Module 8: Nanotechnology • The illustration, titled ―The Scale of Things‖,
was produced by the U, depicting how small as
What is Nanotechnology?
• The study of incredibly small creatures, ranging
in size from 0.1 to 100 nanometers.
• It is also “the design, characterization,
production, and application of materials,
devices, and systems by controlling shape and
size at the nanoscale.
• Direct nanotechnology – responsive
nanoparticle used to transport medications to an
internal target in the human body
• Indirect nanotechnology – device that includes a
nanodevice
• Nanoscale automata – referred to as a
nanodevice or nanomachine.
• Nanomaterials are categorized according to their
dimensions.
• The term “nanoscience” seems unnecessary if it
is used in the sense of “the science underlying
nanotechnology”.
Three Aspects of Nanotechnology
• A universal fabrication procedure;
• A particular way of conceiving, designing, and
modeling materials, devices, and systems,
including their fabrication;
• The creation of novelty.
 Since ancient time, scientists have studies and
worked with nanoparticles, but their capacity to see
the structure of nanoparticles has hindered the
effectiveness of their work. In the recent years, it
was sole through the advent of microscopes.
The Scale of Things
nanometer is by comparing it to several objects
provided by the U.S. Department of Energy.
• The graphic proceeds from things that can be
seen with the unaided eye, like an ant, at the top
of the things that are at least a nanometer in
size, like the ATP molecule that humans utilize
to store energy from meals.
Significance of Nanotechnology
• Nanotechnology is intended to offer a fresh and
improved method for identifying and treating
cancer. Large biological molecules can interact
with nanoscale devices both outside and within
cancer cells.
• Catalysts convert vapors escaping from
automobiles or industrial plants into safe gases
can function more effectively
• It also holds the promise of creating newer,
faster computer types, more effective power
sources, and life-saving medical procedures.
Economic disruption and potential risks to
safety, health, and the environment are some
potential drawbacks.
Nanotechnology and the Environment
• Nanomaterials reaching in land have the
potential to contaminate soil and migrate into
surface and ground waters. Particles in solid
wastes, waste water effluents, and direct
discharges, or accidental spillages can be
transported to aquatic systems by wind or
rainwater runoff.
• To protect the environment, industry is currently
focusing on implementing methods that an
detect pollutants, improve industrial and mining
sites, and treat contaminants, and protect public
health.
• Nanomaterials present an opportunity to
enhance these efforts. As a result, we are being
exposed to nanotechnology more frequently
which can take a toll on our health.
Environmental Effects
• “Gray Goo” scenario – self-replicating nanobots
consume everything in their path in order to
create copies of themselves, was once a hot
topic, but is no longer seen as a real danger.
 • Still, there may be some unfavorable
environmental implications because
nanotechnology has the capacity to produce new
poisons and pollutants.
Advantages of Nanotechnology in:
• Manufacturing – the advent of aerogels
(materials made of extremely light and strong
materials with extraordinary insulating
properties), nanofactories, nanobots
• Energy – increase the affordability of solar
energy by lowering the cost of solar panels
• Electronics and Computing – quantum dots
(small light-producing cells utilized for display
screens or illumination), silicon chips, building of
circuits precisely at the atomic level.
• Medicine – nanobots can be injected into the
arteries of a patient, surgery can become more
efficient and precise, injuries can be corrected,
broken jeans can be repaired, drug manufacture
can be improved
Economic Upheaval (Disadvantage)
• Nanotechnology-driven modifications to the
production process can lead to employment
issues.
• The potential for miniscule recording devices
that are undetectable is increased by
nanotechnology.
• More gravely, nanotechnology might be turned
into a weapon—atomic weapons would be
simpler to make and new weapons may be
produced as well.
• Smart bullet – computerized projectile that
might be directed and aimed very precisely.
Different Types of Nanoparticles
1. Carbon-Based Nanoparticles
• Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs) and
fullerenes are their two major
components.
