The Growing and Challenging World of Hockey

Cassidy Whitmore

Department of Kinesiology and Health Studies

KNPE 349: Sports Nutrition

Dr. Chris McGlory

December 3, 2023
Brief History of Ice Hockey:

Ice Hockey for male athletes aged 18-50 is a topic of predominant importance as

we consider both the physiological and psychological needs of this population. The

population being determined encompasses a wide and diverse range of individuals,

spanning from emerging adults to middle-aged athletes, all engaging in the rigorous and

demanding sport of ice hockey. The needs of this population are multifaceted,

encompassing great physical fitness, skill development, injury prevention and mental

resilience. Through understanding and addressing these needs, the individuals will

benefit the most in performance and well-being. Ice hockey training requires high

intensity bouts of exercise, rapid changes in velocity and duration and frequent amounts

of body contact1.

This population faces many challenges in physiological variability inherent in

individuals across this age span. Young adults may be in the early stages of refining

their skills and strengthening their bodies, while middle-aged and older athletes may

struggle with natural declines and plateaus in physical performance. Involving a

spectrum of age groups and fitness capabilities and developing and catering training

programs requires a nuanced understanding of these physiological changes. Another

challenge faced by this population is the risk of injury. The presence of rigid and

stationary obstacles such as goalposts and surrounding boards pose the threat of

musculoskeletal injuries, including but are not limited to sprains, contusions, fractures

and serious visceral and head injuries2.

Regardless of how talented an athlete may be, they bear the responsibility and

capacity to decide what they introduce to their body. Understanding the importance of
nutrition and adapting a specific and tailored training regimen is essential in

understanding how to excel in the sport of ice hockey. Improper food or overtraining

may take away from a players capacity and personal ability to perform at their optimal

level. Analyzing the research and analysis of a variety of nutritional studies, we can

understand the importance of food as a fundamental unit and how specific training can

optimize ones performance.

This paper will examine the critical need for proper nutrition and look at the

benefits of modifying ones training program to suit ones individualistic needs for ice

hockey. The research behind this topic is extensive and stems much further then will be

discussed in this paper. Ice hockey is a physically demanding sport that requires large

amounts of speed, strength, stamina, agility and balance3. With moments of high

intermittent intervals and short bursts of energy in small periods of time the body of an

ice hockey player will use both the anaerobic and aerobic energy system3.

Understanding these systems and adapting strength exercises to combat the struggles

of fatigue can lead to optimal performance in combination with a proper diet. We will

examine the importance of nutrition and focus on the specific nutrients that are required

in the diet of an ice hockey player. While reflecting on analysis, current testing, and

other nutritional practices, we will develop and layout a performance plan for male ice

hockey players aged 18-50. Further, we will investigate supplements and aids that may

help increase an athletes ability to perform or recover. Using primary literature, we will

gain insight into the specific needs of our population and gain a further understanding of

the ever-evolving sport of ice hockey.

Physiological Needs:

The population of males aged 18-50 who compete in the vigorous and

demanding sport of ice hockey require an abundance of physiological needs. With such

a demanding sport it is essential all athletes are providing their body with enough

energy to meet the demands of their athletic lifestyles. Ice hockey utilizes primarily

anaerobic systems with evidential support for aerobic systems in some instances.

Depending on a players position, an on-ice shift usually lasts between 30 to 85

seconds, with around 2 to 5 minute recoveries between shifts5. It is the combination of

these two systems that players can perform at high intensities and recover in such short

periods of time. These high levels of performance and stop-and-start style exercises are

provided by the anaerobic system. However, with only short periods of rest before

returning to the ice, players can also activate the aerobic system. The Aerobic energy

system is significantly challenged by increases in heart rate and focuses on maximizing

the amount of oxygen in your blood. With frequent game interruptions during shifts, the

aerobic energy system provides a greater relative contribution to performance.

Alongside these systems, hockey requires great muscular strength and balance.

Lower body strength corresponds to skating, acceleration, and balance with upper body

strength holding most of the responsibility in bodychecking, puck control and defence7.

As discussed earlier in the paper, injury is a possible risk for this population, however

muscle mass and strength development can be critical in reducing the risk and severity

of the injury. Power and flexibility account for another large portion of the physiological

needs of this population. With rapid changes in direction, powerful strides and strong

body checks, the sport holds great demands. Understanding the dynamics of these
systems and combining this physiology with proper nutrition and training plans can

result in optimal performance. A performance plan and supplemented nutrition plan will

be provided to offer a more thorough and comprehensive explanation.

