Unit-4 Notes 19ee3dcepg

DAYANANDA SAGAR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING , BENGALURU
(An Autonomous Institution affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi)

NAAC Accredited with A Grade ISO 9001: 2008 Certified
UNIT-4
ENERGY STORAGE:
Necessity of energy storage, Energy storage methods: mechanical energy storage, Chemical energy
storage
Economic aspects of power generation:
Demand factor, Load curve, load duration, integrated load duration curves, diversity capacity and plant
use factors numerical problems.
Tariff Methods:
Characteristics of tariff methods – Flat rates, block rate, two part, three part and power factor tariff methods and
numerical problems
ENERGY STORAGE:
Necessity of energy storage, Energy storage methods: mechanical energy storage,
Chemical energy storage
ENERGY STORAGE
Necessity of energy storage, Energy storage methods: mechanical energy storage, Chemical energy
storage
Necessity of energy storage
1. The effective utilization of intermittent and variable energy sources such as sunlight,
Wind, etc. often requires energy storage.
2. In some circumstances, electrical energy may be generated either on land or at sea, at a location that
is too distant from a consumption center for conventional transmission lines to be used, for example,
Ocean thermal energy conversion. Means must then be found for both storing the energy and
transporting it economically to a load center.
3. Electrically propelled vehicles, which are expected to come into increasing use, also require some
form of energy storage .Since the vehicle must carry its energy supply,
the storage system must be readily transportable.
4. Energy storage is also required for load levelling in an electric utility to reduce the overall cost of
generating electrical power. More efficient plants may be operated continuously at a rated power
level, and the excess power during off-peak period is stored for use when the demand exceeds the
base load .Thus, the use of less efficient units to meet the additional demand for power during peak
load periods is eliminated.
TANUJA H,ASST.PROF.,EEE,DSCE
ENERGY STORAGE METHODS:
Energy can be stored in various forms and the storage methods are classified on the basis of the form
in which it is stored. Some of the important energy storage methods are the following:
1. Mechanical energy storage
(a)Pumped storage
(b)Compressed air storage
(c)Flywheel storage
2. Chemical energy storage
(a)Batteries storage
(b)Hydrogen storage
(c)Reversible chemical reactions storage
3. Electromagnetic energy storage
4. Electrostatic energy storage
5. Thermal (heat) energy storage
(a)Sensible heat storage
(b)Latent heat storage
6. Biological storage
Mechanical Energy Storage Systems

I. Pumped Storage
II. Compressed Air Storage
III. Flywheel Storage
Pumped Storage
Pumped-storage hydropower (PSH) is a type of hydroelectric energy storage. It is a configuration of two

water reservoirs at different elevations that can generate power (discharge) as water moves down through a
turbine; this draws power as it pumps water (recharge) to the upper reservoir.
PSH capabilities can be characterized as open loop—where there is an ongoing hydrologic connection to a
natural body of water—or closed loop, where the reservoirs are not connected to an outside body of water.
Pumped-storage currently accounts for 95% of all utility-scale energy storage in the United States.
The U.S. Department of Energy's (DOE's) Water Power Technologies Office (WPTO) invests in
innovative pumped-storage technologies and research to understand and value the potential benefits of
existing and prospective advanced pumped-storage facilities. WPTO is currently developing a research
portfolio to evaluate and expand hydropower and pumped-storage’s contribution to grid resiliency and
reliability.
Pumped-storage hydroelectricity (PSH), or pumped hydroelectric energy storage (PHES), is a type

of hydroelectric energy storage used by electric power systems for load balancing. The method stores
energy in the form of gravitational potential energy of water, pumped from a lower elevation reservoir to a
higher elevation. Low-cost surplus off-peak electric power is typically used to run the pumps. During
periods of high electrical demand, the stored water is released through turbines to produce electric power.
Although the losses of the pumping process make the plant a net consumer of energy overall, the system
increases revenue by selling more electricity during periods of peak demand, when electricity prices are
highest. If the upper lake collects significant rainfall or is fed by a river then the plant may be a net energy
producer in the manner of a traditional hydroelectric plant.
Pumped-storage hydroelectricity allows energy from intermittent sources (such as solar, wind) and other
renewables, or excess electricity from continuous base-load sources (such as coal or nuclear) to be saved
for periods of higher demand. The reservoirs used with pumped storage are quite small when compared to
conventional hydroelectric dams of similar power capacity, and generating periods are often less than half
a day.
Pumped storage is by far the largest-capacity form of grid energy storage available, and, as of 2020,
the United States Department of Energy Global Energy Storage Database reports that PSH accounts for
around 95% of all active tracked storage installations worldwide, with a total installed throughput capacity
of over 181 GW, of which about 29 GW are in the United States, and a total installed storage capacity of
over 1.6 TWh, of which about 250 GWh are in the United States. The round-trip energy efficiency of PSH
varies between 70%–80%, with some sources claiming up to 87%. The main disadvantage of PSH is the
specialist nature of the site required, needing both geographical height and water availability. Suitable sites
are therefore likely to be in hilly or mountainous regions, and potentially in areas of outstanding natural
beauty, and therefore there are also social and ecological issues to overcome. Many recently proposed
projects, at least in the U.S., avoid highly sensitive or scenic areas, and some propose to take advantage of
"brownfield" locations such as disused mines.
Compressed Air Storage
In this system, excess electrical energy is used to compress air, which is stored in a reservoir to be used
later in the combustor of a gas turbine to generate electric power. In a gas turbine, roughly 60% of the
power output is consumed in compressing air for combustion of gas. Compressed air can also be used to
produce mechanical output through an air turbine.
Electric power in excess of immediate demand is supplied to the motor/generator unit which drives the
compressor. The compressed air,at about 70atm , is stored in a suitable reservoir.The air is heated during
compression and may have to be cooled prior to storage to prevent damage to the reservoir walls. When
additional power is needed to meet the demand, the compressed air is released and heated in a combustor
using gas or oil fuel. The hot compressed air is then expanded in a gas turbine connected to the
motor/generator unit which now acts as generator. The schematic diagram is as shown in the figure. The
overall recovery efficiency is 65 to 70%. A clutch is used for coupling and decoupling the motor/generator
unit with a compressor/turbine.
Compressed air storage reservoir would probably be too large and too expensive for above-the-surface
construction; hence underground, reservoir preferably the naturally existing ones, are being considered.
Among the possibilities are caverns, deep aquifers, depleted gas or oil reservoirs, mined -out rocks or salt
caverns, and abandoned mines. A commercial installation is in operation near Bremen, Germany.
Flywheel Storage
Flywheel energy storage (FES) works by accelerating a rotor (flywheel) to a very high speed and
maintaining the energy in the system as rotational energy. When energy is extracted from the system, the
flywheel's rotational speed is reduced as a consequence of the principle of conservation of energy; adding
energy to the system correspondingly results in an increase in the speed of the flywheel.
Most FES systems use electricity to accelerate and decelerate the flywheel, but devices that directly
use mechanical energy are being developed.
Advanced FES systems have rotors made of high strength carbon-fiber composites, suspended
by magnetic bearings, and spinning at speeds from 20,000 to over 50,000 rpm in a vacuum
enclosure. Such flywheels can come up to speed in a matter of minutes – reaching their energy capacity
much more quickly than some other forms of storage.
Main components
The main components of a typical flywheel