• CNTs are nothing more than rolled-up
graphene sheets. Due to their 100 times
greater strength than steel, they are
primarily utilized for structural
reinforcement.
• Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes
(SWCNTs) and Multi-Walled Carbon
Nanotubes (MWCNTs) are two types of
CNTS. They are non-conductive across
the tube yet thermally conductive along
its length.
• A carbon allotrope or fullerene has a
hollow cage structure made up of at
least 60 carbon atoms.
• The Buckminsterfullerene structure of C-
60 resembles a hollow football. This
formation contains pentagonal and
hexagonal-shaped carbon units. Due to
its electrical conductivity, structure, high
strength, and electron affinity, it has
commercial applications.
2. Ceramic Nanoparticles
• They consist of inorganic solids
comprised of oxides, carbides,
carbonates, and phosphates.
• High thermal resistance and chemical
inertness characterize these
nanoparticles. As such, they can be used
for imaging, medication administration,
photocatalysis, and dye degradation.
• They also work well as a drug delivery
agent by manipulating certain
properties, such as size, surface area,
porosity, surface to volume ratio, etc.
• They also have been utilized successfully
to deliver medications for a variety of
illnesses including cancer, glaucoma,
and bacterial infections.
3. Metal Nanoparticles
• Metal precursors are used to create
metal nanoparticles through chemical,
electrochemical, and photochemical
processes.
• They have high surface energy and can
absorb tiny particles.
• They are used in bioanalytical and
environmental testing as well as in
detecting and imaging biomolecules. For
instance, the sample is coated with gold
nanoparticles prior to Scanning Electron
Microscope (SEM) analysis. This is one to
improve the electrical stream which
enables us to obtain high quality SEM
photos.
4. Semiconductor Nanoparticles
• They resemble both metals and non-
metals in their characteristics and can be
found in groups II-VI, III-V, and IV-VI of
the periodic table.
• They have broad bandgaps that, when
tuned, exhibit various features.
• They are used in photocatalysis,
electronics, photooptics, and water
splitting.
• GaN, GaP, InP, and InAs from groups III
to V are some examples of
semiconductor nanoparticles, as are
ZnO, ZnS, CdS, CdSe, and CdTe from
groups II and VI and silicon and
germanium from group IV.
5. Polymeric Nanoparticles
• Organic-based polymeric nanoparticles
have a small size. They have
nanocapsular or nanosphere-like
strcutures, depending on the method of
preparation.
• While a nanocapsular particle has a core-
shell shape, a nanosphere has a matrix-
like structure.
• Advantages consist of controlled
release, drug molecule protection, the
possibility to combine therapy with
imaging, precise targeting, etc. They are
used in diagnostics and medicine
delivery.
• Polymeric nanoparticle-based
medication delivery systems are very
biocompatible and biodegradable.
6. Lipid-Based Nanoparticles
• They typicall have a spherical shape with
a diameter between 10 and 100 nm.
They consist of matrix made up of
soluble liphophilic molecules and a solid
lipid core.
• Their exterior core is stabilized by
emulsifiers and surfactants.
• They are used in the biomedical industry
as medication carriers, delivery systems,
and RNA release agents in the treatment
of cancer.
• The field of nanotechnology is far from
being fully developed.
Nanotechnology Tools and Instruments
• The hardware, software, and supplies needed to
measure and manipulate nanoscale structures
• They consist of microscopes, probes, lithography
systems, fabrication and manipulation tools,
software, and other add-ons.
Chemical Sensors
• Nanotechnology can detect very small amounts
of chemical vapors.
• Various types of detecting elements, such as
carbon nanotubes, zinc oxide nanowares, and
palladium nanoparticles can be used in
nanotechnology-based sensors.
Nanotechnology Applications
Medicine
• Customized nanoparticles the size of molecules
are being created by scientists so they may
administer medications to the body’s cells
directly.
• When mastered, this technique should
significantly lessen the harm that
chemotherapy and other treatments do to a
patient’s healthy cells.
