W. Tang).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rinp.2023.107110
Received 24 August 2023; Received in revised form 13 October 2023; Accepted 22 October 2023
Available online 30 October 2023
2211-3797/© 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
M. Zhang et al.
PDs based on materials including Si, AlGaN, and InGaN [15–18], there is
limited research regarding the high-temperature operation of β-Ga2O3
PDs. Wei et al. demonstrated that β-Ga2O3 metal–semiconductor-metal
(MSM) PDs with indium zinc oxide (IZO) electrodes achieved a photo-to-
dark current ratio (PDCR) of 1.5 and a responsivity of 0.32 mA/W under
a bias voltage of 10 V at 700 K [19]. Nevertheless, their investigation
primarily focused on the restoration of dark current (Idark) as the device
returned to room temperature, without an examination of the relation­
ship between photo current and temperature variation, or how accept­
able detection performance could be upheld at 700 K. Moreover, certain
studies have identified that the photocurrent (Iphoto) of β-Ga2O3 MSM
PDs initially decreases as the temperature rises, but subsequently in­
creases with further temperature elevation [20,21]. Among these in­
vestigations, Wang et al. reported that β-Ga2O3 MSM PDs with indium
(In) electrodes remained operational at 623 K [21]. However, at 623 K,
these devices exhibited substantial dark conductance, resulting in a
PDCR only marginally greater than 1. As a result, the development of
Ga2O3 solar-blind PDs for high-temperature applications is still in its
preliminary stages, necessitating further exploration into the impact of
elevated temperatures on the recombination and transport mechanisms
of β-Ga2O3 PDs.
TiW, as a high-melting-point metal alloy composed of titanium (Ti)
and tungsten (W), possesses distinctive material properties that bestow
significant advantages in the realm of optoelectronic detection. Firstly,
as a high melting point metal, TiW exhibits exceptional thermal stabil­
ity, which is particularly crucial in high-temperature operating envi­
ronments. Its high electrical conductivity, corrosion resistance, and
oxidation resistance also establish it as a reliable electrode material
[22–25]. Secondly, TiW demonstrates excellent compatibility with
Ga2O3 thin films, contributing to enhanced device performance [26,27].
Most importantly, common metals like Ti, when compared to TiW al­
loys, exhibit disadvantages at higher operating temperatures [28].
Specifically, the Ti/Ga2O3 interface exhibits severe degradation when
exposed to temperatures beyond 500 ℃ [29,30]. Hence, we aim to
leverage TiW’s refractory nature to enhance the high-temperature reli­
ability of PDs.
In this paper, we utilized the metal–organic chemical vapor deposi­
tion (MOCVD) technique to fabricate β-Ga2O3 thin films, and employed
magnetron sputtering to deposit TiW electrodes, creating β-Ga2O3 MSM
PDs. We have previously reported robustness studies of β-Ga2O3 PDs
using Ti/Au electrodes in the temperature range of 300–550 K [31].
Device performance exhibited a consistent decline with increasing
temperature. In this study, we present the performance of β-Ga2O3 PDs
within a temperature range of 300–800 K. In an operating environment
at 800 K, the PDCR measured 4.4 × 102, responsivity (R) reached 0.7 A/
W, detectivity (D*) amounted to 2.0 × 1012 Jones, and external quantum
efficiency (EQE) attained 343.7 %. Based on variations in Idark, Iphoto,
and response time with temperature, we extensively discuss the
recombination and transport mechanisms of charge carriers, offering
prospects for DUV detectors to operate under high-temperature
conditions.
Experiment
Using the MOCVD heteroepitaxy technique, β-Ga2O3 nanofilms were
fabricated on sapphire substrates. During the epitaxial growth, the
temperature was maintained at approximately 750 ◦ C with a pressure of
25 Torr. No further annealing was carried out. Notably, no dopants were
introduced during the thin film deposition process. Therefore, the
resulting film is of high resistivity. Subsequently, the six-finger TiW
electrodes were formed on the surface of the β-Ga2O3 using DC
magnetron sputtering and a chromium (Cr) metal hard mask. The TiW
target employed in this study consisted of 10 % titanium and 90 %
tungsten. During the TiW deposition process, the power was set at 80 W,
argon gas flow at 25 sccm, and the deposition time at 25 min.
Validation of β-Ga2O3 quality was conducted through X-ray
2
Results in Physics 54 (2023) 107110
diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The optical
bandgap of the β-Ga2O3 thin film was determined using ultra­
violet–visible (UV–vis) absorption spectroscopy. To assess the wave­
length selectivity of the β-Ga2O3 thin film, spectral response
measurements were conducted using a monochromator with a xenon arc
lamp, calibrated with silicon photodiodes. A 254 nm ultraviolet lamp
was employed as the DUV light source, and light intensity was adjusted
by varying the distance between the light source and the sample being
tested. To ascertain the detection performance of the β-Ga2O3 PD in
high-temperature environments, I-V and I-t measurements were con­
ducted using a Keythley 2450 source meter and a high-temperature
probe station.
Results and discussion
Fig. 1(a) presents the X-ray diffraction (XRD) pattern of the β-Ga2O3
thin film grown on a sapphire substrate using MOCVD technology. The
XRD pattern indicates the single crystalline nature of the film along the