A typical system consists of a flywheel supported by rolling-element bearing connected to a motor–
generator. The flywheel and sometimes motor–generator may be enclosed in a vacuum chamber to reduce
friction and reduce energy loss.
First-generation flywheel energy-storage systems use a large steel flywheel rotating on mechanical
bearings. Newer systems use carbon-fiber composite rotors that have a higher tensile strength than steel
and can store much more energy for the same mass.
To reduce friction, magnetic bearings are sometimes used instead of mechanical bearings.
Physical characteristics
General
Compared with other ways to store electricity, FES systems have long lifetimes (lasting decades with little
or no maintenance; full-cycle lifetimes quoted for flywheels range from in excess of 105, up to 107, cycles
of use),high specific energy (100–130 W·h/kg, or 360–500 kJ/kg), and large maximum power output.
The energy efficiency (ratio of energy out per energy in) of flywheels, also known as round-trip
efficiency, can be as high as 90%. Typical capacities range from 3 kWh to 133 kWh.Rapid charging of a
system occurs in less than 15 minutes.The high specific energies often cited with flywheels can be a little
misleading as commercial systems built have much lower specific energy, for example 11 W·h/kg, or 40
kJ/kg.
Material properties
For energy storage, materials with high strength and low density are desirable. For this reason, composite
materials are frequently used in advanced flywheels. The strength-to-density ratio of a material can be
expressed in Wh/kg (or Nm/kg); values greater than 400 Wh/kg can be achieved by certain composite
materials.
Rotor materials
Several modern flywheel rotors are made from composite materials. Examples include the carbon-fibre
composite flywheel from Beacon Power Corporation and the PowerThru flywheel from Phillips Service
Industries. Alternatively, Calnetix utilizes aerospace-grade high-performance steel in their flywheel
construction.
For these rotors, the relationship between material properties, geometry and energy density can be
expressed by using a weighted-average approach.
Tensile strength and failure modes

One of the primary limits to flywheel design is the tensile strength of the rotor. Generally speaking, the
stronger the disc, the faster it may be spun, and the more energy the system can store.
When the tensile strength of a composite flywheel's outer binding cover is exceeded, the binding cover
will fracture, and the wheel will shatter as the outer wheel compression is lost around the entire
circumference, releasing all of its stored energy at once; this is commonly referred to as "flywheel
explosion" since wheel fragments can reach kinetic energy comparable to that of a bullet. Composite
materials that are wound and glued in layers tend to disintegrate quickly, first into small-diameter
filaments that entangle and slow each other, and then into red-hot powder; a cast metal flywheel throws off
large chunks of high-speed shrapnel.
For a cast metal flywheel, the failure limit is the binding strength of the grain boundaries of
the polycrystalline moulded metal. Aluminium in particular suffers from fatigue and can develop micro
fractures from repeated low-energy stretching. Angular forces may cause portions of a metal flywheel to
bend outward and begin dragging on the outer containment vessel, or to separate completely and bounce
randomly around the interior. The rest of the flywheel is now severely unbalanced, which may lead to
rapid bearing failure from vibration, and sudden shock fracturing of large segments of the flywheel.
Traditional flywheel systems require strong containment vessels as a safety precaution, which increases
the total mass of the device. The energy release from failure can be dampened with a gelatinous or
encapsulated liquid inner housing lining, which will boil and absorb the energy of destruction. Still, many
customers of large-scale flywheel energy-storage systems prefer to have them embedded in the ground to
halt any material that might escape the containment vessel.
Energy storage efficiency

Flywheel energy storage systems using mechanical bearings can lose 20% to 50% of their energy in two
hours. Much of the friction responsible for this energy loss results from the flywheel changing orientation
due to the rotation of the earth (an effect similar to that shown by a Foucault pendulum). This change in
orientation is resisted by the gyroscopic forces exerted by the flywheel's angular momentum, thus exerting
a force against the mechanical bearings. This force increases friction. This can be avoided by aligning the
flywheel's axis of rotation parallel to that of the earth's axis of rotation
Conversely, flywheels with magnetic bearings and high vacuum can maintain 97% mechanical efficiency,
and 85% round trip efficiency.
Effects of angular momentum in vehicles