Electronics
• Nanotechnology holds some answers for how
we might increase the capabilities of electronic
devices while we reduce their weight and
power consumption.
Food
• Nanotechnology is having an impact on several
aspects of food science, from how food is
grown to how it is packaged.
• Companies are developing nanomaterials that
will make a difference not only to the taste of
food, but also in food safety and the health
benefits that food delivers.
Fuel Cells
• The costs of catalysts used in fuel cells to create
hydrogen ions from fuel, is being reduced
• The effectiveness of the membranes used in
fuel cells to separate hydrogen ions from other
gases, such as oxygen, is being increased.
Solar Cells
• Companies have developed nanotech solar
cells that can be manufactured at significantly
lower cost than conventional solar cells.
Batteries
• Companies are currently developing batteries
using nanomaterials. One such battery will be
good as new after sitting on the shelf for
decades. Another battery can be recharged
significantly faster than conventional batteries.
Space
• It is possible that nanotechnology will be the key
to a feasible space travel. Lightweight spacecraft
and a cable for the space elevator are now
achievable.
Module 9: Genetically Modified Organisms
Genetically Modified Organisms
• Organisms whose genetic makeup or DNA has
undergone a deliberate change (e.g.
microorganisms, insects, plants, fish, and
humans).
• We can alter an organism’s traits by altering its
genome which is its genetic makeup and is
contained within the chromosomes’ nucleic
acids.
• Genome editing is a technique for making
precise alterations to an organism’s or cell’s
DNA. A specific region of DNA Is cut by an
enzyme, and when the cell repairs the damage,
the sequence is altered or “edited”
• With the aid of in vitro genetic engineering
techniques, desired DNA (foreign DNA) is
introduced and incorporated into transgenic
organisms to create GMOs.
• However, the source of donor DNA is not the
GMOs themselves. Thus, a fish that receives and
incorporates as gene from a daffodil is similarly
transgenic as a carp whose genome has had a
sequence from its own DNA inserted into it.
• Auto-transgenic (donor and recipient of the
same species) and allo-transgenic (donor and
recipient of different species) are the two
categories into which transgenics fall.
Advantages of Gene Technology
• In aquaculture – accelerated growth rates,
enhanced disease resistance, and increased
temperature tolerance.
• In biotechnology – DNA from different species
that could not breed on their own is artificially
combined or transformed in a situation where
only the genetic makeup of the creature is
changed.
• In agriculture – genetic alteration is used to
accelerate genetic gain through techniques
including precise gene stocking and expedited
product development.
Uses and Applications of GMOs
 Agriculture
• One of the most common examples of
GMOs are agricultural plants. Scientists,
policy makers, consumers, farmers, and
politicians now all have a keen interest in
the subject of genetically modified
crops. Despite the potential benefit of
these crops, pubic opposition is
drastically altering global import/export
laws, food safety standards, and farming
methods.
• Benefits – increased crop yields, lower
costs for food and drug production, less
need for pesticides, improved nutrient
composition and food quality, pest and
disease resistance, greater food security,
and medical benefits for the world’s
expanding population.
 Aquaculture
• Commercial genetically modified crops
were first made available in the world in
the world in 1996, and since then, crop
production has increased significantly.
Over 70 different varieties of transgenic
agricultural specifies are sown on more
than 60 million hectares of land
worldwide. However, genetic
engineering is not also being used in
studies on genetically modified animals
in aquaculture, primarily fish.
• Benefits – production of fish with
greater disease resistance, increased
temperature tolerance, and faster
growth rates. Fish have been altered to
grow six times more quickly than they
would naturally, endure colder climates,
and carry natural diseases.
 Food industry
• The industrial food business is constantly
expanding its use of food enzymes (FE).
FE are primarily produced by microbial
 fermentation which employs strains that
are both wild-type (WT) and genetically
modified (GM).
• By improving the fermentation
procedure, either by employing
genetically modified microorganism
(GMMO) strains or by creating
recombinant enzymes, the yield of FE
can be enhanced.