(2 01), (4 02) and (6 03) directions. Sharp diffraction peaks signify the
excellent crystal quality of the prepared β-Ga2O3 thin film. The SEM
image of the β-Ga2O3 thin film surface, as shown in Fig. 1(b), exhibits
uniformly shaped rod-like grains with well-defined boundaries, indica­
tive of its sound crystalline quality. This high-quality crystal structure
serves as a robust material foundation to effectively mitigate edge
scattering and defect scattering at grain boundaries during device
operation. Fig. 1(c) displays an atomic force microscopy (AFM) image of
the β-Ga2O3 thin film, where the surface average roughness (Ra) mea­
sures 3.09 nm, and the root mean square roughness (Rq) is determined
to be 3.96 nm.
Fig. 2(a) illustrates the absorbance spectrum of the β-Ga2O3 thin film.
Clearly observed is the significant absorbance in the DUV region, while
the absorbance in the visible light region is minimal. For direct bandgap
oxides such as Ga2O3, the optical bandgap (Eg) can be extracted using
the following formula: [32]
( )
(αhv)2 = C hv − Eg (1)
where C is a constant, α is the absorption coefficient, and hv represents
the energy of the incident photons. As indicated in the inset of Fig. 2(a),
Eg is determined to be 4.89 eV.The top-view micrograph of the fabri­
cated β-Ga2O3 PD is depicted in Fig. 2(b). The length of each individual
effective photosensitive region is 5 mm, and the width is 0.2 mm. Fig. 2
(c) displays the SEM image of the cross-section of the β-Ga2O3 PD,
revealing that the thickness of the β-Ga2O3 thin film is approximately
263 nm, while the TiW thickness measures around 144 nm. As depicted
in Fig. 2(d), the photoresponse spectrum of the β-Ga2O3 PD is displayed.
It is evident that the maximum photoresponse occurs at a wavelength of
256 nm, indicating a distinct absorption wavelength, which corresponds
to its bandgap [33].
To investigate the operational performance of the β-Ga2O3 PD in
high-temperature environments, we conducted I-V characteristic mea­
surements under both dark and illuminated conditions at different
temperatures (300–800 K). As depicted in Fig. 3(a), the variation of Idark
with temperature for the β-Ga2O3 PD is presented. It can be observed
that at 300 K, the Idark of the β-Ga2O3 PD reaches a minimum value of
approximately 11 fA. Within the ± 10 V bias range, the Idark does not
exceed 2.5 pA. Notably, the Idark increases consistently with the rise in
temperature. More specifically, within the temperature range of
300–500 K, the increase in Idark is relatively modest. The Idark remains
below 44 pA within the temperature span of 500 K. However, a more
significant increase in Idark is evident within the temperature range of
500–800 K. One contributing factor to the elevated Idark could be ther­
mal excitation, where higher temperatures facilitate more carriers
transitioning into the conduction band, thereby forming Idark. Another
significant factor is the enhancement of the Shockley-Read-Hall (SRH)
generation-recombination mechanism with increasing temperature
M. Zhang et al.
Fig. 1. (a) XRD pattern and (b) surface SEM image of the β-Ga2O3 thin film grown on a sapphire substrate using MOCVD technique. (c) AFM image of the β-Ga2O3
thin film.
Fig. 2. (a) Absorbance spectrum of the β-Ga2O3 thin film; the inset shows a plot of (αhv)2 as a function of photon energy (hv). (b) Top-view micrograph, (c) cross-
sectional SEM and (d) photoresponse spectrum of the fabricated β-Ga2O3 PD.
[34]. In the context of the β-Ga2O3 PD, the interface defects between
TiW and β-Ga2O3, along with crystal defects in β-Ga2O3, form a multi­
tude of recombination centers that significantly influence the SRH
process [35]. Fig. 3(b) illustrates the variation of Iphoto with temperature
for the β-Ga2O3 PD, with a fixed light intensity of 79 µW/cm2 during
measurements. At 300 K and a bias of 10 V, the Iphoto of the β-Ga2O3 PD
measures 1.8 µA. Initially, as the temperature increases, the Iphoto de­
creases until reaching 500 K. However, with further temperature
elevation, the Iphoto gradually increases. At 800 K and a bias of 10 V, the
Iphoto of the β-Ga2O3 PD reaches 6.1 µA.
In addition, I-V curves were also tested under DUV illumination with
five different light intensities of 79, 126, 199, 340, and 551 µW/cm2 at
various temperatures. From these measurements, we extracted the
temperature-dependent functions of Iphoto and Idark at a bias voltage of
3
Results in Physics 54 (2023) 107110
10 V, as illustrated in Fig. 3(c). At each temperature, Iphoto increases with
the rising DUV irradiance, primarily due to the increased photon ab­
sorption by β-Ga2O3, leading to the excitation of a greater number of
carriers. Furthermore, the temperature dependence of both Iphoto and
Idark is evident. Unlike Idark, which monotonically increases with rising
temperature, Iphoto at different temperatures exhibits a trend of initially
decreasing and then increasing. Additionally, the magnitude of this
trend becomes less pronounced and approaches saturation after 700 K.
The decrease in Iphoto within the range of 300–500 K is attributed to a
reduction in mobility and an enhanced SRH recombination. As the
temperature rises, scattering becomes more pronounced, resulting in a
reduction in mobility and a decrease in the efficiency of carrier trans­
port, leading to a higher rate of recombination before reaching the
electrode. Therefore, the number of carriers that can be collected by the
M. Zhang et al. Results in Physics 54 (2023) 107110

