1. What is a Tsunami?

A tsunami is a series of large, powerful oceanic waves that can travel across vast distances, striking coastal
areas with significant force and causing widespread flooding and damage. These waves are characterised by
their long wavelengths and high energy. Their capacity to generate destructive waves in the open ocean and
inundate coastlines upon reaching shallow waters can pose a significant threat to human life and the
environment.

2. Where in the Caribbean is affected by it?

Puerto Rico Trench:

- The Puerto Rico Trench is a seismically active undersea trench in the Caribbean.
- Due to its tectonic nature, this trench has the potential to generate significant tsunamis.
- Coastal areas of Puerto Rico, the US Virgin Islands, and the Eastern Caribbean are
particularly vulnerable to the impact of tsunamis originating from the Puerto Rico Trench.

Hispaniola Subduction Zone:

- The Hispaniola Subduction Zone is a geological feature located in the Caribbean region.
- This subduction zone is capable of generating tsunamis, particularly in the event of an
undersea earthquake.
- Countries and territories near the Hispaniola Subduction Zone, such as the Dominican
Republic and Haiti, are at risk of tsunamis associated with this subduction zone.

Lesser Antilles Subduction Zone:

- The Lesser Antilles Subduction Zone is a significant geological feature that extends through
the Eastern Caribbean.
- This subduction zone is known for its potential to generate tsunamis, often triggered by
undersea seismic activity.
- The Leeward and Windward Islands, including countries such as Antigua and Barbuda, St.
Kitts and Nevis, St. Lucia, and St. Vincent and the Grenadines, are at risk of tsunamis
originating from the Lesser Antilles Subduction Zone.

3. What are the causes of them?

Tsunamis are large, destructive ocean waves generated by a variety of natural events. The most common
causes of tsunamis are

Natural

● Underwater Earthquakes: The most frequent cause of tsunamis is underwater earthquakes. When
there is an earthquake along a tectonic plate boundary, particularly one that involves a vertical
displacement of the seafloor, it can displace a large volume of water and generate a tsunami. The
sudden movement of the Earth's crust results in the creation of waves that propagate outwards into
the ocean from the earthquake’s epicentre. The initial wave generated can be small, however, it can
also grow in height as it approaches shallow areas.
● Underwater Volcanic Eruptions: Underwater volcanic eruptions can also generate tsunamis. When
a volcano erupts beneath the ocean, it can lead to the rapid displacement of water above the volcano
 as gases, magma and volcanic material are expelled. This can produce a series of waves that spread
outward from the eruption site, thus producing a tsunami.
● Landslides: Large landslides, whether they occur either underwater by sedimentation build up or
volcanic activity or enter the ocean from land by earthquakes, human activity (mining, excavation,
deforestation) or erosion , can displace a significant amount of water. This sudden displacement of
water generates waves which radiate outwards from the landslide site and can develop into a
tsunami.
● Glacier Calving: In polar regions, the breaking off or calving of large glaciers into the ocean can
displace a great amount of water and generate typically smaller-scale tsunamis. These are typically
localised events in polar regions.

Man-Made

● Nuclear Explosions: In the past, some countries have conducted underwater nuclear tests, which can
displace water and create small tsunamis. However, these are much less powerful and destructive
compared to natural tsunamis.
● Underwater Mining and Quarrying: Underwater mining and quarrying activities can lead to the
collapse of underwater geological structures and potentially generating tsunamis if large volumes of
water are displaced.

Tsunamis generated by these events consist of a series of long-wavelength waves that travel at high speeds
across the open ocean. As they approach shallow coastal areas, their energy becomes concentrated, causing
them to grow in height and potentially causing significant damage when they reach the shore.

It's important to note that not all underwater earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, etc can lead to a tsunami, and
the magnitude, depth, and characteristics of the event play a significant role in determining whether a
tsunami will be generated and its potential impact.

4. What are the Impacts of Tsunamis?

● Financial/Economic

Tsunamis can have significant and wide-ranging effects on a country's financial state, including both
immediate and long-term economic impacts. These effects can be substantial, and they often depend on
factors such as the size and severity of the tsunami, the country's level of preparedness, and the economic
activities of the affected regions. Here are some effects of a tsunami on a country's financial state:

1. Direct Economic Losses and Cost of Restoration: Tsunamis can result in extensive direct
economic losses due to damage to infrastructure, property, and assets. This includes the destruction
of homes, buildings, roads, bridges, ports, and utilities, which requires significant financial resources
for repair and reconstruction. In the aftermath of a tsunami, there is often a need for substantial
investment and loans for rebuilding and reinforcing infrastructure to mitigate future risks. This
requires a great amount of financial commitment from the government.
2. Loss of Livelihoods: Coastal communities that depend on livelihoods related to fishing and
recreational sea activities such as surfing can experience the loss of income, jobs and recreational
activities. This can have a lasting economic impact on these communities. Also, people working in
buildings affected by tsunamis can experience the loss of their job due to relocation
 3. Impact on Tourism: Many coastal areas depend on tourism as a key source of revenue. The
destruction of beaches, resorts, and recreational facilities can lead to a decline in tourism, resulting in
lost revenue for businesses and the government. For example, The Bahamas is a tourism based
country in the Caribbean and this will be a major problem for them.
4. Agricultural and Fisheries Damage: Farmland and fisheries can be severely affected by tsunamis,
causing damage to crops, aquaculture, agricultural machines and fishing operations. This leads to
economic losses for the agricultural and fisheries sectors of the government or private companies.
5. Emergency Response and Recovery Costs: Governments and agencies bear the costs of emergency
response efforts, including search and rescue operations, humanitarian assistance, and disaster relief
programs. The financial resources allocated for these activities can be significant.
6. Debt and Financing: Countries impacted by tsunamis may need to take on debt or seek financial
assistance to cover the costs of recovery and rebuilding, which can impact the country's fiscal
position.

● Environmental

Tsunamis can have significant and wide-ranging environmental impacts on a country. These impacts can be
both immediate and long-lasting, affecting the natural environment in coastal and inland areas. Some of the
key environmental impacts of a tsunami include:

1. Coastal Erosion: Tsunamis can lead to significant coastal erosion as the powerful waves inundate
and remove sand, soil, and vegetation from shorelines. This can alter the coastal landscape and
damage natural habitats.
2. Habitat Disruption: Coastal ecosystems such as mangroves, wetlands, and coral reefs can be
severely affected by tsunamis. The inundation of saltwater and destruction of habitats can disrupt the
delicate balance of these ecosystems, leading to habitat loss and damage to the biodiversity they
support.
3. Marine Life Impact: Tsunamis can cause damage to marine life through physical disruption, such
as beaching of marine animals, displacement from their ecosystem and changes in water quality.
Coral reefs, in particular, can be vulnerable to damage, which can have long-term impacts on marine
biodiversity.
4. Debris and Pollution: Tsunamis can generate vast amounts of debris, including both natural
materials (e.g., trees, rocks) and man-made items (e.g., buildings, vehicles). This debris can damage
ecosystems and may contain pollutants that pose risks to the environment.
5. Loss of Soil Fertility: In agricultural areas, the deposition of sediment over farm lands that were
carried by the tsunami can impact soil fertility. Contaminants may also be introduced to the soil e.g.
debris or pollutants, which can have a significant effect on soil fertility. This may require soil
remediation measures for agriculture to resume.

● Social

Tsunamis can have profound and often devastating social impacts on a country and its communities. These
impacts encompass a wide range of consequences affecting individuals, families, and society as a whole.
Some of the key social impacts of a tsunami include:

Negative:
 1. Loss of Life: One of the most tragic and immediate social impacts of a tsunami is the loss of human
life. Tsunamis can result in a high number of fatalities, causing grief and emotional trauma for
affected families and communities.
2. Injuries and Health Impacts: Survivors may suffer injuries, diseases and trauma due to the
physical force of the tsunami, debris, or exposure to contaminated water. This can lead to deaths
among the survign population and place a significant burden on healthcare systems to treat and care
for everyone affected.
3. Displacement and Homelessness: Many people are displaced from their homes due to tsunami
inundation or destruction. This can lead to temporary or long-term homelessness, with individuals
and families relying on emergency shelters and support for refuge.
4. Social and Educational Disruption: Tsunamis can disrupt the social fabric of communities, leading
to social dislocation and breakdown of traditional/societal community structures. Schools and
educational facilities may be damaged or temporarily closed, impacting the education of children and
youth.

Positive:

1. Community Resilience: Tsunamis can also strengthen community bonds, resilience, and
preparedness as communities work together to recover and mitigate future risks.
2. Disaster Preparedness Awareness: Tsunamis often lead to increased awareness of disaster
preparedness and the importance of early warning systems within at-risk communities.

5. What are possible mitigations? (note if methods have been effective or if they are feasible for
caribbean countries)

Tsunamis pose a significant risk to coastal communities. Several hard and soft measures are used to
counteract their effects. The type of measure chosen is largely determined by regional expectations,
historical experiences, and economic capabilities.

Hard Measures:
Hard measures, often characterised by their tangible and concrete attributes, encompass a range of
interventions aimed at directly preventing or ameliorating the impacts of tsunamis.
● Offshore breakers and seawalls are robust defences against tsunami waves.
● They shield coastal areas and structures, preventing wave impact and energy dissipation.
● These measures are crucial for protecting vulnerable coastal regions.
● They minimise tsunami height and reach, reducing the risk of inundation and damage.