When used in vehicles, flywheels also act as gyroscopes, since their angular momentum is typically of a
similar order of magnitude as the forces acting on the moving vehicle. This property may be detrimental to
the vehicle's handling characteristics while turning or driving on rough ground; driving onto the side of a
sloped embankment may cause wheels to partially lift off the ground as the flywheel opposes sideways
tilting forces. On the other hand, this property could be utilized to keep the car balanced so as to keep it
from rolling over during sharp turns.
When a flywheel is used entirely for its effects on the attitude of a vehicle, rather than for energy storage,
it is called a reaction wheel or a control moment gyroscope.
The resistance of angular tilting can be almost completely removed by mounting the flywheel within an
appropriately applied set of gimbals, allowing the flywheel to retain its original orientation without
affecting the vehicle (see Properties of a gyroscope). This doesn't avoid the complication of gimbal lock,
and so a compromise between the number of gimbals and the angular freedom is needed.
The centre axle of the flywheel acts as a single gimbal, and if aligned vertically, allows for the 360 degrees
of yaw in a horizontal plane. However, for instance driving up-hill requires a second pitch gimbal, and
driving on the side of a sloped embankment requires a third roll gimbal.
Full-motion gimbals
Although the flywheel itself may be of a flat ring shape, a free-movement gimbal mounting inside a
vehicle requires a spherical volume for the flywheel to freely rotate within. Left to its own, a spinning
flywheel in a vehicle would slowly process following the Earth's rotation, and process further yet in
vehicles that travel long distances over the Earth's curved spherical surface.
A full-motion gimbal has additional problems of how to communicate power into and out of the flywheel,
since the flywheel could potentially flip completely over once a day, processing as the Earth rotates. Full
free rotation would require slip rings around each gimbal axis for power conductors, further adding to the
design complexity
Limited-motion gimbals
To reduce space usage, the gimbal system may be of a limited-movement design, using shock absorbers to
cushion sudden rapid motions within a certain number of degrees of out-of-plane angular rotation, and
then gradually forcing the flywheel to adopt the vehicle's current orientation. This reduces the gimbal
movement space around a ring-shaped flywheel from a full sphere, to a short thickened cylinder,
encompassing for example ± 30 degrees of pitch and ± 30 degrees of roll in all directions around the
flywheel.
Counterbalancing of angular momentum
An alternative solution to the problem is to have two joined flywheels spinning synchronously in opposite
directions. They would have a total angular momentum of zero and no gyroscopic effect. A problem with
this solution is that when the difference between the momentums of each flywheel is anything other than
zero the housing of the two flywheels would exhibit torque. Both wheels must be maintained at the same
speed to keep the angular velocity at zero. Strictly speaking, the two flywheels would exert a
huge torqueing moment at the central point, trying to bend the axle. However, if the axle were sufficiently
strong, no gyroscopic forces would have a net effect on the sealed container, so no torque would be
noticed.
To further balance the forces and spread out strain, a single large flywheel can be balanced by two half-
size flywheels on each side, or the flywheels can be reduced in size to be a series of alternating layers
spinning in opposite directions. However this increases housing and bearing complexity.
A TYPICAL FLYWHEEL
2. Chemical energy storage

Energy is released whenever chemical substances undergo reaction.
Ex: Fuel cell: Energy stored is in the form of potential energy of chemicals. This energy is released when
the chemicals undergo reaction resulting in the conversion of electrical energy.
Classification of Chemical energy storage:

(a)Batteries storage
(b)Hydrogen storage
(a) Battery Energy Storage

Storage battery receives electrical energy and stores it in the form of electrical energy by reversible
electrochemical reaction. When an electrical load is connected, stored chemical energy is released in the
form of DC electrical energy. Charging and discharging are both in the form of electrical energy whereas
the stored energy is in chemical form. Energy recovery efficiency is typically 75%. It depends on type of
battery and rate of discharge.
Practically used: lead acid battery
A battery consists of combination of individual cells. A cell consists of electrodes and an electrolyte. As in
the fig. H2SO4 forms an electrolyte and Pb and PbO2 are electrode plates. Chemical reaction begins with an
ionization of H2SO4 as H+ and HSO4- ions.
The reaction at the negative electrode:
Lead gets converted into lead sulphate. Electrons travel through an external circuit to the positive
electrode.
The reaction at positive electrode:
PbSO4 replaces PbO2. Electrical current is carried by H+ and HSO4- ions through the sulphuric acid. This
process is during discharge. The reactions are reversed during charging operation and original materials
are regenerated at the plates.

• Oxygen is replaced by SO4 and water is released as a byproduct. This dilutes the acid.
• Capacity of the generated emf depends on the concentration of sulphuric acid.
• With reduced concentration of acid, emf also reduces.
• When emf reaches maximum value and also the concentration of a chemical is restored, we say the
battery is full charged.
• I.e interms of specific gravity its 1.08 at 25deg and emf = 1.7V of a cell.
• Storage capacity of the battery is increased by exposing the surface area of active material to the
electrolyte.
• With specific gravity of 1.26 to 1.28 at 25deg Cel, emf of the fully charged cell is close to 2.1V.
Applications of Lead-acid batteries
• Mobile phones
• Automobiles (in automobiles, batteries are kept fully charged by keeping the generator coupled to
the engine.)
• For emergency conditions as portable power systems.
• Vehicle propulsion
• Battery operated systems
• To store solar and wind energy
Advantages
• Easily adaptable to any type of storage
• Number of units can be varied based on the requirement
• Rapid reversal of operation is possible between charging and discharging.
• Provide storage facilities near the load centers.
Limitations
• Battery life is limited