Nutritional and Supplement Benefits:

Carbohydrates

The high intensity demands of hockey require vital fueling of carbohydrates as

the primary energy source. As the body’s primary source of energy, carbohydrates are

constantly used in the form of glycogen, stored in both the muscle and liver. The

availability of carbohydrates as a substrate for muscle metabolism is a critical factor

when examining the performance of high intensity intermittent work as well as

prolonged aerobic exercise8. At moderate exercise intensities approximately 50% of an

athletes total energy is derived from carbohydrates, with high intensity exercises

predominantly using glycogen and glucose as fuel9.

Dating back to the 1930’s, a study done by Christensen and Hansen clearly

demonstrates the importance of carbohydrates10. The studies primary focus was on the

benefits of supplementing carbohydrates with prolonged exercise and the potential

influence on endurance exercise performance. Christensen and Hansen established a

link between hypoglycemia and fatigue, leading researchers to search for ways to

combat this fatigue and optimize exercise performance11. This current test examines the

benefits of carbohydrates during exercise focusing on the use of the glycaemic index.

This index shows how quickly each food affects an individual’s blood sugar level when

the food is ingested. Through extensive research the results indicate that carbohydrate

ingestion before, during, and after exercise makes positive impacts to substrate
availability and enhancements to work performance. This work was then expanded with

the evolution of technology allowing muscle biopsy’s to be performed to examine

muscle glycogen metabolism and reveal the benefits of using carbohydrates during

prolonged exercise. It is suggested that with the intake of complex carbohydrates in

combination with other nutrients, optimal training nutrition can be achieved. Through

evolution and human response, studies were able to show that increased dietary

carbohydrate intake can improve performance while inadequate carbohydrate intake

impairs performance. Although subsequent research proves the importance of

carbohydrates in exercise, it is evident that individuals possess their own responses.

Individual responses to nutritional strategies can vary and what works for one athlete

may not work for another.

Protein

Another key macronutrient that plays a key role in aiding performance is protein.

Protein supplements are consumed frequently by athletes to improve exercise

performance and aide in recovery following exercise14. As a sport with intermittent

breaks and high intensity bouts of exercise, recovering quickly is of utmost importance.

Protein supplements and a high protein diet are amongst the most popular dietary

supplements used by athletes, citing improvements in muscle mass, exercise recovery

and performance. Studies dating back to the early 90s have shown that consuming a

diet with protein can help reduce carbohydrate oxidation, hasten the recovery of muscle

glycogen, reduce rates of protein degradation and levels of muscle soreness13. During

exercise the bodies need for adenosine triphosphate (ATP) production is increased,

thereby increasing the bodies use of amino acids for fuel. Exercise of such intensity and
strength as demonstrated throughout hockey causes structural damages to the

muscle’s, resulting in the need for protein synthesis to repair the damaged muscles.

Current studies examine the use of ingesting protein and/or amino acids prior to, during

and following exercise to enhance recovery and promote immune function and growth.

When connecting protein to exercise, we can see improvements in both aerobic and

anaerobic exercise performance. Protein contributions range from 5% to 15% of total

energy expenditure and indicate that protein needs for athletes range slightly higher

than that of the general population15. In a study instructed on 5 well-trained athletes,

they consumed two different diets for a period of six days16. The first six days the

athletes consumed the recommended dietary allowance of protein, approximately

0.8g/kg of body weight per day. The other six days the athletes consumed a diet that

was 1.7 times higher in protein, approximately 1.5g/kg of body weight per day. Its worth

noting, these athletes followed their regular training programs. Tests were then taken

using whole-body nitrogen retention measures using urinary and nitrogen sweat loss.

Nitrogen retention remained positive during the high protein diet however was

significantly reduced in the lower trial. The author states that the current protein

requirement is insufficient for athletes and generally recommends they consume a

higher quality protein diet. This study dictates the importance for protein in the diet of an

athlete and the ability to improve recovery following exercise performance.

Although quantity may seem to be of importance, a critique to this study may be

seen when understanding protein quality. Post exercise recovery periods following high-

intensity exercise, are often associated with temporary decrements in physical

performance and muscle soreness. Finding strategies to accelerate recovery is crucial

as described above and have been found to be associated with high protein diets.

However, although protein ingestion is known to amplify muscle protein synthesis and

increase recovery following exercise, not all protein sources contain the same high-

quality sources or all the necessary amino acids17. Athletes may consume protein

however the source and quality of that protein may differ. High-quality protein sources

such as whey protein, derived from dairy products are superior in stimulating muscle

protein synthesis, however low-quality proteins such as soy protein are also an option.

Sources with higher deliveries of essential amino acids are more likely to increase

muscle protein synthesis and yield higher results. Thus, it is important to understand the

quality of a protein source before relying solely on the quantity consumed17.