Soft Measures:
In contrast, soft measures take on a more holistic and comprehensive perspective by emphasising the
cultivation of resilience and the reduction of vulnerability to tsunamis over time.
● Soft measures involve different strategies, such as checking for tsunami hazards, making people
more aware of tsunamis, and planting trees near the coast.
● These strategies aim to make communities stronger and use nature to reduce the impact of tsunami
waves.
While hard measures focus on reducing inundation levels, such as tsunami height and distance, soft
measures emphasise enhanced resilience and decreased vulnerability, as well as any nature-based wave
impact mitigation measures.

Seawalls
Sea walls serve a dual purpose in mitigating tsunami impact: they can offer complete protection to
settlements or extend the time available for evacuation if designed effectively. However, their effectiveness
comes with a double-edged sword. When properly designed, they can prevent coastal damage, but if they
fail or allow overtopping, they may exacerbate the hazard. These structures entail substantial costs due to
their susceptibility to destruction, even though they are engineered as non-overtopping barriers with the
potential to provide comprehensive protection against extreme wave events. Paradoxically, the presence of
seawalls can instil a false sense of security, potentially encouraging habitation in hazard-prone areas and
diminishing readiness for evacuation and preparedness. Notably, research by Nagethi et al. (2016) has
revealed that seawalls towering at five metres can incentivize development in already vulnerable regions,
contributing to increased damage during extreme events in Japan. Examples of seawalls designed to
minimise tsunami impact on coastal areas are as follows:

Examples
Male Island, Maldives
In 1987 and 1988, high tides submerged Male, the island's capital. As a result, in 1992, a vertical seawall
measuring roughly 1266 metres in length was built in accordance with a disaster prevention plan. To lessen
the impulsive force caused by a wave breaking directly on the seawall, wave-absorbing blocks were added
to the wall (Kobelco, 2015).
● During the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami, Male's Island in the Maldives was well-protected by its
traditional seawall, which is still standing today.
● The shore is effectively protected from the high inundation levels by the concrete wall with the
wave-absorbing blocks.
● But while successfully shielding the town, a seawall in Sri Lanka tilted inward during the same
tsunami after being submerged for four metres.
Kunigami, Japan's Okinawa
As seen below, eight flared sea walls were constructed in western Japan. The ecosystem and coastal
communities are better protected by this kind of seawall.
● Kuji Harbor was shielded from the 2011 Tohoku Tsunami by a vertical seawall that rose 8.2 metres
high. The seawall resisted the event even though the tsunami waves were higher than it.
● Thus, tsunami waves higher than the wall's intended wave height could be endured .

6. Examples/case studies within the last 5 years.

December 28th, 2022 - Haiti

The 2022 Haiti tsunami was the deadliest tsunami to strike the Caribbean region in recorded history. The
tsunami was generated by an 8.6 magnitude earthquake that struck off the coast of Haiti on December 28,
2022. The earthquake was the largest to strike Haiti since 1751, and it was also one of the strongest
earthquakes ever recorded in the Caribbean.
The tsunami reached heights of up to 10 metres (33 feet) in some areas of Haiti, and it caused widespread
destruction to coastal communities. The tsunami also triggered landslides and mudslides, which further
contributed to the damage.

The Haitian government estimated that at least 2,000 people were killed by the tsunami, and thousands more
were injured. The tsunami also displaced hundreds of thousands of people, many of whom lost their homes
and livelihoods.

October 26, 2020 Tsunami - Cuba

On October 26, 2020, a 7.8 magnitude earthquake struck off the coast of Cuba, generating a tsunami that
reached heights of up to 3 metres (10 feet) in some areas. The tsunami caused significant damage to property
and infrastructure, and there were two reported fatalities.

The earthquake occurred at a depth of approximately 10 kilometres (6.2 miles), and it was located
approximately 120 kilometres (75 miles) northwest of the Cuban capital of Havana. The earthquake was
felt throughout Cuba, and it triggered power outages and landslides in some areas.

The tsunami reached Cuba approximately 20 minutes after the earthquake. The tsunami caused the most
damage in the coastal communities of Guantánamo, Baracoa, and Maisí. In these communities, the
tsunami flooded homes and businesses, and it destroyed or damaged roads, bridges, and other
infrastructure.

The Cuban government responded to the tsunami by evacuating coastal communities and deploying
emergency personnel to the affected areas. The government also provided assistance to those who were
affected by the tsunami, including food, water, and shelter

This tsunamis highlight the importance of tsunami preparedness and early warning systems in the
Caribbean region.