• The reason for this is, during every discharge, PbSO4 falls at the bottom of the cell causing
irreversible loss.
• The process might be slow but still reduces life of the battery.
• Ordinary batteries can not be allowed to discharge more than 50% of the stored capacity. Such a
discharge is known as deep discharge.
• If it is allowed to discharge completely, the battery ceases to charge.
• Weight of the battery is more
• Cost increases as the storage also increases
• During transient load, causes voltage fluctuation because of high impedance of the battery.
(b)Hydrogen storage
Energy can be both stored and transported as hydrogen, which serves as a secondary fuel. The input
energy, usually electrical, serves to decompose water by electrochemical (electrolysis) reaction into its
constituent elements-hydrogen and oxygen. These substances can then be combined to release the stored
energy as required. Instead of using the oxygen produced from water, oxygen from the air is commonly
employed. The pure oxygen from water can then be sold for industrial application. In case of thermal
energy input, it is possible to decompose water by heat (thermolysis) as a result of a series of chemical
reactions. The heat from a solar concentrator may be cheaper than electricity.
The chemical energy in hydrogen (and oxygen) can be converted into thermal, mechanical, or electrical
energy. One possibility is to burn hydrogen in air, in a manner similar to natural gas, to produce thermal
energy for use in home or industry. Hydrogen can also serve as fuel, in place of gasoline in in automobile,
to obtain mechanical energy. Hydrogen-fired steam turbines may also be used to obtain mechanical
energy. Electrical energy can then be generated from mechanical energy thus obtained by using a
generator. Electrical energy may also be obtained more efficiently (at about 55 to 60% conversion
efficiency) directly from hydrogen by means of a fuel cell.
Hydrogen can be stored in three ways:

Gas Form: Hydrogen in large quantities can be stored in underground caverns such as those from which
natural gas has been extracted. But storage of hydrogen gas, even if compressed, is bulky. It occupies more
volume than natural gas.
Liquid Form: Hydrogen can be liquefied for storage. But since its boiling point is 20K, these stores are
difficult to maintain due to refrigerator requirements.
Metal-hydride Form: Hydrogen can be stored as reversible metal hydrides in large volumes. When
required, hydrogen is released by heating the hydride. One such example is given below:
This reaction is reversible and the hydride store can be replenished with hydrogen. A portable hydride
store can be used for distribution of energy like a conventional mobile fuel tank. The store can be
replenished with Hydrogen at a central filling station. The main difficulty is the weight and cost of the
metals used.
Thermal energy can be stored in chemical bonds by means of reversible thermochemical reactions.
A reversible chemical reaction is one that proceeds simultaneously in both directions. In this class of
energy storage, a type of reversible reaction
AB+ H A+B
Takes place that occurs predominantly in one (forward) direction at higher temperature with absorption of
heat, and predominantly in the opposite (reverse) direction at a lower temperature with emission of heat.
The temperature above which the equilibrium shifts to the forward direction and below which it shifts to
the reverse direction is known as the turning temperature. Such types of chemical reactions can be used for
energy storage. The products of the forward reaction (endothermic decomposition), which store thermal
energy (heat) as chemical energy, can be stored separately for a long duration at ambient temperature. The
thermal energy may be recovered when the products are brought together and the conditions are changed
to permit the reverse reaction (exothermic recombination) to occur.
Reversible thermochemical reactions of the type

A+B+ H C+D
May also be used for the same purpose. Some of the possible reactions suitable for thermochemical energy
storage are given in Table below:
To be suitable for heat storage, the reaction system should involve the materials that are inexpensive and
not too difficult to handle. Also, the forward and reversible reactions should occur at reasonable
temperatures. One or more catalyst may be needed to speed up the desired reaction, especially at lower
temperature.
Some of the advantages of reversible chemical reactions storage systems are:

1. High energy density (much higher than sensible or latent heat storage)
2. Storage at ambient temperature
3. Low storage-related investment cost
4. Suitable for both long-duration thermal storage and for long-distance thermal energy transport at
ambient temperature.
The main disadvantage is that the technology is still immature.

These methods are suitable for solar thermal power generation.
Economic aspects of power generation:

Demand factor, Load curve, load duration, integrated load duration curves, diversity capacity and plant
use factors numerical problems.
ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF POWER GENERATION
A power station is required to deliver power to a large number of consumers

to meet their requirements. While de-signing and building a power station, efforts
should be made to achieve overall economy so that the per unit cost of production is as low
as possible. This will enable the electric supply company to sell electrical energy at a
profit and ensure reliable service. The problem of determining the cost of production of
electrical energy is highly complex and poses a challenge to power engineers. There are
several factors which influence the production cost such as cost of land and equipment,
depreciation of equipment, interest on capital investment etc. Therefore, a careful study
has to be made to calculate the cost of production. In this chapter, we shall focus our
attention on the various aspects of economics of power generation.
Economics of Power generation:
The art of determining the per unit (i.e., one kWh) cost of production of electrical
energy is known as Economics of power generation. The economics of power generation