 Biomedical research
• GMOs are becoming more crucial in the
search for and creation of novel
therapeutics.
• Over 10,000 diseases are caused by a
single defective gene and most diseases,
from cancer to dementia, are somewhat
influenced by our genetic makeup.
• With the use of GMOs, scientists and
researchers can better understand how
human and animal genes function as
well as the function of genes in particular
diseases.
• The development of new and more
effective techniques for producing
antibodies to cure diseases, generating
and producing medications, and creating
vaccinations all depend on GMO-bases
medical research.
Possible Future Applications of GMOs
• Raising marine fish in fresh water
• Manipulating the length of reproductive cycles
• Increasing the tolerance of aquaculture species
to wider ranges of environmental conditions
• Enhancing nutritional qualities and taste
• Controlling sexual maturation to prevent carcass
deterioration as fish age
• Using transgenic fish as pollution monitors
• Creating fish to that act as pollution monitors
• Enabling fish to use plants as a source of protein
• Using fish to produce pharmaceutical products
• Improving host resistance to a variety of
pathogens such as Infectious Haematopoietic
Necrosis Virus (IHNV), Bacterial Kidney Disease
(BKD), and furunculosis
Impacts of GMOs
1. Environmental impacts
• The aquaculture industry’s main effects
include overfishing, the spread of
disease and parasites, the introduction
and spread of exotic species, chemical
pollution, habitat destruction for the
establishment of the farm or as a result
of farm activities, and the eradication of
predators that feed on the farmed
species.
These impacts are dictated by three main factors:
• Species in production – for culturing
species with higher trophic level
position, the requirement of feed input
will be more, thereby releasing large
quantity of wastes.
• Location of production – the impact on
environment due to farm outputs will be
high in ecologically sensitive locations
such as mangroves, coastal estuaries,
and migration of fish routes.
• System of production – open net pens
are completely open and thus, anything
that happens in the farm can be
transferred to outside of the farm
whereas closed containment systems
contain all inputs and outputs within
itself.
2. Social impacts
• Aquaculture production is also seen to
have significant social effects and there
are many conflicts in the globe today.
Traditional livelihood, community
displacement, and exploitive labor
practices are among the main conflicts.
The main cause of social effects is the
export-driven manufacturing of
commodities like shrimp where
businesses aim to maximize profits by
taking advantage of underdeveloped
nations with lax rules.
3. Human health risks
• Whether GMOs are safe for human
consumption is one of the main worries
held by the public According to a number
of reports, eating a genetically modified
fish is just as safe as eating fish raised
traditionally. There may be issues,
 however, a) if the DNA is derived from an
allergenic protein, or b) if there are
transgenic results in the expression of an
inactive toxin gene. A regulatory
evaluation process of the inserted gene
on a case-bycase basis might be able to
lessen these risks. The introduction of a
transgene into the host DNA may have
toxic effects. A dormant toxin gene may
be potentially produced in a fish species
that is normally safe is a transgenic were
to be inserted.
4. Economic impacts
• The introduction of crop biotechnology
over the previous 17 years has produced
significant economic gains. In all nations,
the GM IR characteristics have primarily
increased earnings through improved
yields. Reduced production costs have
also benefitted many farmers,
particularly industrialized nations.
• The financial impact of technology on
farms varies significantly between and
within areas, nations, and/or continents.
For some trait, crop, and country
combinations, this technique may still
overestimate or underestimate the
impact of GM technology.
Ethical Issues of GMOs
The present dystopian situation differs from such an
idyllic landscape due to:
• Large and often implicit uncertainties that allow
based decisions, often against a sustainable
coastal future
• Corrupted analyses linked to limited ethics and
diverging interests that lead to aggravated
conflicts
• Unmotivated stakeholder cooperation due to
social inertia or contradictory expert opinions
• Reactive compromises because of personal
interests or perceived threats which result in
inefficient adaptation
• Lack of decision-making due to overwhelming
uncertainties and pervasive pessimism that
result in inactiveness.