Fig. 3. Temperature-dependent I–V characteristics (a) in the dark and (b) under illuminations. (c) Temperature-dependent output dark current and photocurrent at
five different light intensities of 79, 126, 199, 340, and 551 µW/cm2.

electrode is reduced, resulting in the observed decline in Iphoto. As the carrier concentration increases, Iphoto also increases. The
Conversely, the rise in Iphoto between 500 and 800 K could be attributed temperature-dependent behavior of this recombination process will be
to enhanced thermal excitation and a reduction in trap center densities. discussed in more detail later.

Fig. 4. Temperature dependence of (a) photo-to-dark current ratio and (b) responsivity for the β-Ga2O3 PD at five different light intensities of 79, 126, 199, 340, and
551 µW/cm2. Temperature dependence of (c) detectivity and (d) external quantum efficiency.

4
M. Zhang et al. Results in Physics 54 (2023) 107110

Further extraction of PDCR, R, D*, and EQE at a bias voltage of 10 V
was conducted to assess the detection performance of the β-Ga2O3 PD in
high-temperature environments. These parameters can be determined
using Equations (2) to (5): [36–39]
( )/
PDCR = Iphoto − Idark Idark (2)
( )/
R = Iphoto − Idark P • S (3)
R
D* = √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ (4)
2eIdark /S
EQE = Rhc/eλ (5)
where P represents the light intensity, S is the effective illuminated area
(11 mm2 in this work), e is the elementary charge, h is the Planck con­
stant, c is the speed of light, and λ is the wavelength. Fig. 4(a) illustrates
the variation of PDCR with temperature at five different light intensities.
It is evident that PDCR increases with higher light intensity at various
temperatures. At 300 K and a light intensity of 551 µW/cm2, the PDCR is
3.1 × 10⁶. Moreover, it can be observed that increasing temperature
leads to a reduction in the PDCR of the β-Ga2O3 PD, primarily due to the
elevated Idark at high-temperature environments[36]. At 800 K and a
light intensity of 551 µW/cm2, the PDCR is 4.4 × 102, demonstrating
that the β-Ga2O3 PD can still operate effectively.
Fig. 4(b) illustrates the change in R with temperature for five distinct
levels of light intensity. It can be seen that smaller light intensities result
in larger R at various temperatures. This is attributed to the increased
scattering probability of charge carriers under higher light intensities,
coupled with the elevated carrier concentration leading to enhanced
recombination possibilities. Additionally, R exhibits a trend of
decreasing first and then increasing with rising temperature. At 300 K
and a light intensity of 79 µW/cm2, R is 0.2 A/W, which decreases to 0.1
A/W at 500 K. With further temperature increase to 800 K, R rises to 0.7
A/W. Fig. 4(c) and (d) depict the variations of D* and EQE with tem­
perature, respectively. The optimal values of D* and EQE are attained
under the light intensity of 79 µW/cm2. At 300 K, D* and EQE measure
8.3 × 1013 Jones and 102.3 %, respectively. Defect states within β-Ga2O3
and β-Ga2O3/TiW interface recombination states can lead to significant
re-capture and recombination of photogenerated carriers, thereby
impeding their efficient transfer to the electrode. This is likely to result
in a reduced EQE. As temperature increases, D* gradually decreases due
to the elevated Idark, while the trend of EQE is similar to R. At 800 K, D*
and EQE are 2.0 × 1012 Jones and 343.7 %, respectively. We select two
representative metrics, R and PDCR, and compare them with state-of-
the-art Ga2O3 PDs in Table 1[19–21,31,40]. The proposed PD can
operate effectively up to 800 K, which represents the best-reported
result for high-temperature Ga2O3-based ultraviolet detectors.
In addition to the I-V characteristics, the I-t response is also a crucial
metric for assessing the performance of the β-Ga2O3 PD, offering insights