has assumed a great importance in this fast developing power plant engineering. A
consumer will use electric power only if it is supplied at reasonable rate. Therefore, power
engineers have to find convenient methods to produce electric power as cheap as possible
so that consumers are tempted to use electrical methods. Before passing on to the subject
further, it is desirable that the readers get themselves acquainted with the following terms
much used in the economics of power generation.
1. Interest: The cost of use of money is known as Interest. A power station is
constructed by investing a huge capital. This money is generally borrowed from banks or
other financial institutions and the supply company has to pay the annual interest on this
amount. Even if company has spent out of its reserve funds, the interest must be still
allowed for, since this amount could have earned interest if deposited in a bank. Therefore,
while calculating the cost of production of electrical energy, the interest payable on the
capital investment must be included. The rate of interest depends upon market position and
other factors, and may vary from 4%to 8% per annum.
2. Depreciation: The decrease in the value of the power plant equipment and
building due to constant use is known as Depreciation. If the power station equipment
were to last forever, then interest on the capital investment would have been the only
charge to be made. However, in actual practice, every power station has a useful life
ranging from fifty to sixty years. From the time the power station is installed, its
equipment steadily deteriorates due to wear and tear so that there is a gradual reduction in
the value of the plant. This reduction in the value of plant every year is known as annual
depreciation. Due to depreciation, the plant has to be replaced by the new one after its useful
life. Therefore, suitable amount must be set aside every year so that by the time the plant
retires, the collected amount by way of depreciation equals the cost of replacement. It
becomes obvious that while determining the cost of production, annual depreciation
charges must be included.
Cost of Electrical Energy:
The total cost of electrical energy generated can be divided into three parts, namely:
1. Fixed cost.
2. Semi-fixed cost.
3. Running or operating cost.
1. Fixed cost:
It is the cost which is independent of maximum demand and units generated. The
fixed cost is due to the annual cost of central organization, interest on capital cost of land and
salaries of high officials. The annual expenditure on the central organization and salaries
of high officials is fixed since it has to be met whether the plant has high or low maximum
demand or it generates less or more units. Further, the capital investment on the land is
fixed and hence the amount of interest is also fixed.
2. Semi- fixed cost:
It is the cost which depends upon maximum demand but is independent of units
generated.
The semi-fixed cost is directly proportional to the maximum demand on power station and
is on account of annual interest and depreciation on capital investment of building and
equipment, taxes, salaries of management and clerical staff. The maximum demand on the
power station determines its size and cost of installation. The greater the maximum
demand on a power station, the greater is its size and cost of installation. Further, the taxes
and clerical staff depend upon the size of the plant and hence upon maximum demand.
3. R unning cost:
It is the cost which depends only upon the number of units generated. The running
cost is on account of annual cost of fuel, lubricating oil, maintenance, repairs and salaries of
operating staff. Since these charges depend upon the energy output, the running cost is
directly proportional to the number of units generated by the station. In other words, if the
power station generates more units, it will have higher running cost and vice-versa.
Commonly used terms:
The load can be categorized in terms of domestic, agricultural, industrial and commercial loads.
Present day power station invariably feed power to grid and consumer draw power from the grid.
The estimate of power and increase in generation capacity depend on maximum demand, distribution
and variation of demand and energy requirement.
Following factors are normally used in electricity system planning, operation and management.
1. Connected load: Each device at consumer terminal has its rated capacity. The connected load is
the sum of the continuous rating of the entire load consuming apparatus and outlets connected to
the system.
2. Maximum demand: The maximum demand of a consumer means the maximum power that the
circuit is likely to draw at any time. In other words, the maximum demand of an installation or
system is the greatest of all demands that have occurred during the specified period of time,
which may be daily, monthly, or yearly. If all apparatus and outlets are used simultaneously
to full extent, the maximum demand will be equal to the connected load. But consumers
do not use all the devices and Outlets at full load simultaneously and therefore the maximum
demand is always less than the connected load.
3. Demand factor: The demand factor is the ratio of maximum demand to the connected
load. Mathematically, it can be written as,
Demand factor = Maximum demand / Connected load
Demand factor, generally lies between 0.5 and 0.8
4. Diversity factor : The maximum demand of all consumers of group does not occur simultaneously
When considering the rated capacity of any equipment, it is seldom necessary to choose rating
equal to the sum of maximum loads. A term commonly used in this connection is diversity
factor [DF] being defined as
Diversity factor = Sum of individual maximum demand / Maximum demand of whole
In other words, it is the ratio of the sum of the maximum demand of all subdivisions or groups
or consumers to the maximum demand of the whole subdivisions or groups or consumers. It is
also known as group diversity factory factor and is always greater than unity. This factor gives
idea about the demand at distribution transformers.
Diversity will exist in the time of maximum demand of transformer on the feeders and also as
regards the feeders to the substation and substations to the generating. The diversity factor
between transformers, between feeders and between substations can be combined into a single
term commonly referred to as peak diversity factor and is defined
Peak Diversity factor = Maximum demand of a consumer group / Demand of consumer group
at the time of system peak demand
It gives an indication of the effective demand of consumer group at the time of system peak.
Peak diversity factor will be multiplication of DF between transformer, DF between feeders and
DF between substations. High diversity factor is always beneficial for economic operation of the
system, which can be achieved by,
*Giving incentives to users to use power in light load period
*Using day-light saving
*Staggering office time
*Using two parts tariffs both for maximum demand and energy consumption.
5. Coincidence factor: It is the ratio of the maximum coincident of total demand of a group
of consumers to the sum of the maximum power demands of individual consumers
comprising the group both taken at the same point of supply for the same time. Thus, it is
reciprocal of diversity factor.
Coincidence factor = Maximum demand / sum of individual maximum demand
6. Load diversity: It is the difference between the sum of the peaks of two or more individual
loads and the peak of the combined load. Mathematically, it is defined as,
Load diversity = Sum of all individual loads – Peak of the combined load
7. Contribution factor: It is the contribution of a particular load, in per unit of the individual
maximum demand, to the group maximum demand. If Ci is the contribution factor of ith
load in a group of n-loads and Di is its maximum demand. Therefore,
Group maximum (Dg) = ∑ Ci * Di (n = i to n)
And Coincidence factor = ∑ Ci * Di (n = i to n) / ∑ Di (n = i to n)
If the maximum demands of the loads are the same, the coincidence factor will be equal to
the average of contribution factor and if contribution factors of each load are the same,
the coincidence factor will be equal to the contribution factor itself.
8. Loss factor : The ratio of the average power loss to the peak load power loss during a specified
period of time is known as Loss Factor. Mathematically,
Loss factor = Average power loss / Power loss at peak load
This is applicable for only copper losses of the system and not for iron losses.
9. Load factor: Load factor of a plant or system is the ratio of the average load to the peak
Load for a certain period of time. If period considered is a day, the load factor is the daily
Load factor and for month, it is monthly load factor and so on. Therefore,
Load factor = Average demand / Maximum demand