The scientific world should support this transformation
by:
• Bounding and making explicit the inherent
uncertainties with larger data sets and improved
knowledge
• Increasing social and economic confidence on
observational and numerical results based on
cross disciplinary analysis impelled by balanced
ethics
• Proactive decisions linked to available forecasts
and projection products that apply and share
such anticipated information
• Cooperative commitment based on stakeholder
optimism and trust on the co-designed
inventions and criteria
The relationship between information and
decision/power should be bounded by:
• Shared ethical values
• Explicit uncertainties and error intervals
• Clear distinction between true and false
discourses
 The following sections present the application of
an ethical approach to determine uncertainty
levels and apply formulations to define a
knowledge-based discourse. The blending of
social and ecological sciences should be based on
knowledge-based ethics for inter-disciplinary
coastal zones.
 Building on the ability of coastal systems to heal
themselves naturally and adopting jump-start
measures to promote recovery would make
coastal adaptation pathways under climate
change more sustainable. To turn degraded
coastal regions into high-quality habitats, these
interventions should target the source of the
issue.
 The development of coastal protected areas is a
classic example. These areas offer mid to long-
term advantages which are difficult to
commercialize but necessary to build healthy
and resilient coasts.
Processes of Genetic Modification
Production of GMOs is a multistage process which an
be summarized as follows:
1. Gene of interest is identified
2. Gene is isolated
3. The gene in amplified to produce many copies
4. The gene is then associated with an appropriate
promoter and poly A sequence and inserted into
plasmids
5. The plasmid is multiplied in bacteria and the
cloned construct for injection is recovered
6. The construct is transferred into the recipient
tissue, usually fertilized eggs
7. Gene is integrated into recipient genome
8. Gene is expressed in recipient genome;
inheritance of gene through further generations
Reasons for Genetic Manipulation in Aquaculture
• Enhancing growth and/or efficiency of food
conversion
• Enhancing muscle characteristics for commercial
purposes
• Controlling reproductive activity and/or sexual
phenotype
• Increasing resistance of species to disease
causing microorganisms
• Increasing tolerance to/of environmental
variables such as temperature
• Modifying behavior (e.g. aggression)
• Controlling fertility and/or viability
Examples of Currently Used GMOs
1. Herbicide tolerance - An example is soybean.
Glyphosate herbicide tolerance conferred by
expression of a gyphosate-tolerant form of the
plant enzyme 5- enolpyruvylshikimate-3-
phosphate synthase (EPSPS) isolated from the
soil bacterium agrobacterium tumefaciens.
2. Insect resistance - An example is Bt corn.
Resistance to insect pests, specifically the
European corn borer through expression of the
insecticidal protein Cry1Ab from bacillus
thuringiensis.
3. Altered fatty acid composition. High laurate
levels achieved by inserting the gene for ACP
thioesterase from the California bay tree
Umbellularia californica.
4. Virus resistance. Resistance to plum pox virus
conferred by insertion of a coat protein (CP) gene
from the virus.
5. Fortification. Beta-carotene, a precursorof
Vitamin A, is introduced through biosynthesis in
the endosperm of the golden rice. This is a
practical way to provide poor farmers
subsistence crop capable of adding much needed
Vitamin A to avoid high risk of infection,
diseases, and blindness.
6. Vaccines. Hepatitis B virus surface antigen
(HBsAg) produced in transgenic tobacco includes
immune response when injected into mice.
7. Faster maturation. A type 1 growth hormone
gene injected into fertilized fish eggs results in
6.2% retention of the vector at one year of age
as well as significantly increased growth rates.
8. Flower production. Several traits of ornamental
plants have already been modified including
flower color, fragrance, flower shape, plant
architecture, flowering time, post-harvest life,
and resistance for both biotic and abiotic
stresses. The most common techniques are
Agrobacterium-mediated transformation and
particle bombardment.