into its dynamic operational photodetection capabilities. Fig. 5(a)-(f)
show the I-t characteristic curves at different temperatures. During dy­
namic testing, bias voltages of 2.5 V, 5 V, and 10 V were applied, and the
deep ultraviolet light source was alternately turned on and off every 6 s.
Testing was conducted at each temperature using light intensities of 79,
126, 199, 340, and 551 µW/cm2. It can be observed that smooth I-t
curves were obtained at all temperatures, indicating the excellent
thermal stability of the β-Ga2O3 PD. Additionally, consistent trends in
the evolution of Iphoto are observed across all temperatures. When sub­
jected to the same intensity of ultraviolet light, higher applied voltages
yield greater Iphoto, regardless of temperature. Similarly, at a fixed
applied voltage, stronger ultraviolet illumination leads to increased
Iphoto. With increasing temperature, the I-t curves exhibit patterns
similar to the aforementioned I-V curves. Prior to 500 K, there is a
decrease in Iphoto. However, as the temperature increases further, the
Iphoto gradually starts to increase and reaches saturation around 800 K.
Additionally, Fig. 6(a)-(f) illustrate individual on/off cycling of
β-Ga2O3 PD at different temperatures, along with corresponding expo­
nential fitting, to assess its detection speed. Time-dependent Iphoto
measurements were performed under ultraviolet light at a wavelength of
254 nm and an intensity of 551 μW/cm2. The fitting of the Iphoto response
curves was carried out using an exponential relaxation equation of the
following form: [41]
I = I0 + Ae− t/τ
(6)
where I0 represents the steady-state Iphoto, A is a constant, t denotes time,
and τ represents the relaxation time constant. τr and τd correspond to the
rise and decay time constants, respectively. It can be observed that at all
temperatures, the response time of the β-Ga2O3 PD can be maintained
below 0.3 s. This indicates that the generation, transport, and collection
processes of carriers in the β-Ga2O3 PD are relatively stable and efficient.
The response speed of the MSM PDs is typically influenced by factors
such as the resistance–capacitance (RC) time constant, carrier transit
time, and carrier lifetime [42]. In the case of this MSM Ga2O3 PD, the
relatively large spacing between the interdigitated electrodes leads to an
extended transit time, resulting in a slower response speed. Further­
more, certain defects within Ga2O3 may increase the carrier lifetime,
which can also contribute to a slower response speed.
Fig. 7 depicts the rise and decay times at various temperatures under
an illumination intensity of 551 μW/cm2. At 300 K, the rise time and
decay time are 0.25 s and 0.18 s, respectively. As the temperature in­
creases to 500 K, the rise time and decay time decrease to 0.09 s and
0.13 s, respectively. With a further increase in temperature to 800 K, the
rise time and decay time subsequently increase to 0.30 s and 0.24 s,
respectively. This phenomenon can be explained through a similar
theory of Iphoto gain mechanism. In the temperature range of 300–500 K,
as the temperature rises, carrier lifetimes decrease and recombination
rates increase. Consequently, a higher number of electron-hole pairs can
recombine within a unit time, resulting in reduced rise time and decay
time. In the temperature range of 500–800 K, the diminishing recom­
bination centers lead to a reduction in available recombination space,
causing an increase in both rise time and decay time.
Due to the incomplete maturity of epitaxial growth of Ga2O3 thin
films, defects such as self-trapped holes (STHs), gallium vacancies, and
oxygen vacancies are introduced, serving as trapping centers [43–45].
These abundant defects lead to the formation of recombination centers
within the bandgap. As the temperature increases, the lifetime of