= Energy generated in a given period of time / Maximum demand * Hours of operation in

the given period
Load factor is always less than unity. However, diversity factor is greater or equal to unity.
For better performance, the load factor should be as high as possible. The effect of diversity factor
is to reduce the simultaneous maximum demand on the station for same individual demands,
the effect of diversity factor is to reduce the capital cost for the station and consequently a
lower overall rate of generation of electricity. Load factor depicts the variation of load during
certain period but does not give any indication of the shape of the load curve.
10. Plant capacity factor: The plant capacity factor (also known as plant factor) is the ratio of the
average annual load to the power plant capacity (also called installed capacity) during given
period. Therefore,
Plant capacity factor = Average annual load / Plant rated capacity

= Energy produced in a year / Plant rated capacity * 8760
The maximum value of plant capacity factor can be unity when the plant is operating at its rated
capacity throughout the year. Plant capacity is also defined in terms of monthly plant load
factor. It is also known as plant load factor (PLF).
The capacity factor indicates the extent of use of the generating station. It is different form
load factor because of reason that the rated capacity of each plant is always greater than
expected maximum load due to some reserve capacity.
Thus,
Capacity factor = Maximum Load * Load factor / Plant capacity
11. Plant use factor: It is the ratio of actual energy produced to the multiplication of plant capacity
and time of the plant operation.
Plant use factor = Actual energy produced / Plant capacity * Plant operation time in hours
The two important observation can be made saying that ideal condition for cheap electric
supply exists when,
(a) The installed capacity and hence the corresponding capital cost of the generating plant
is kept low (this can be obtained by good diversity factor)
(b) The daily output of each generator unit is large (which means good load factor for the station).
The reduction in costs with good load factor is due to the factor that overall working cast / unit
Become low, the fixed charges have been distributed over more units generated.
12. Utilization factor: It is defined as the ratio of maximum demand to the rated capacity of plant.
Utilization factor = Maximum load / Rated capacity
Utilization factors of efficient generators are kept high. The value of utilization factor can be more
than unity due to overloading of the plant. It is evident that
Plant capacity factor = Load factor * Utilization factor
Note: Reserves
(a) Spinning reserve is that generating capacity which is connected to the bus and ready to take
load.
(b) Cold reserve is that reserve generating capacity which is available for service but not in
operation.
(c) Hot reserve is that reserve generating capacity which is in operation but not in service.
(d) Firm power is power intended to be always available (even under emergency condition).
(e) Reserve margin is the difference between rated capacities minus actual loading on the
generator.
13. USEFUL CURVES
Load Curves:The curve showing the variation of load on the power station with respect to (w.r.t)
time is known as a load curve.
The load on a power station is never constant; it varies from time to time. These
load variations during the whole day (i.e., 24 hours) are recorded half-hourly or hourly and
are plotted against time on the graph. The curve thus obtained is known as daily load curve
as it shows the variations of load w.r.t. time during the day. Fig. 1 shows a typical daily
load curve of a power station. It is clear that load on the power station is varying, being
maximum at 6 P.M. in this case. It may be seen that load curve indicates at a glance the
general character of the load that is being imposed on the plant. Such a clear representation
cannot be obtained from tabulated figures. The monthly load curve can be obtained from
the daily load curves of that month. For this purpose, average values of power over a
month at different times of the day are calculated and then plotted on the graph. The
monthly load curve is generally used to fix the rates of energy. The yearly load curve is
obtained by considering the monthly load curves of that particular year. The yearly load
curve is generally used to determine the annual load factor.
Fig.1: Daily load curve
Importance:
1. The daily load curves have attained a great importance in generation as they sup-ply the
following information readily:
2. The daily load curve shows the variations of load on the power station during
different hours of the day.
3. The area under the daily load curve gives the number of units generated in the
day. Units generated/day = Area (in kWh) under daily load curve.
4. The highest point on the daily load curve represents the maximum demand on the
station on that day.
5. The area under the daily load curve divided by the total number of hours gives
the average load on the station in the day.
6. The ratio of the area under the load curve to the total area of rectangle in which it is
contained gives the load factor.
7. The load curve helps in preparing the operation schedule of the station.
8. The load curve helps in selecting the size and number of generating units.
9. The load curve helps in preparing the operation schedule of the station
Load D u r a t i o n c u r v e :
When the load elements of a load curve are arranged in the order of descending
magnitudes, the curve thus obtained is called a load duration curve
Fig.2
The load duration curve is obtained from the same data as the load curve but the
ordinates are arranged in the order of descending magnitudes. In other words, the
maximum load is represented to the left and decreasing loads are represented to the right in
the descending order. Hence the area under the load duration curve and the area under the
load curve are equal. Fig. 2 (i) shows the daily load curve. The daily load duration curve
can be readily obtained from it. It is clear from daily load curve that load elements in order
of descending magnitude are: 20 MW for 8hours; 15 MW for 4 hours and 5 MW for 12
hours. Plotting these loads in order of descending magnitude, we get the daily load
duration curve as shown in Fig. 2 (ii).The following points may be noted about load
duration curve:
1. The load duration curve gives the data in a more presentable form. In other words, it
readily shows the number of hours during which the given load has prevailed.
2. The area under the load duration curve is equal to that of the corresponding load curve.
Obviously, area under daily load duration curve (in kWh) will give the units generated on
that day.
3. The load duration curve can be extended to include any period of time. By laying out
the abscissa from 0 hour to 8760 hours, the variation and distribution of demand for an
entire year can be summarized in one curve. The curve thus obtained is called the annual
load duration curve.
Base Load and peak Load:
The changing load on the power station makes its load curve of variable nature.
Fig.3 shows the typical load curve of a power station. It is clear that load on the power
station varies from time to time. However, a close look at the load curve reveals that load
on the power station can be considered in two parts, namely;
1. Base load
2. Peak load
Fig.3
1. Base Load: The unvarying load which occurs almost the whole day on the station is
known as Base load. Referring to the load curve of Fig. 3.13, it is clear that20 MW of load
has to be supplied by the station at all times of day and night i.e. throughout 24 hours.
Therefore, 20 MW is the base load of the station. As base load on the station is almost of
constant nature, therefore, it can be suitably supplied (as discussed in the next Article)
without facing the problems of variable load.
2. P e a k l o a d : The various peak demands of load over and above the base load of
the station is known as peak load. Referring to the load curve of Fig. 3.it is clear that there
are peak demands of load excluding base load. These peak demands of the station
generally form a small part of the total load and may occur throughout the day
Energy Load Curve: For hydro plants it is necessary to know the amount of energy between demands
levels. Thin is obtained by plotting energy curve which can be derived from chronological curve or
Load duration curve. The energy load curve plots the cumulative integration of area under load curve
starting at zero load to particular load. It is also called Integrated duration curve. If energy and demand are
plotted in terms of percentage, it is called Peak percentage curve, below figure shows energy load curve.
ENERGY LOAD CURVE
Tariff Methods:
Characteristics of tariff methods – Flat rates, block rate, two part, three part and power factor tariff methods and
numerical problems
TARIFF
The electrical energy produced by a power station is delivered to a large number of
consumers. The consumers can be persuaded to use electrical energy if it is sold at
reasonable rates. The tariff i.e. the rate at which electrical energy is sold naturally becomes
attention inviting for electric supply company. The supply company has to ensure that the
tariff is such that it not only recovers the total cost of producing electrical energy but also
earns profit on the capital investment. However, the profit must be marginal particularly
for a country like India where electric supply companies come under public sector and are
always subject to criticism. The rate at which electrical energy is supplied to a consumer is
known as tariff .Although tariff should include the total cost of producing and supplying
electrical energy plus the profit, yet it cannot be the same for all types of consumers. It is
because the cost of producing electrical energy depends to a considerable extent upon the
magnitude of electrical energy consumed by the user and his load conditions. There-fore,
in all fairness, due consideration has to be given to different types of consumers (e .g.
industrial, domestic and commercial) while fixing the tariff. This makes the problem of
suitable rate making highly complicated.
Objectives of tariff:
Like other commodities, electrical energy is also sold at such a rate so that it not
only returns the cost but also earns reasonable profit. Therefore, a tariff should include the
following items:
1. Recovery of cost of producing electrical energy at the power station.
2. Recovery of cost on the capital investment in transmission and distribution systems.
3. Recovery of cost of operation and maintenance of supply of electrical energy e.g.,
metering equipment, billing etc.
4. A suitable profit on the capital investment.
GENERAL FORM OF TARIFF: a KWH(or HP) + b KW + C
Types of Tariff:
There are several types of tariff. However, the following are the commonly used types of
tariff
Simple tariff:
When there is a fixed rate per unit of energy consumed, it is called a Simple
tariff .In this type of tariff, the price charged per unit is constant i.e. it does not vary within
crease or decrease in number of units consumed. The consumption of electrical energy at
the consumer‘s terminals is recorded by means of an energy meter. This is the simplest of
all tariffs and is readily understood by the consumers.
Disadvantages:
1. There is no discrimination between different types of consumers since every