9. Paper production. Scientists identified an
enzyme in other plants that contain more
digestible lignin monomers. The resulting trees
showed no difference in growth and strength but
their lignin showed improved digestibility.
10. Bioremediation. Biomolecular engineering
develops GMOs for the degradation of persistent
organic pollutants (POPs) like polyaromatic
hydrocarbons (PAHs), polychlorinated biphenyls
(PCBs), and pesticides. Recently, several
developments in the field of recombinant DNA
technologies have been carried out to achieve
safe and efficient bioremediation of
contaminated sites.
Risks and Controversies Surrounding the Use of GMOs
1. Unintended impacts on other species. The
controversy surrounding Bt corn is one instance
of the public discussion about the usage of
genetically engineered plants. A bacillus
thuringiensis protein is expressed in Bt corn. The
protein was successfully utilized as an eco-
friendly insecticide for many years before to the
creation of the recombinant corn. It had long
 been known to be harmful to a number of
pestiferous insects including the monarch
caterpillar. The advantage of corn plants
producing this protein is that farmers will need
to use less insecticide on their crops.
Regrettably, seeds harboring recombinant
protein genes may unintentionally disseminate
recombinant genes or expose non-target species
to fresh environmental toxins.
2. Unintended economic consequences. By
obtaining trade secret projection, plant
breeder’s rights, and patents for inventions,
biotech corporations aim to safeguard their
technologies and goods. Given the high expense
of creating and testing plants, GMO seeds may
be pricey, which makes transgenic plants out of
reach to farmers.
3. Ecological imbalance. Introduction of the GMOs
in the natural environment may cause disruption
of the natural communities through competition
and interference.
4. Mutation in organisms. Genetic modification
promotes mutation in organisms which the long-
term effect is still unknown.
5. Production of new pathogen. Genetic
recombination, mutations, and other causes all
contribute to this variation. A certain group can
grown more prevalent, reproduce more
frequently, and emerge as a novel pathogen
variety that can harm its hosts in specific
biological or environmental circumstances.
6. Potential human risk. Some people are
concerned that because transgenic crops are
neither naturally occurring or grown organically,
there is potential for GMO to become a pest and
a threat if it escapes into the environment. Toxin
and allergen production may negatively affect a
person’s health. The balance of the
microorganisms already present in the human
digestive tract may also be affected.
7. Bioterrorism. Many countries and regions have
established high-tech facilities for vaccine or
single-cell protein production that could be hubs
for the reproduction of biological weapons. One
example is the USSR’s “invisible anthrax”,
resulting from the introduction of an alien gene
into bacillus anthracis that altered its
immunological properties
Biosafety on GMOs
 On September 11, 2003, the Cartagena Protocol
on Biosafety (CPB) had been adopted by 167
parties to recognize the need for biosafety in GE
research and development activities. The
protocol entered into force, and its main
objectives are:
• To set up the procedures for safe trans-
boundary movement of living modified
organisms
• Harmonize principles and methodology for
risk assessment and establish a mechanism
for information-sharing through the
Biosafety Clearing House (BCH)
 Research involving GE and GMOs requires prior
clearance from the nation’s relevant regulatory
bodies. It is necessary to abide by the suggested
recommendations for reducing biosafety
concerns. The Institutional Biosafety Committee
(IBSC) or its equivalent entity is the main
regulating body at the level of research
institutes. According to the safety level of
experiments to be performed, the IBSC ensures
the availability of the fundamental biosafety
equipment needed. For conducting GE tests on
the animal species and the proposed trait
modification, prior authorization from the local
Animal Ethics Committee or Animal Welfare
Committee is also required when working with
GM animals.
 Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short
Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR)/associated
protein 9 (Cas9) (CRISPR/Cas9) is the most recent
and popular modern biotechnology method for
genome editing. The CRISPR/Cas9 technology is
more targeted, precise, and efficient than the
conventional tools for making changes to the
genomes of different organisms. If applied in a
safe and sustainable manner, CRISPR/Cas9 can
introduce innovations essential to advance food
production, human health, and animal welfare.