Table 1
High temperature Ga2O3 PDs in other works.
Type Highest operational Responsivity PDCR at 300 Responsivity at highest operational PDCR at highest operational Ref.
temperature (K) at 300 K (A/W) K temperature (A/W) temperature

MSM 523 0.7 7.1 × 103 0.7 2.3 [20]

MSM 550 4.6 × 10-2 1.1 × 106 7.6 × 10-3 2.3 × 103 [31]
MSM 623 N/A ~1 × 103 N/A ~1 [21]
MSM 623 5 3.3 × 102 36 9 [40]
MSM 700 3.2 × 10-4 14 N/A 1.5 [19]
MSM 800 0.2 3.1 × 106 0.7 4.4 × 102 this
work

5
M. Zhang et al.
Fig. 5. (a)-(f) Transient photoresponse of the photocurrent at different operating temperature environments.
carriers decreases, resulting in a reduction in photocurrent within the
temperature range of 300–500 K. However, it is important to note that
during the process of carrier recombination, the total recombination rate
is affected by both the lifetime and the number of recombination cen­
ters. Beyond 500 K, part of the recombination centers deactivates,
leading to a reduction in available space for recombination. A similar
theory was proposed by Tak and others in previous research [20]. At this
stage, carriers are more likely to be transported to form photocurrent
rather than undergoing recombination, which results in an increase in
photocurrent. Based on the above-mentioned studies, it becomes evident
that the β-Ga2O3 PD can achieve high-performance stable operation in
an 800 K temperature environment. However, its detection performance
undergoes varying degrees of deviation as the temperature increases.
Therefore, further efforts are needed to optimize crystal quality and
fabrication techniques, in order to enhance both the internal and
interface defects within the crystal and ultimately achieve more stable
high-temperature detection capabilities.
Conclusion
In summary, we have presented a β-Ga2O3 MSM DUV PD and
investigated its temperature-dependent photo-detection performance.
6
Results in Physics 54 (2023) 107110
At room temperature, the PDCR is 3.1 × 106, R is 0.2 A/W, D* is 8.3 ×
1013 Jones, and EQE is 102.3 %. However, the elevation of working
temperature leads to a continuous increase in Idark and an initial
decrease followed by an increase in Iphoto. In an 800 K operating envi­
ronment, the PDCR decreases to 4.4 × 102, R increases to 0.7 A/W, D*
decreases to 2.0 × 1012 Jones, and EQE increases to 343.7 %. The
mechanism of carrier generation and recombination processes within
the detector under varying temperatures has been discussed, shedding
light on the intrinsic nature of performance changes under high-
temperature conditions. Overall, the exceptional performance of the
β-Ga2O3 PD in high-temperature environments provides robust support
for the development of future high-temperature stable DUV PDs.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Maolin Zhang: Methodology, Data curation, Writing - original draft
preparation. Wanyu Ma: Investigation. Zeng Liu: Visualization. Lili
Yang: Visualization. Shan Li: Visualization. Yufeng Guo: Conceptual­
ization, Supervision. Weihua Tang: Writing – review & editing.
M. Zhang et al. Results in Physics 54 (2023) 107110

Fig. 6. (a)-(f) Individual on/off cycling of β-Ga2O3 PD at various temperatures, along with corresponding exponential fitting.

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial

interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.

Data availability

Data will be made available on request.

Acknowledgements

This work was supported in part by the National Key Research and
Development Program of China under Grant 2022YFB3605404, in part
by the National Natural Science Foundation of China under Grant
62304113 and Grant 62204125.

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