Performance Plan and Nutritional Strategies

Developing a performance plan encompassing proper training, nutrition, and

possible supplementation is imperative to optimizing the physical performance of

hockey players. Previously discussed in this paper, both carbohydrates and proteins

remain important macronutrients in the performance of hockey players. For optimal

performance a hockey player would be encouraged to consume approximately 200g of

carbohydrate’s in the 4 hours leading up to exercise18. This would promote carbohydrate

availability and increase muscle and liver glycogen stores. During exercise it is

important that athletes sustain carbohydrate intake at a reduced level but continue to

maintain stores. Players would often be encouraged to consume 30-60g/hour,

achieving this by consuming sport and energy drinks for convenience and reductions in

GI discomfort. When it comes to protein the typical hockey player consumes slightly

increased levels of protein then that of sedentary individuals18. On average a player will
be recommended to consume anywhere between 0.6-0.9grams per/ lb. of body weight

of protein prior to exercise performance. Research clearly indicates the efficacy of

protein in muscle protein synthesis, exercise recovery, and overall muscle mass.

However, individuals may differ and different quantities of protein may be consumed,

leading to varying levels of effectiveness. Consuming more than 0.9 grams per pound of

body weight will have no additional benefits towards enhancing athlete performance,

thereby decreasing the efficacy and effectiveness of protein on the athletes body.

Understanding the recommended doses and pairing this with proper timing will allow

athletes to get the most nutrients from their meals. Eating a pre-game meal 3-5 hours

prior to exercise will provide adequate energy levels. It is suggested that a hockey

player adapt a nutrition plan as described above to perform at a high standard.

Training

To match the demands of the sport, emphasis should be placed on the strength

and conditioning of athletes when it comes to training. With short bursts of energy, high

intensity interval training can be advantageous in performance enhancement. Through

studies on hockey players, short-term HIIT has the potential to produce positive effects

both on muscle parameters and power output, which later translated to better on ice

performance18. Improvements in cardiovascular endurance and increased anaerobic

capacity display the true benefits of a tailored training routine. In addition to strength

training, a key facet to perform explosive, short burst movement is flexibility. The use of

flexibility training can aid in injury prevention as well as skill execution as emphasis will

be put on stretching the lower body16. Reduced flexibility can lead to improper skating

mechanics and reduced efficacy of leg musculature. Regular off ice training and
stretching can lead to increased mobility, coordination, strength, and agility on the ice.

All these areas are important for skill development for further progress skills with

coordination from tailored nutrition.

Supplements

With training and proper nutrition an athletes performance can be improved,

however research and studies have shown that the use of ergogenic aids such as

creatine and caffeine may increase performance faster and to higher extents. Creatine

remains one of the most popular supplements, due to its legality, safety, and enhanced

exercise performance effects as it improves the availability of ATP21. Creatines efficacy

is limited to the anaerobic state, in which as discussed is exhibited throughout the sport

of hockey and throughout on ice performance. We see the benefits of creatine

specifically in the shifts skaters have and the bursts of speed. Fatigue in hockey

consists of two components, fatigue in the anaerobic stage due to the inability to

generate ATP, as well as fatigue due to muscle glycogen depletion. Supplementing

creatine will enhance the performance during sprint periods and aid in the short

recovery periods between each shift. The typical athlete would intake a total of 20

grams for five days, followed by 5 grams daily as a maintenance dose. Supplementing

creatine with the recommended carbohydrates above will further increase the total

creatine stores in muscle inevitably increasing total ATP. Theoretically, ice hockey is a

sport that would benefit from creatine supplementation. In addition to creatine, low-dose

caffeine supplementation has shown to enhance ice hockey physicality22. Hockey is a

sport that involves aggression and physical contact, increased physicality from a low

dose of caffeine may be beneficial for ice hockey performance. Altogether, through
examining research it is shown creatine supplementation can show increased

performance where caffeine supplementation is more likely to exhibit increased

physicality and demeanor.

Conclusion

The sport of hockey is an ever growing subject, spiking the interests of

individuals of all ages abilities. Within this paper it is inherent that an athletes

performance can reach great strengths through proper nutritional strategies and

training. Using aspects of both the anaerobic and aerobic system, a hockey players

body must keep up with the pressure and intensity of the sport itself 5. Possessing

moments of high intermittent intervals and short bursts of energy in small periods of

time, an athlete must react quickly using all possible energy whether that be stored or

created. In the population of males 18-50 years old it was noted that carbohydrate and

protein intake are crucial in performing at high levels. Supplementing a proper diet with

the use of ergogenic aids can display peaks in performance. Examining the

physiological needs of this population and understanding primary literature is significant

in maximizing the performance of an ice hockey athlete.

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