consumer has to pay equitably for the fixed charges.
2. The cost per unit delivered is high.
3. It does not encourage the use of electricity.
Flat rate tariff:
When different types of consumers are charged at different uniform per unit rates, it
is called a Flat rate tariff..In this type of tariff, the consumers are grouped into different
classes and each class of consumers is charged at a different uniform rate. For instance, the
flat rate per kWh for lighting load may be60 paise, whereas it may be slightly less†(say 55
paise per kWh) for power load. The different classes of consumers are made taking into
account their diversity and load factors. The advantage of such a tariff is that it is more fair
to different types of consumers and is quite simple in calculations.
Disadvantages:
1.Since the flat rate tariff varies according to the way the supply is used, separate meters
are required for lighting load, power load etc. This makes the application of such a tariff
expensive and complicated.
2. A particular class of consumers is charged at the same rate irrespective of the
magnitude of energy consumed. However, a big consumer should be charged at a lower
rate as in his case the fixed charges per unit are reduced.
3. Block rate tariff:
When a given block of energy is charged at a specified rate and the succeeding
blocks of energy are charged at progressively reduced rates, it is called a Block rate
tariff..In block rate tariff, the energy consumption is divided into blocks and the price per
unit is fixed in each block. The price per unit in the first block is the highest and it is
progressively reduced for the succeeding blocks of energy. For example, the first 30 units
may be charged at the rate of 60 paise per unit; the next 25 units at the rate of 55 paise per
unit and the remaining additional units may be charged at the rate of 30 paise per unit. The
advantage of such a tariff is that the consumer gets an incentive to consume more electrical
energy. This increases the load factor of the system and hence the cost of generation is
reduced. However, its principal defect is that it lacks a measure of the consumer‘s demand.
This type of tariff is being used for majority of residential and small commercial
consumers.
4. Two part tariff:

When the rate of electrical energy is charged on the basis of maximum demand of
the consumer and the units consumed, it is called a Two-part tariff. In two-part tariff, the
total charge to be made from the consumer is split into two components viz., fixed charges
and running charges. The fixed charges depend upon the maximum demand of the
consumer while the running charges depend upon the number of units consumed by the
consumer. Thus, the consumer is charged at a certain amount per kW of maximum
demand plus a certain amount per kWh of energy consumed i .e T o t a l
c h a r g e s = R s ( b × kW + c ×kWh)
Where,
b=charge per kW of maximum demand
c=charge per kWh of energy consumed
This type of tariff is mostly applicable to industrial consumers who have appreciable
maximum demand.
Advantages:
1. It is easily understood by the consumers.
2. It recovers the fixed charges which depend upon the maximum demand of the
consumer but are independent of the units consumed.
Disadvantages:
1. The consumer has to pay the fixed charges irrespective of the fact whether he has
consumed or not consumed the electrical energy.
2. There is always error in assessing the maximum demand of the consumer.
5. Maximum demand tariff:

It is similar to two-part tariff with the only difference that the maximum demand is
actually measured by installing maximum demand meter in the premises of the consumer.
This removes the objection of two-part tariff where the maximum demand is assessed
merely on the basis of the rateable value. This type of tariff is mostly applied to big
consumers. However, it is not suitable for a small consumer (e .g. residential consumer) as
a separate maximum demand meter is required.
6. Power factor tariff:

The tariff in which power factor of the consumer‘s load is taken into consideration
is known as Power factor tariff. In an a.c. system, power factor plays an important role. A
low power factor increases the rating of station equipment and line losses. Therefore, a consumer
having low power factor must be penalised. The following are the important types of power
factor tariff.
1. KVA maximum demand tariff: It is a modified form of two-part tariff. In this

case, the fixed charges are made on the basis of maximum demand in kVA and not in kW.
As kVA is inversely proportional to power factor, therefore, a consumer having low power
factor has to contribute more towards the fixed charges. This type of tariff has the
advantage that it encourages the consumers to operate their appliances and machinery at
improved power factor.
2. Sliding scale tariff: This is also known as average power factor tariff. In this case, an
average power factor, say 0·8 lagging, is taken as the reference. If the power factor of the
consumer falls below this factor, suitable additional charges are made. On the other hand,
if the power factor is above the reference, a discount is allowed to the consumer.
3. KW and kVAR tariff: In this type, both active power (kW) and reactive power
(kVAR) supplied are charged separately. A consumer having low power factor will draw
more reactive power and hence shall have to pay more charges.
7.Three-part tariff: When the total charge to be made from the consumer is split into
three parts viz., fixed charge, semi-fixed charge and running charge, it is known as a Three
part tariff. i .e. Total charge= R s ( a+b ×kW +c×kWh)
Where,
a=fixed charge made during each billing period. It includes interest and
depreciation
on the cost of secondary distribution and labour cost of collecting revenues,
b=charge per kW of maximum demand,
c=charge per kWh of energy consumed.
It may be seen that by adding fixed charge or consumer‘s charge to two-part tariff, it
becomes three-part tariff. The principal objection of this type of tariff is that the charges
are split into three components. This type of tariff is generally applied to big consumers.
NUMERICALS:

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DAYANANDA SAGAR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING , BENGALURU

(An Autonomous Institution affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi)

Necessity of energy storage

ENERGY STORAGE METHODS:

Mechanical Energy Storage Systems

Pumped-storage hydropower (PSH) is a type of hydroelectric energy storage. It is a configuration of two

Pumped-storage hydroelectricity (PSH), or pumped hydroelectric energy storage (PHES), is a type

Compressed Air Storage

The main components of a typical flywheel

Tensile strength and failure modes

Energy storage efficiency

Effects of angular momentum in vehicles

2. Chemical energy storage

Classification of Chemical energy storage:

(a) Battery Energy Storage

Practically used: lead acid battery

The reaction at positive electrode:

are regenerated at the plates.

Applications of Lead-acid batteries

• Battery life is limited

Hydrogen can be stored in three ways:

(c)Reversible chemical reactions storage

Reversible thermochemical reactions of the type

Some of the advantages of reversible chemical reactions storage systems are:

The main disadvantage is that the technology is still immature.

Economic aspects of power generation:

ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF POWER GENERATION

A power station is required to deliver power to a large number of consumers

Economics of Power generation:

energy is known as Economics of power generation. The economics of power generation

Cost of Electrical Energy:

Commonly used terms:

Diversity factor = Sum of individual maximum demand / Maximum demand of whole

Coincidence factor = Maximum demand / sum of individual maximum demand

Group maximum (Dg) = ∑ Ci * Di (n = i to n)

And Coincidence factor = ∑ Ci * Di (n = i to n) / ∑ Di (n = i to n)

Loss factor = Average power loss / Power loss at peak load

Load factor = Average demand / Maximum demand

= Energy generated in a given period of time / Maximum demand * Hours of operation in

Plant capacity factor = Average annual load / Plant rated capacity

Capacity factor = Maximum Load * Load factor / Plant capacity

Utilization factor = Maximum load / Rated capacity

Plant capacity factor = Load factor * Utilization factor

Fig.1: Daily load curve

ENERGY LOAD CURVE

GENERAL FORM OF TARIFF: a KWH(or HP) + b KW + C

1. There is no discrimination between different types of consumers since every

Flat rate tariff:

3. Block rate tariff:

4. Two part tariff:

5. Maximum demand tariff:

6. Power factor tariff:

1. KVA maximum demand tariff: It is a modified form of two-part tariff. In this

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